UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN

Faculty of Humanities
Department of Psychology

“The Blue Book”

Literature Searches
Essay Writing
Research Report Writing
Citations & Referencing
Based on the
American Psychological Association Publication Manual
(6th edition)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................... - 1 -

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ .......................... - 2 -

LITERATURE SEARCHES ............................................................................................................................... - 2 -

WRITING GUIDELINES ................................................................................................................................. - 5 -

ESSAY WRITING .......................................................................................................................................... - 8 -

RESEARCH REPORT WRITING .................................................................................................... ................. - 22 -

REFERENCING ................................................................................................................. ........................... - 26 -

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 INTRODUCTION
In any Psychology course you take at UCT, you will be required to do a great deal of writing
– be it in the form of essays, research reports, mini-assignments or academic posters. The
primary aim of this booklet is to acquaint you with two important components of writing:
(1) the literature search that you will undertake as part of initial research, and (2)
referencing in which you acknowledge the sources you have drawn on. Both literature
searches and referencing are necessary in essay writing as well as in research report
writing. Since you will be given more detailed guidelines on essay writing in your first
tutorial, this booklet will provide a brief guide on how to write up a research report.

LITERATURE SEARCHES

Accessing published literature on a topic is one of the first steps in the research or
essay-writing process. It is helpful to make use of additional readings and learn to navigate
the UCT library’s online catalogues. Knowing how to search for academic resources via
online databases is a crucial skill that you will use throughout your academic career: you will
need to find your own literature for your practical assignment in PSY1005/7S and for essays
in future years. With the vast number of psychology books, journal articles, conference
papers and manuscripts in the library, it can be difficult to find the literature you need on a
specific topic. Literature searches can be daunting, but enable you to search through a vast
collection of resources quickly and efficiently. As the literature search is often the starting
point for an assignment or essay, it is advised that you start conduct your search early in the
writing process. Below are a few guidelines that will help you navigate your way through
simple searches.

Searching for Books

The simplest way to search for books is to use PRIMO, the online UCT library catalogue.

Step 1
• From the library home page (www.lib.uct.ac.za), hover your cursor over the SEARCH
& FIND tab near the top left-hand-side of the screen, and click on PRIMO. You will
be taken to the PRIMO search homepage, which looks like this:

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Step 2:
• Choose either ‘Search everything’ which will allow you to search all online
catalogues, or select ‘Search UCT Library Catalogue’ which restricts your search to
books and articles that you can access through the UCT library.
• If you are looking for a particular book, type in the name of the book and hit the
Enter key on your keyboard. A list of all resource types matching your search terms
will come up. On the left-hand side, you will find the option to filter by resource
type. Select this option, and a list of books will come up.
• If you are looking for a book on a particular topic but don’t know the name of the
book, type in your search terms (e.g., keywords that appear in the title of a book)
and hit the Enter key on your keyboard. Once again, on the left-hand side, you will
find the option to filter by resource type. Select this option, and a list of books will
come up.
• Once you have identified which resource you would like to access, click on ‘Available
at’, then navigate to ‘Find in Library’. This page will tell you the shelf number and
whether the book is available or currently on-loan. If it is available you can locate
the book by visiting the relevant library and searching for it using the shelf number,
or alternatively, asking a librarian on duty to assist you.
• To request a book, click on ‘Sign in’ (if you are not already logged on), and log on
using your UCT credentials:

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 Once you have done that, follow the drop-down menu below, and hit ‘Send
Request’.

You can then collect the requested item at the relevant library as it becomes
available.

• Step 3: You can refine your search by using the Advanced Search, or by using the
various filters to the left of your search results.

Searching for Online Journal Articles

There are several ways to search for journal articles. One way to do so is to search via the
UCT library databases. Databases are like indexes to literature through which you are able
to access full-text journal articles, both online and in print (hardcopy).

Step 1:
From the library home page (www.lib.uct.ac.za), hover your cursor over the SEARCH
& FIND tab near the top right of the screen, and click on Databases (A-Z).
Step 2:
You can either type the name of a specific database (e.g. PsycINFO) into the search
box, or you can browse for a database that covers your subject or topic.

Another option is to select ‘Databases by Platform’ under the ‘Databases (A-Z), tab.
This allows you to search multiple databases at once. For example, select EBSCOHost
 then select all the databases you want to search (e.g., Academic Search Premier,
MEDLINE, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO)  Continue  Enter your search terms in
EBSCOHost’s search engine. Once again, use the filters to narrow your search results.
Step 3:
Once you have navigated to the database page, you need to search for articles.
Different databases may have different variations of search methods, but most have
similar functions.

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The following relates to the PsycINFO database search:

• It is usually helpful to start with a Basic Search. Here you can type a keyword or
phrase, and search by subject, title or author. You can also limit your search to
articles published recently, or to full-text articles only.
• An Advanced Search will enable you to refine your search by placing limitation on
the time frame, type, and availability of online resources to be included in your
search results.
• You can also search using the Thesaurus, which enables you to find related keywords
that will widen your search. Alternatively, you can use the Indexes search option and
refine your search to certain publication types, articles using specific methodologies,
or to measures and tests.
• A list of articles that fit your search requirements will show up next. Next to each
listed article will be a magnifying glass. By hovering your mouse over that icon, you
will be able to access the Detailed Record. In the Detailed Record, you will be able to
read the abstract (a summary) of the article and then navigate through to the full-
text article (if this is available).
• Other useful databases to search for Psychology-related articles are: SocINDEX and
Medline (both hosted by EBSCOhost), and Science Direct.

Finding a Specific Journal Article:

On occasion, you may be given the name of a specific journal article and asked to
find it in the library yourself. There are several ways you can do this.

Option 1
Step 1:
From the library home page, go to the Journals link under the SEARCH & FIND tab
near the top left hand-side of the screen. This will take you to the PRIMO search
homepage, discussed above.
Step 2:
Type search terms or the title of the journal in the search space, and hit Enter. You
can filter your results the same way as for book searches (discussed above).
Step 3:
View the results and click on the journal or journal article you want. Check to see
whether the full text of the article that you want is available in electronic or in print
format.
• If the journal is available in print, click on the link to Aleph (Library catalogue)
and check the catalogue record for the years held in the library stock and the
shelf number. If the edition you want is recent, you’ll find it on the shelves in the
Humanities section of the library, while if it is old, you will find it downstairs in
the basement. If you can’t find the shelf you need to ask a librarian for help.

• To see if the article is immediately accessible online, click Available Online 

View Online  Full text availability, and select one of the available links.

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 Alternatively, click on the link to a Database or Journal website. Click successively
on the links for volume/year; part/number/month; and then the record of the
article. To download the article, click on the PDF or HTML link.

Option 2

Use Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com).

• If you are on campus, you will be able to access articles on the UCT database via
Google Scholar. If you are not on campus, follow the log-in instructions below.

• If the article you are looking for is available through UCT, you will be able to click on
pdf/html links or ‘ViewIt@UCT’. These links will redirect you to the database where
you can download the full text.

Accessing online journals from off campus:

To ensure that only UCT staff and students can access the online resources to which
the library prescribes, most online resources cannot be accessed off campus. If you would
like to read an online journal article from home, you need to access the library website
through EZPROXY.

Step 1: From the library website, click the Off-campus Login link (on the right of the screen)
Step 2: Enter your student number and UCT password and push Login.
Step 3: Click on the UCT libraries link and continue as usual OR click on the Google Scholar
link and search through that search engine (many of the articles you find there will
grant you full text access).

Additional Support

If you need additional help with accessing library materials, you can find referencing
and literature search guides, as well as How-To videos, under the RESEARCH HELP tab at the
top of the library homepage (http://www.lib.uct.ac.za). These guides contain detailed steps
regarding how to search for a book or journal, how to locate books and journals in the
library and how to request a book or renew a book.
You can also ask the librarians on duty for help with finding a book or to teach you
how to use the online catalogue and electronic resources. You will find them at the
Humanities desk. Ingrid Thomson, one such librarian, can be reached via email at
ingrid.thomson@uct.ac.za.

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 WRITING GUIDELINES

Style

When writing a research report or essay, it is important to be as concise, clear and to the
point as possible. Accuracy in spelling and use of grammar is required.

Abbreviations

The following Latin abbreviations are frequently used:

Abbreviation Meaning
e.g., for example
i.e., that is
etc. and so forth
cf. compare
viz., namely
vs. versus, against

These abbreviations should be used in parenthesis only. In an ordinary sentence the English
translation should be used

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Reducing bias in language

Gender bias
The term ‘gender’ is used when referring to men and women as social groups, while ‘sex’
refers to the biological distinction. Thus, it is better to use ‘gender’ unless referring to
physiological or biological distinctions. As far as possible, use gender neutral terms, unless
the context requires specificity. For instance, do not use ‘men’ when referring to both men
and women. ‘People’ or ‘individuals’ are possible alternatives. Similarly, when referring to a
person who could be either male or female, avoid using ‘he’ alone. Either use ‘he or she’ or
‘that person’ or opt for the plural ‘they’. Terms such as ‘chairman’ or ‘policeman’ should be
replaced by gender neutral ‘chairperson’ or ‘police officer’.

Racial and ethnic identity

The use of labels for ethnic and racial identity also requires considerable sensitivity. You
must be careful to avoid using labels that are considered negative or insulting. The terms
favoured for describing different groupings change with time so care must be taken in
deciding which to use. Racial and ethnic groups should be considered as proper nouns and
should therefore get capital letters (i.e., Black and White).

Other groups
Language can also increase the stigmatisation of several other groups. For example, groups
defined by sexual orientation or disability. It is important for authors to ensure that they do
not dehumanize these individuals by associating them with the characteristic in question.
For instance, there is a difference between referring to someone as ‘disabled’ as opposed to
‘an individual who has a disability’. In the first phrase, the disability becomes the sum total
of the individual, without recognition or existence beyond it. In the second term, the
individual is foremost with the disability mentioned as only one aspect of the person.
Similarly, it is better to write ‘a person living with HIV/AIDS’ than to write ‘a person suffering
from HIV/AIDS’; and using ‘a rape survivor’ is better than ‘a rape victim’.

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Levels of Heading

The APA-based formatting of headings consists of 5 levels:

Centred, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase

Flush Left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase

Indented, boldface, lowercase ending with a full-stop.

Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase ending with a full-stop.

Indented, italicized, lowercase ending with a full-stop.

Each section will start with the first heading, regardless of how many headings the previous
section had. Some sections may use all 5 heading levels, while some may only use 2 or 3. For
heading levels 3, 4, and 5, the paragraph begins on the same line as the heading.

Here is an example of what a methods section might look like:

Methods
Design and Setting

Participants

Materials
Participant self-report measures.
Personality scale.
Depression scale.
Memory task.

Procedure

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 ESSAY WRITING

This section was compiled to assist you in understanding the key components of writing a
good academic essay. But remember, there is no absolute fixed formula for essay writing –
each person has his or her own style. The comments here are meant to serve only as
suggestions and guidelines.

How to Approach Essay Writing

Before embarking on writing an essay you need to carefully read, interpret and consider
your essay topic. While reading, gather information that will assist you in forming an
argument or an analysis of the topic, not just a summary of facts. Some key phrases used in
essay topics are:

Keyword Action Required

Find and describe the main ideas, show how they are related
Analyse
and why they are important.
Comment Discuss briefly.
Compare Show both the similarities and differences.
Contrast Describe differences.
Give your judgement or reasoned opinion of something,
Criticise commenting on positive and negative points. Your opinion
should be supported by facts and/or arguments.
Demonstrate Show or prove an opinion or judgement.
Describe Write a detailed account in logical sequence.
Discuss Describe, and give positive and negative points.
Evaluate Discuss advantages and disadvantages with your opinion.
Explain Give reasons for something.
Identify List and describe.
Illustrate Give examples to make your meaning clear.
Give a short summary, giving the main points and omitting
Outline
minor details.
List main points briefly without details. Give a brief account
Summarise
of main ideas – no details or examples.
Support Back up a statement with facts, ideas and proof.

You also need to (a) do extensive reading in preparation (a trip to the library is crucial) as
additional reading will get you extra marks; and (b) conceptualise the key argument of your
essay and plan the structure of the essay.

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Let us take an essay topic on HIV/AIDS and social support as an example, and consider how
to go about this:

THE ROLE OF SOCIAL SUPPORT IN COPING WITH HIV/AIDS

HIV/AIDS represents a major life crisis with a unique set of stressors that impact on
both the individual and the community. Social support has been viewed as a
significant mediating factor against the stressors of a chronic illness such as AIDS.
Discuss the role of social support in coping with an HIV/AIDS diagnosis, bearing in
mind the unpredictable nature of the illness which involves years of health decline
and the escalating onset of debilitating opportunistic infections; as well as the social
prejudice and stigma often attached to it.

First, divide the essay topic into sections, and number each section. For example:
1. Introduction
2. Discussing the needs of people living with HIV/AIDS (focusing on life stress)
3. Finding regarding the role of social support in coping with HIV/AIDS
4. Other issues related to social support
5. Opposing views regarding the value of social support
6. Conclusions

While reading your selected articles, take notes and number each note according to the
section it relates to. Some new categories may arise as you continue. By doing this you have
grouped information in sections and can tie it all together much more easily.

Then you are ready to begin. Before we look at an example of an essay, it is necessary to
consider the beginning (introduction) and the end (conclusion) of you essay, as these are
two of the most important components of an essay.

Introductions and conclusions

The introduction to your essay is crucial as it sets the tone of the essay, giving the reader a
first impression so to speak. It is not only important in terms of making an impression, but
also because it provides the reader with a map or guide of what is to follow. It is also useful
to you, the writer, as it serves as an anchor for your writing.
• The introduction is where you introduce the topic, clarify the problem and set out
what you intend to achieve. Take your time to consider this paragraph carefully. For
example: ‘This essay shall attempt to show that……’ or ‘This essay will examine… .’
• Make sure that your essay actually covers everything you promise in the
introduction. Even though the introduction is a good place to clarify key terms and
concepts, you must go beyond introductions that merely define these or paraphrase
the question.

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 • Avoid flowery or emotive introductions. The tone needs to be academic and formal.

• The conclusion is again like the ‘last word’, in which you sum up what you have
written, make any final comment on it, and possibly consider future directions or
work that needs to be taken forward, in the light of what you have concluded.
• The conclusion rounds off your essay by highlighting or summarising the central
points and briefly tying together your arguments.
• This is not the time to bring up new points.
• You may leave the reader with some points to ponder, but again, be careful not to
be too flowery or emotive. e.g., ‘This essay has attempted to argue that …’ or ‘It was
further argued that ….’ or ‘Finally, it is felt that ….’

You will also be evaluated on your writing style, language usage and overall presentation.

Drawing up a rough draft before writing your essay

Approach your topic by identifying the key components of the question.
• HIV/AIDS presents the individual with numerous stresses.
• Social support can be a mediating factor against stress.

The next step would be to do extensive reading. Even though references have been
provided, you should look for others. Sometimes there might be material on Short Loan in
the library, but generally it is advisable to do a thorough literature search in the library.
Having studied the topic in depth and completed the reading, you are ready to identify the
key sections of the essay. Following is a broad outline of all the key themes in the literature
supplied:

1. Contextualise HIV/AIDS
a. Stigmatisation could be mentioned as part of the South African context.

2. HIV/AIDS constitutes a very stressful life event due to the diagnosis itself, but also due to the
changes in life events that accompany it
a. For example, loss of employment, and relationship breakdowns

3. Define social support

a. Types of social support (e.g., emotional, informative, instrumental, etc.)

4. Factors to consider with regards to social support

a. Existence, quantity and type of interpersonal relationships
b. Functional content of these relationships

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c. The perceived quality or adequacy of this support
d. Appropriateness of support

5. General effects of social support:

a. Psychosocial well-being,
b. Reduced depression,
c. A better health status

6. Theories on social support

a. Main effect hypothesis
b. Buffering hypothesis

7. Relationship between coping and social support

a. Seeking social support as a coping strategy
b. Coping by a social system
c. Social support as dependent on the way individual patients cope
d. Social support as a coping resource
e. Social support can be an adaptive coping strategy (confronting the illness and its stressors), or
maladaptive (a way of avoiding it)

8. Other variables
a. Disease stage
b. Culture
c. Gender
d. Stigmatisation

9. Studies focusing on the homosexual and intravenous drug user communities

a. Issue of double stigma
b. Friends & partners significant source of support due to families’ prejudices
c. Heavy burden on these communities

10. Matters for consideration

a. Understanding needs of patients at different stages of the
disease b. Caregivers need support too
c. Stigma needs to be addressed as it cuts patients off from much needed social support

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Essay Checklist
✓ 
 Have I developed a worthwhile argument?
✓ 
 Did I state my argument clearly and develop my argument logically?
✓ 
 Have I included supporting evidence for the points I have made?
✓ 
 Is my reference list complete and accurate?
✓ 
 Have I proofread my work carefully?
✓ 
 Have I included a Declaration of Plagiarism?
✓ 
 Have I uploaded my essay to Vula?
✓ 
Have I kept a copy of my essay?

Following are examples of two typical Psychology 1 student essays. Read through them
while at the same time considering the comments on the right hand side of the page. This
will give you some idea of the way a marker will approach your work.

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 The Role of Social Support in Coping with HIV/AIDS

It has been shown that the maintenance of good health and psychological well-being is
directly linked to the existence and perception of social support networks in one’s life. This Commented [NR1]: This is a broad
introductory statement regarding social support
same principle can be applied to people living with chronic illnesses, such as Human
Immudodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), which
have become major world epidemics (Stowe, Ross, Wodak, Thomas, & Larson, 1993). It is
therefore important that in order to cope with HIV/AIDS, people living with the disease
should receive support socially from their friends, family and community. However, it is Commented [NR2]: Linking HIV/AIDS and social support
important to note that support is not always helpful and at times can have a negative impact
on the individual living with HIV/AIDS.This essay will discuss both the potentially positive Commented [NR3]: Acknowledgment of both the
positive AND negative aspects of social support
and negative aspects to social support, keeping in mind factors such as the stigma attached to
the disease. It will also consider that when looking at the effectiveness of social support
structures, results may vary according to, among other things, gender, race and social class
and that these may not have been adequately researched.It will, however, be shown that in the Commented [NR4]: Main points of the essay (i.e.
why social support can be positive, why social support
majority of instances, social support is an important means of counteracting the negative can be negative, what moderates the effectiveness of
effect that stressors resulting from disease may have. social support).
Commented [NR5]: This shows what the overall
argument of the essay will be.
The effects of living with HIV/AIDS can be very stressful. This is not only due to having to Commented [NR6]: This paragraph is about stress
deal with the illnesses caused by opportunistic infections which can be unpredictable, but also
because the debilitating effects of the disease inevitably lead to many changes in the patient’s
life which can be difficult to cope with. Changes in relationships and role responsibilities
within a family or social context as well as employment and income issues, including job loss,
are often added burdens on the patient (Avison & Turner, 1998 as cited in Friedland,
Renwick, & McColl, 1996). One of the ways that these changes can be dealt with is to ensure
that a strong social support network is present for these individuals. Commented [NR7]: Explanation of why social
support might be particularly necessary for people
living with
Social support has been “defined as the feeling of being cared for and loved, valued and HIV/AIDS

esteemed, and able to count on others should the need arise” (Cobb, 1976; Turner et al., 1983 Commented [NR8]: The link between the
previous paragraph and this one is social support.
as cited in Friedland et al., 1996, p. 19). It is a large and varied term that covers many
different aspects including the quality and quantity of the experienced social relationships and Commented [NR9]: Page numbers for quotes!!!

has a number of components, including more technically based support (including

information provision) and more emotionally based support (Green, 1993).
Commented [NR10]: See how this paragraph does
not end on a quote… This sentence attempts to further
elaborate on the quote preceding it.

15
In a study performed by Zich and Temoshok (1987 as cited in Green, 1993) it was shown that Commented [NR11]: Now I am moving on to the
empirical evidence for the relationship between
the more that individuals living with AIDS perceived social support to be available, the less physical social support and HIV/AIDS

distress, hopelessness and depression they experienced. This clearly shows that there
is an important link between social support and an improved quality of life for patients. In another
study, conducted by Namir et al. (1987 as cited in Green, 1993), it was found that higher Commented [NR12]: Explaining what the
previous sentence means
levels of “satisfaction with total support [was] strongly associated with an active- positive Commented [NR13]: More empirical evidence
coping strategy”. This indicates that the ability of the individual to cope with their diagnosis, and
thus the disease, is closely related to the social support that they receive. Both
of these studies highlight the important positive relationship between social support and better
psychological functioning and coping. Commented [NR14]: Indicates why this paragraph was
included in the essay and what it contributed towards
the understanding of the relationship between social
support and HIV/AIDS. However, there are many more
One of the main reasons that social support is so important in dealing with stressors of disease is studies that discuss the positive and many more studies
that discuss the positive psychological outcomes that
because social networks are able to provide people with “regular positive experiences” (Stowe et social support can have. Therefore, one could say: Many
studies have found abc and xyz (ref, ref, ref, ref).
al., 1993). So although for someone who is in the latter stages of HIV/AIDS it will be physical care
that will be essential, more “normal” social interaction, such as visiting with friends, will be
required by someone who is still reasonably healthy (Green, 1993). While this does not help the
patient physically, it does help them psychologically and will help to improve their mental state and
give them a more positive outlook on life. This is very important as it can help to prevent
depression in patients which was shown by Ling et al. (1996) to have a very negative impact of the
quality of life experienced by an HIV/AIDS sufferer. A separate study showed that social support
strongly predicted the patients’ psychosocial well-being and that their quality of life and depression
levels were directly linked to the level of social support that they experienced. Patients with low
support levels experienced more negative results and were at higher risk psychologically (Lamping
et al., 1992). Thus, it is clear that while social support may not have a large effect on the physical
status of an individual with HIV/AIDS, it undoubtedly has a positive effect on psychological well-
being.

Apart from these problems faced by people living with HIV/AIDS, in the past HIV/AIDS was
a heavily stigmatised disease which was associated with homosexuality, promiscuity and drug Commented [NR15]: Bringing in the topic of stigma

abuse. For many years, these stereotypes caused sufferers to be ostracised by family and
friends resulting in very little social support which added to the stress of already being part of
a marginalised minority (Britton, Zarski, & Hobfoll, 1993). Although in most societies today
education and the widespread nature of the disease have laid these particular stigmas to rest,
there are still stigmas attached to HIV/AIDS in some communities which makes it difficult for

16
people to acknowledge their HIV status. This means that they have to cope with the disease
on their own when they should receiving support from their community Commented [NR16]: Now, you see, here I should
have had some sort of reference. I should have
expanded a little on this paragraph.

It is important to note that the stressors experienced by individuals living with HIV/AIDS impact
not only on the individual with the disease, but also on the community in which they live and
especially affect those people who are close to them. In most social contexts, especially in that of a
family situation, the wellbeing of one member of the group will in some way affect the lives of the
other group members. As a result, it is important for the whole family as a group as well as
individuals to adapt to coping with living with the disease (Schreurs & de Ridder, 1997). It is
therefore important to bear in mind that, from the position of the supporter, providing social
support to sufferers of HIV/AIDS can be a tiring and often confusing process as they try to deal Commented [NR17]: This is not the best way to
phrase this.
both with their own issues as well as with those of their loved one. Often social support comes in
the form of close friends who, in some cases, will be living with HIV/AIDS themselves, which also Commented [NR18]: What types of social support do
you get and what are some of the issues with the
makes it difficult for them to give the support that is needed as this is an added burden in their own different types?
lives (Friedland et al., 1996). Thus, it is also important that support is in place for people within
these social support networks so that they too are able to cope with the changes in their lives. In
some cases, more “formal” areas of support, which may include professionals, help-lines and
support groups, could also be looked into to provide additional emotional support for the patient
while at the same time helping to decrease the burden felt by the members of their support system
(Friedland et al., 1996).

Schreurs and de Ridder (1997) state that studies have shown that when social support is not
structured to meet the needs of the individual, it may in fact have a negative effect on the
situation. This can include, among other things, negative or insensitive reactions to the patient
from the person providing the support, forced optimism and withdrawal from the patient
(Ingram, Jones, Fass, Neidig, & Song, 1999). It has also been revealed that negative support
has a much stronger effect on coping with the disease than when the support is positive
(Schreurs & de Ridder, 1997), showing that, in some cases, receiving no social support may
be better than receiving negative social support. Commented [NR19]: Discussion of the negative aspects
of social support. Always remember to include both sides
of the argument
In addition to the evidence that social support can have a negative effect on those it is supposed to
be helping, there have also been some methodological problems with studies previously conducted
in this area which casts a little more doubt on the usefulness of social support. Often a very limited
sample of individuals is used as participants, restricting the generalisabity of

17
results. For instance, much of the research conducted last century focused on a very specific group
of individuals, namely homosexual, white men from Western societies (Green, 1993). Thus,
conclusions about how social support may affect other groups living with HIV/AIDS, such as
women, people living in Eastern societies or individuals of other races cannot be drawn from these
studies. It is possible that these groups may have very different social support needs to previously
researched groups, and thus more research in the area appears to be necessary
(Green, 1993) . Commented [NR20]: This paragraph shows some critical
thinking

However, despite the obvious methodological issues with some of the previously conducted
research in this area, as well as the fact that there is evidence that social support may, in some
cases, have a negative effect, the majority of the research indicates that social support has a
largely positive influence in the lives of individuals living with HIV/AIDS. This essay has
shown that although several different social support networks may need to be available, not Commented [NR21]: Summerise…

only for the individuals living with the disease but also for their families, social support has
generally been shown to greatly improve the psychological well-being of such individuals by
motivating positive coping strategies and decreasing levels of depression, feelings of
helplessness and experiences of stress. Thus, it is clear that individuals living with HIV/AIDS
should aim to seek and make use of social support in coping with both their diagnosis and the
trajectory of their disease. Commented [NR22]: What is the overall point of the
essay? Must link back to whatever statement you said in
your introduction.

18
 The Role of Social Support in Coping with HIV/AIDS

One of the many battles in the war against HIV/AIDS is to establish better care, and consequently
better quality of life, for those infected. This essay will illustrate that social support plays a Commented [NR23]: Take note that the author doesn’t
“I will illustrate”. In academic writing it is often best to
positive, yet fragile role in coping with this disease. However, it will also touch avoid using the first person.

on the fact that the value of social support is subjective and could potentially have negative
effects too. Commented [NR24]: The introduction is one of the
most important parts of your essay. Some writers even
suggest that it must be left until last. You can decide what
works best for you, but make sure the introduction gives
In exploring the role of social support as coping device, it is important to consider the needs specific the reader a brief outline of what you are planning to
discuss in your essay. You literally need to introduce the
to an HIV/AIDS sufferer. Green (1993) states four important considerations in this regard, arguments you intend to present.
This essay started well. The writer discusses the role of
highlighting the fact that social support can ameliorate the stress of being HIV-positive. Firstly, the social support in coping with HIV/AIDS and responds well
to this question by stating that he/she will argue that
strain the virus exerts on the human body physically and biologically is enormous, as well as the social support plays a ‘positive yet fragile role,’ but that it
could also be experienced negatively.
high mortality rate, creates a need for social support (Weitz, 1989 in Green, 1993). Secondly, due to
the fact that HIV is a sexually transmitted disease, infection causes stress in existing and past sexual
relationships (Catalan, 1990 as cited in Green, 1993). Thirdly, society’s views and stereotypes of the
disease may elicit feelings of reduced self-confidence (Siegel & Kraus, 1991 in Green, 1993).
Lastly, the majority of the affected population may already be socially isolated and withdrawn from
society as a result of their sickness and the accompanying lifestyle (Green, 1993). However, this is
probably not the case in sub-Saharan Africa due to the communal nature of African tribes and the
collectivist nature of African society.
Commented [NR25]: It is not clear whether this last
statement is Green’s argument or simply the view of the
writer. If it is the view of the writer, it should be supported
by some argument, as it must surely be a controversial
These four points illustrate the distinctiveness of the stresses that accompany the disease and the conclusion.

great need for social interaction that the sufferer requires as a result of the socially isolating nature of
Commented [NR26]: This sentence is problematic: The four
the illness.
points indicate something about the stress related to the disease, but
does not in any way reveal anything about he ‘great need for social
interaction’. This is the question the essay is meant to explore and
at this point there is no evidence supporting it one way or the other.
According to Friedland, Renwick and McColl (1996), people who are diagnosed with HIV/AIDS

experience two kinds of stresses, the negative effect of which can be buffered by social Commented [NR27]: The first time you refer to
authors you list all the names; from here onwards you will
support. First of all, the illness itself is terminal and is therefore a severe stress. Secondly, only refer to them as Friedland et al.

the illness brings about many changes in the patient’s life with regard to life roles, income,
Commented [NR28]: In some ways this paragraph is
employment and relationships. These changes are often accompanied by severe stress. similar to the previous one as it also explores the issues of
stress. The writer could possibly have timed the material
into one concise paragraph as this is not the main point of
the essay.
The concept of social support makes intuitive sense but it is also important to look at empirical Commented [NR29]: Here the writer shows good critical
thinking: Seeking an empirical basis for intuition.
findings to assess its usefulness in coping with HIV/AIDS. Many studies have dealt with the

19
topic and not only in connection with HIV/AIDS but with a variety of chronic diseases. Generally, a
large number have found that social support is a very important part of the coping process (Schreurs
& de Ridder, 1997) and that patients benefit from it in a positive way (Britton, Zarski & Hobfoll,
1993). Friedland et al. (1996) found that most HIV/AIDS patients display a slight preference for
seeking social support as a method of coping. Furthermore social support has been associated with
psychosocial well-being (Lamping et al., 1992). Reduced depression (Hayes et al., 1989 in Commented [NR30]: If you have 6 authors or more,
use only the name of the first author followed by et al.
Friedland et al., 1996) and with better health status (Schreurs
& de Ridder, 1997). Reillo (1990 as cited in Green, 1993, p. 97) has found very specifically that
“death within 12 months of an AIDS diagnosis was more likely to occue among those with
no social support”. Commented [NR31]: This finding could have been
paraphrased quite easily and need not have been quoted –
use quotes sparingly and always remember to give the page
reference too.
But how exactly does social support help? Cohen and Wills (1985 in Schreurs and de Ridder,
1997) describe two major avenues through which social support can affect health: Firstly
social support has a positive impact on health in all people, regardless of state of health. This
hypothesis is called the ‘main effect hypothesis’. On the other hand, it may specifically be of
advantage to people who have to deal with stress. This is referred to as the ‘buffering
hypothesis’ and it is the one that has received the most attention in the literature on social
support and coping.

When looking at social support and its role in helping people cope with their illness, the
literature suggests the importance of different kinds of social support. These include
emotional, esteem, informative and instrumental social support (Schreurs & de Ridder, 1997).
Another variable to take into account would be the stage of the disease as different types of
support seem to be valued at different times (Friedland et al., 1996). Informational support,
for example, turned out to be very helpful in the early stages of the illness (Hayes et al, 1989
in Friedland et al., 1996). Patients might need information about treatment and issues related
to improved quality of life such as exercise and a healthy diet. Furthermore, individual social
support requirements may depend on race, gender, social class and household type (Green,
1993).

Apart from support provided by health care workers, the research indicates that support is mostly
provided by partners and close friends, and not by family (Friedland et al., 1996; Stowe, Ross,
Wodak, Thomas & Larson, 1993). This may be largely because of the stigma attached to the
disease. Britton et al. (1993) argue that HIV/AIDS patients are often assumed to have

20
certain values regarding sexuality, religion and lifestyle. The judgement and discrimination Commented [NR32]: The writer wants to make a point
about society’s prejudice against HIV-positive individuals, but
often experienced tends to result in social isolation characterised by both geographical and unfortunately the statement is too vague. The ‘values’

referred to here need to be further explored.

emotional separation from families (Green, 1993; Turner et al., 1993 in Friedland et al., 1996).
Commented [NR33]: Here the transition from one
paragraph to the next is not so good. Make sure you always
create a link between paragraphs to assist the reader in
There is however a body of research which suggests that social support is not always following your argument. This sentence introduces the final
part of the argument of the essay.
necessarily helpful to people in stressful situations (Coyne & De Longis, 1986 as cited in
Schreurs & de Ridder, 1997). Commented [NR34]: This paragraph begins to explore the
not so happy possibilities of social support, namely the effects
of over-nurturing, incidents of patient victimisation or
resentment, and the potential for co-dependency, etc. It is
Even though there is sufficient evidence to support the value of social support in coping with very important in academic writing to challenge and evaluate
the conclusion we come to.
HIV/AIDS, Green (1993) highlights that no study has shown a definite empirical correlation
between social support and the rate of progression of HIV/AIDS, or a clear causal relationship
between social support and health. Not only is there no conclusive evidence supporting this
relationship, but some studies suggest that some kinds of social support may in some cases be
harmful. Wortman (1984 as cited in Schreurs & de Ridder, 1997) found that caregivers often
engaged in victimising social support. This means that they are over-protective and encourage
dependency on the part of the patient. Indirectly they can undermine the patient’s ability to
cope.

Despite these concerns, Schreurs and de Ridder (1997) conclude that coping is a very important
part of living with a terminal illness and is undeniably interrelated with social support. A lack
of social support has clearly been associated with increased psychological risk (Lamping et al.,
1992). They argue that social support may be a part of the coping process, it may precede the
coping process, it may be the consequence of the way an individual is coping with stress, or it
may be part of the coping process of an entire social system. The coping process consists firstly
of an appraisal of the stress experienced (Schreurs & de Ridder, 1997) and utilising internal or
external resources in dealing with it. Coping strategies can either be adaptive and healthy, or
maladaptive (Weiten, 2001). Schreurs and de Ridder (1997) have found that HIV/AIDS
patients use social support either as a way of dealing with the illness, which is an adaptive
coping strategy, or as a way of avoiding it, which is considered to be a maladaptive strategy.

Commented [NR35]: The conclusion is vital because it is

In conclusion it can be said that social support is a determining factor in the well-being and
quality of life of HIV/AIDS patients. While social support helps HIV/AIDS sufferers cope with
the emotional stresses of the disease, it plays a relatively small role in directly improving
clinical outcome. The absence of social support seems to have a substantial psychological
where the writer confirms to the reader that he/she has indeed
shown what was set out in the introduction. Of course, a vital
part of that process is actually checking to see whether what
you have written in the body of your essay supports the
conclusion you wish to argue for. It is therefore wise to reread
your introduction, or even revise it slightly, when you reach
this stage of the essay writing.

21
impact. It could be concluded that, despite the possibility that some aspects of social support Commented [NR36]: This is also the section where
you summarise and comment on the main elements of
could end up undermining autonomy, there seems to be little doubt that social support does a your argument in the essay.

great deal of good for the quality of life of people living with HIV/AIDS.
Commented [NR37]: You may leave the reader with
some points to ponder, but don’t be too ‘flowery’ and don’t
raise new points at this stage. This conclusion is not very
strong. There could be more mention of the complexity of
the argument as well as some of the other factors
considered in the body of the essay.

GENERAL COMMENTS

One of the most successful aspects of these essays are their structure. The writer
identified the main ideas and ordered them in a coherent way. This shows the ability
to extract from the readings only the material relevant to the question and argument
at hand.

A very common problem encountered by markers is irrelevant material or detail.

Irrelevance in this context means anything that does not further the writer’s
intention as stated in the introduction and any arguments associated with it. After
every paragraph, ask yourself: ‘How does what I have just written advance the
position I am arguing for?’

An extremely important part of essay writing is the ability to critically evaluate your
own argument and to pull together all viewpoints from the literature. There will
always be an argument against the position you are taking: these cannot be avoided
or ignored. Good academic writing demands that you consider arguments against
your position. Doing this shows the reader that you have good critical reasoning skills
which are vital academic skills.

If you would like more intensive help with essay writing over and above what your tutor can
provide, you can visit the Writing Centre, located on level 6 of the Steve Biko Building, for
one-on-one consultations. Visit the Writing Centre website to learn more about what they
do: http://www.ched.uct.ac.za/ched/writingcentre

22
Proposed Marking Guideline

Weak answer: 5% - 49%

Misunderstands or misapplies theoretical/technical concepts.
Writer has not learnt enough to be able to say anything useful, or is unable to put
together an argument.
Response contradicts itself or is wholly confusing.
Goes off on an irrelevant tangent.
Misses key point.
Seriously deficient.

Average answer: 50% - 64%

Covers the topic adequately (60% - 64%)
or superficially only/only partially (50% - 59%).
Basically on the right track but needs improvement.
Poor logical structure, argument understandable but not well organised or
sustained. Not much attempt to synthesise information.
Pedestrian, repetitive.

Good answer: 65% - 74%

Answers the question diligently.
Shows understanding of the topic and what is
required. Well argued and logical.
Has learnt adequately and applies knowledge appropriately.
Solid, commendable work.

Excellent answer: 75% - 90%

Answers question comprehensively.
Strong on both theoretical and technical
components. Insightful and original.
Shows additional knowledge on the topic.
Intelligent synthesis and interpretation of
information. Impressive work.

23
 RESEARCH REPORT WRITING

Research articles differ from essays in so far as they present new empirical research.
Empirical research involves the collection of data through any of numerous methodologies,
such as experiments, surveys, interviews, naturalistic observations or discourse analyses.
Research papers are the most common type of paper that is published in journals. They
have a standard format, which involves dividing up the report into several major sections.
Some of these sections are further divided into subsections.

Below is a concise, summarized version:

Title

The title of a paper must be short, yet must convey the essence of the topic covered. The
main variables considered in a study should be mentioned, but unnecessary words should
be avoided. The title should not be more than 12 words in length. For example, suppose you
did a study that investigated whether alcohol intake adversely affected reaction time. Two
possible titles are:

i. An investigation into whether alcohol affects reaction time in an adverse

fashion ii. Effect of alcohol on reaction time

The first title uses a number of unnecessary words. For example, “an investigation into
whether” is very long-winded and is adequately replaced by “effect of”. The hypothesised
effect (“in an adverse fashion”) is not required in the title. The finding that the effect was
adverse should be presented in the Abstract. The second title has the advantage of being
succinct and yet conveys the substance of the study, stipulating the variables considered.

The title must be presented on a separate face sheet together with the author’s name and
affiliation (the university or research institute to which the author belongs).

24
Abstract

The abstract is a summary of the research consisting of between 150 and 250 words. The
abstract should accurately present what was done and what the main findings were. As
briefly as possible the abstract should indicate:

i) The problem under investigation;

ii) The participant used (type of participant, age, sex);
iii) The method of data collection;
iv) The basic findings;
v) A brief conclusion of the study and its implications.

In your report, the abstract should appear on a separate page after the title page.

Introduction

The introduction is part of the report that provides the context and purpose of your study. It
should include:

i) A basic overview of the topic or issue you are researching, so that the reader immediately
knows what is the focus of the study;
ii) The background to your study which involves a brief literature review, discussing previous
work on the topic (focus mainly on work which has influenced the research you are about to
do, or which you are extending with this study);
iii) A clear indication of why you have done the research in question and how it relates to
other work in the field;
iv) An explicit statement of the aim of the study, including an indication of the outcome you
expect (i.e. the experimental hypothesis).

Method

The method is usually divided into several subsections:

Experimental Design and Setting

The experimental design of a study refers to the number and structure of the independent
and dependent variables manipulated in an experiment. The independent variable would be
listed, and the number of levels of each would be specified. For instance, in a hypothetical

25
experiment on the effect of alcohol and sleep deprivation on reaction time, two
independent variables are involved – sleep deprivation and alcohol. The number of levels
refers to the variations in each of these variables. We might test 3 variations of alcohol:
none (0 beers), a small amount (2 beers) and a large amount (6 beers). The independent
variable, alcohol, thus has three levels. Suppose we have only two levels of sleep
deprivation: none, and no sleep for 18 hours. If these variables were manipulated in a
factorial design (i.e., for each level of sleep deprivation, all three levels of alcohol were
tested), this would be specified using the terminology: A 3 X 2 factorial design was used, and
then you would go on to describe the variables and their levels.

Participants
In this subsection, information about the people (or animals) that took part in the research
must be provided. It is important to specify the number of participants involved, their age,
gender and any other demographic information about them that may have some bearing on
the issues involved. You should also state whether or not the participants are students.

Materials (or Apparatus or Instruments)

In this subsection, the tests, scales or apparatus used in the research are described. If you
are using a published scale you might wish to provide information about the reliability and
validity of the scale, together with references to its prior use.

Procedure
In this subsection, the way in which the experiment of study was carried out must be
described. Provide enough information so that your reader would be able to duplicate the
study, but avoid unnecessary details. For instance, if you did an experiment in which the
participants completed a battery of tests in a room together, you would say this, but would
not bother to mention such things as the seating arrangement in the room, or the time of
day, unless these were vitally important to the structure of the experiment. The procedure
is always the final subsection in the Method section.

Results

The outcome of a study is presented in this section. If the data collected in the experiment
were analysed using a statistical test, you would specify the test used and proceed to give
detailed results of the analysis. Where statistical tests are used, the obtained statistic, the
degrees of freedom, the probability value, and the effect size of the statistic should be
reported.

26
Descriptive statistics are generally provided in tables and/or graphs. Tables (referred to as
‘Tables’) and graphs (referred to as ‘Figures’), must be clearly labelled. Do not provide the
raw data in the result section.

When using symbols in discussing statistical results, these symbols should be italicised. This
is done for symbols such as:
• Test statistics (e.g., t-tests: t; ANOVAS: F; Chi-squared: Χ2.
• Probability values (p)
• Mean (M) and standard deviation (S)
• Effect sizes (e.g., eta squared: η2)

For example, if one were reporting a study comparing men and women, the Results section
might contain the following sentence: Women score significantly higher (M = 6.3) on the
verbal ability test than men (M = 4.8), t(38) = 3.25; p < .01. This gives the mean of the male
and female samples, and also indicates that the t-test indicated the difference between
these means was significantly difference at the 1% level. Note that M, t and p are all
italicised.

Discussion

In this section the implications of the results that emerged from the study are discussed,
relating them to previous work on the issue. Does it agree with or contradict previous
research? How do your findings extend or change the knowledge we have about this issue?
What are the practical implications your findings? What are the limitations or problems with
your study that may have had an influence on the results? Suggestions for future work are
also frequently put into this section.

References

In this section, all the published works that have been referred to in the report are listed in
alphabetical order. It is imperative that the references cited in the body of the report
appear in the references list and vice versa. The format of references is discussed below.

27
Appendix

In this section, one might give examples of the material used; such as the items of a scale
you used or constructed, more details of the statistical analysis, listings of the raw data, or
transcripts of interviews.

Author Note

This section is used to specify the author’s institutional affiliation, give details of any grant
used to financially support the research, and to acknowledge and thank people who have
helped with the study, either in the running of the research or by giving comments on
previous drafts of the paper.

REFERENCING

This is one of the most important aspects of academic writing. Plagiarism is a very serious
academic offence. As you are being informed of it right from the outset, you will not be able
to claim ignorance. We therefore urge you to read this section carefully. All psychology
assignments are to be handed in with a signed Plagiarism Declaration attached. You will find
a copy in your Course Handbook.

When writing assignments, you will need to consult published work by other authors (see
‘Literature Searches’ above). Invariably, you will want to draw on some of their ideas,
theories, studies and arguments in your own work. When you do so, it is important that
every idea you lift from a source and every piece of evidence you use in support of your own
ideas, whether quoted directly from the source or paraphrased, is acknowledged by
referencing. In Psychology we use the American Psychological Association’s guidelines for
referencing in all essays, assignments and research reports. It is important that you learn
this system well since you will be allocated marks for referencing correctly in all your written
pieces of work. Moreover, if you do not learn to reference correctly, your work may be
considered plagiarized, which will result in serious consequences.

28
Plagiarism refers to the usage of someone else’s work while presenting it as your own. This
can be by implication only, for instance when you simply fail to acknowledge your original
source. There are various forms of plagiarism you need to watch out for:

Submitting any writing, no matter how little, that has been copied from someone else’s
published or unpublished work (e.g., a friend, a website, a journal article, etc.)
Lifting someone else’s ideas or words without acknowledging it as theirs.
Acknowledging a source, but not admitting that one has quoted directly (verbatim).
Quoting from someone else’s work but not providing the full referencing details.
Using someone else’s work in a very slightly altered or edited format. This is a very
common mistake.

Here is an example of an excerpt from an article by Cally Fawcett (2001), and a student
plagiarising the material:

Source
There is widespread recognition that being diagnosed with, or suspecting personal
HIV infection or AIDS, brings with it profound emotional, social and emotional
consequences.

Student
It is widely recognised that being diagnosed with HIV/AIDS, or suspecting that you
have been infected, results in profound emotional and social consequences (Fawcett,
2001).

The student has acknowledged the source copied, but unfortunately lifted the entire phrase
verbatim (word for word), with certain sections merely rephrased, and without placing it in
inverted commas. The basic sentence construction and concept is virtually unchanged.

There are three steps to correctly referencing previous work in your assignments:
1. You need to cite the source of your information in the body of your assignment at the
appropriate point;
2. When you quote another author directly you must use quotation marks;
3. You need to include the source in a list of references at the end of your assignment.

All sources that are cited in the body of your assignment need to be included in your
reference list, and all sources in your reference list need to be cited in the body of your
assignment.

29
 It is important to note though that a good essay rarely makes use of direct quotations. It is
advisable to quote only in instances where it serves a real purpose, not just because you
struggle to express it in your own words. You should always add your own comments on the
quotation, showing its relevance in the context of your essay. If you repeatedly make use of
quotations without commentary or criticism it is difficult to ascertain whether you
understand the material that you have read.

APA References Cited in the Text

When using your own words:

In the body of your text, when writing IN YOUR OWN WORDS, only the surname(s) of the
author(s) and the year of publication of the source are included. Do not include page
numbers.

One work by one author:

Examples:

Surname (YYYY) first made the point that you are now making in this sentence.

Parker (1997) argues that language socially constructs the self through dialogue and discourse.

OR

In this sentence, you are making a point that was originally made in one of the sources that you have
read on the topic (Surname, YYYY).

The self is an intersubjective social construct, created in language through dialogue and discourses
(Parker, 1997).

• If the surname of the author appears as part of your sentence (first examples), put
only the year of publication in parentheses.
• If the author does not form part of your sentence (second examples), put both the
author and the date of publication in parentheses, at the end of your sentence, and
place the full stop AFTER the final parenthesis.
• These two formats can be used interchangeably throughout an assignment.

30
 One work by multiple authors:
If you use a source that has two authors, cite both surnames EVERY time the reference
occurs in your text.

Examples:

Surname and Surname (YYYY) first made the point that you are now making.

Goldblatt and Meintjies (1999) explored women’s narratives at the TRC.

OR

In this sentence you are making a point that was originally made in one of the sources that you have
read on the topic (Surname & Surname, 2000).

The TRC’s approach to women’s testimonies has often been critiqued (Goldblatt & Meintjies, 1999).

• If the surnames of the authors are part of your sentence (first examples), separate
them using ‘and’.
• If the authors do not form part of the sentence (second examples), separate them
using ‘&’.

If you use a source that has 3, 4, or 5 authors, you must list ALL the authors the first time
you cite the source, but in subsequent citations you only include the surname of the first
author followed by ‘et al.’ which meant ‘and all’.

Examples:

Surname, Surname, Surname, and Surname (YYYY) is an example of how you would cite a source with
four authors the first time you use it in your assignment. Surname et al. (YYYY) is how you would cite
that same reference later in your assignment.

Bradley, Ramirez, Soo, and Walsh (2006) argue that…. Bradley et al. (2006) have demonstrated that…

OR

In this sentence, you are making, for the first time, a point that was originally made in a source with
four authors (Surname, Surname, Surname, & Surname, YYYY). When citing the same source at the end
of a sentence later in your assignment you would do so like this (Surname et al., YYYY).

It has been demonstrated that… (Bradley, Ramirez, Soo, & Walsh, 2006). …has been demonstrated
(Bradley et al., 2009).

• Use a comma before the ‘and’ in the first examples, and the ‘&’ in the second
examples.

31
 • There is NO comma before ‘et al.’ in either the first or second examples
• Note the full stop at the end of ‘et al’ in the first examples, and the use of a full stop-
comma combination at the end of ‘et al’ in the second examples.

If you use a source that has 6 or more authors, you give ONLY the first author’s surname
(followed by ‘et al.’) and the date EVERY time you cite that source (even the first time).

Examples:

Surname et al. (YYYY) is an example of how you would cite a source with six or more authors every
single time you use it in your assignment

Wasserstein et al. (2005) argue that…

OR

In this sentence, you are making a point that was originally made in a source with six or more authors
(Surname et al., YYYY).

It has been demonstrated that… (Wasserstein et al., 2005).

EXCEPTION:
If you have two references with 3 or more authors that were published in the same year,
and they shorten to the same form, such as:

1. (Ireys, Chernoff, DeVet, & Kim, 2001)

2. (Ireys, Chernoff, Stein, DeVet, & Silver, 2001)

which both shorten to (Ireys et al., 2001), then you cite the surnames of as many authors as
are needed to differentiate between the two sources, followed by a comma and ‘et al.’:

1. (Ireys, Chernoff, DeVet, et al., 2001)

2. (Ireys, Chernoff, Stein, et al., 2001)

32
Works with no identified author or with an anonymous author:
If the author of the source is not identified, use the tile of the article (placed in inverted
commas and capitalized) or the title of the book (italicised and capitalised) and the date.
Whichever option you use in-text determines where the source should come in the
reference list.

If the author of the source is specifically identified as being ‘anonymous’, then use the word
‘Anonymous’ in place of the author. This is how the author should be identified in the
reference list.

One work with a group as the author:

If you use a source that is authored by a group (rather than an individual, e.g., a government
agency or a corporation) with a short name or obscure abbreviation, you must spell the
name out each time they are cited.

Examples:

The University of Cape Town (2015) …

OR

… (University of Cape Town, 2015).

If you use a source that is authored by a group with a long name or a well-known acronym,
you may abbreviate their name from the second citation onward, provided you indicate the
acronym in the first citation.

Examples:

The American Psychological Association (APA, 2000) argues that… BLAH BLAH BLAH. The APA
(2000) has demonstrated that…

OR

It has been argued that… (American Psychological Association [APA], 2000). BLAH BLAH BLAH
…has been demonstrated (APA, 2000).

• Note the use of the square brackets within the parentheses to show the
abbreviation in the second example.

33
Classical (famous) works:
If you use a famous classical work as a source in your assignment (e.g., one by Freud or
Marx), then you should give both the original date of publication as well as the date of the
reprint edition that you used.

Example:

Freud (1933/1973) argued that …

If the work is very old, and a date of publication is therefore inapplicable, you should cite
the year of the translation or version that you used.

Example:

Aristotle (trans. 1931) stated that …

More than one citation per point by different authors:

Sometimes you may find the same idea or result in several different sources, and you may
want to cite them all.

Example:

Studies have demonstrated that there is a strong correlation between drunken driving and the
automobile accidents (Gabel & Lib, 2006; Mitchel, 1999; Talworth, 2003).

Always put the sources in alphabetical order and separate each source with a semicolon.

More than one citation per point by the same author:

If you have consulted more than one work by the same author(s) and you want to cite both
works at the same time because the idea that you have used is present in both of them,
then you separate the dates with a comma.

Example:

Lowell (1982, 1999) argues that …

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If the works were both published in the same year, then you differentiate among them
using letters.

Example:

Lowell (1975a, 1975b) argues that …

Authors with the same surname:

If you are using sources by two different FIRST authors with the same surname, then you
should include their initials in the in-text citations.

Examples:

T. Jacobson (2000) and M. Jacobson and Light (2002) argue that…

OR

Language is constitutive rather than reflective (T. Jacobson, 2000; M. Jacobson & Light, 2002).

Citing a reference within another reference (secondary citations):

Occasionally you may need to cite a study or work that you have read about in a different,
or secondary, source. This should be done sparingly (i.e., only if you are unable to access the
original).

Example:

According to Harrison (1977 as cited in McMillian & Corey, 1986) …

• Although in your REFERENCE LIST you only site the source that YOU ACTUALLY
READ (i.e., the secondary source), in the body of your work you must cite BOTH
sources.
• Harrison’s work is cited in McMillian and Corey, and you did NOT read Harrison’s
work. Therefore, list the McMillian and Corey reference in the reference list and
make reference to BOTH sources in the body of your work.
• Always remember that the article with the LATEST date is the one that the article
with the EARLIEST date is cited in (i.e., the earliest date always comes first).

35
 Personal Communications:
Personal communication includes any information you have gained from a source that is not
available to the public (e.g., emails, personal interviews, telephone conversations, letters
etc.). Although you must cite personal communications within the text, you must not list
them in the reference list because they are not recoverable.

Examples:

According to B. M. Kudielka (personal communication, June 5, 2008) …

OR

… (B. M. Kudielka, personal communication, June 5, 2008).

• Note that you give the initials AND the surname of the individual you had the personal
communication with.
• The date provided should be as exact as possible.

When using someone else’s words (i.e., quoting)

In the body of your text, when writing IN THE EXACT WORDS THAT SOMEONE ELSE USED
FIRST (i.e., if you are QUOTING), the surname(s) of the author(s), the year of publication of
the source AND the number of the page on which the quotation can be found are included.

Short Quotations:
If a quotation is less than 40 words, then you put the quoted words in “quotation marks”.

Examples:

It was found by the authors that “younger children did not necessarily display more trauma symptoms
than older children” (Donaldson, 1999, p. 13).

OR

It was found by Donaldson (1999, p. 13) that “younger children did not necessarily display more trauma
symptoms than older children” which led to the hypothesis that…

• The word ‘page’ is shortened to ‘p.’ followed by the page number.

• A comma is placed between the date and the page number.

36
 If you are quoting directly from an internet source that does not have page numbers, you
should acknowledge the paragraph in which the quote appears instead.

Example

It was found by the authors that “younger children did not necessarily display more trauma symptoms
than older children” (Donaldson, 1999, para. 7).

Long Quotations:
If a quotation is longer than 40 words, then format it as a block quotation.

Example:

Others have contradicted this view:

Co-presence does not ensure intimate interaction among all group members. Consider large-scale
social gatherings in which hundreds or thousands of people gather in a location to perform a ritual or
celebrate an event.
In these instances, participants are able to see the visible manifestation of the group, the physical
gathering, yet their ability to make direct, intimate connections with those around them is limited by
the sheer magnitude of the assembly. (Purcell, 1997, pp. 111-112)

• The quotation should be started on a new line and be indented using the “tab” button.
All additional paragraphs included in the quotation should be indented a with a further
“tab” space.
• Double spacing should be used for the quotation.
• The reference should come AFTER the fullstop and should NOT be followed by another
fullstop.
• Do NOT include quotation marks.

REMEMBER TO USE QUOTATIONS SPARINGLY

Quotations do not show the reader that you understand what you are writing. If you do use
quotations, do so for EFFECT and remember to EXPLAIN how that information is relevant to
your argument/discussion.

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APA References Lists

• Your reference list must start on a NEW page at the end of your assignment.

• ALL the references cited in the body of your work (except for personal
communications) must be included in your reference list. Your references list should
NOT include sources that you did not cite in the body of your work.

• All references should be placed in ONE list, regardless of whether they are books or
journals or internet sources.

• All references should be listed in ALPHABETICAL ORDER.

• If two different authors have the same surname, then they should be listed in
alphabetical order by their first name. If you have two different references from the
same author, list them in date order.
o If you have used two different references from the same author published in
the same year, label the one ‘a’ and the other ‘b’.
o If you have used works from the author alone, as well as a work that he/she
wrote in conjunction with other researchers, list the work he/she wrote
alone first.

Example:

Jacobs, M. (1966).
Jacobs, M. (1973).
Jacobs, M. (1984a).
Jacobs, M. (1984b).
Jacobs, M., & Shalen, K. (1972).

• Each reference should start on a new line, and be indented from the
second line onwards
• References should NOT be numbered or bulleted.

For an example of a reference list, see p. 42.

38
 Books

Basic Form:
Author, A. A., & Author, B. (YYYY). Title of work. Location: Publisher.

Names:
• Include authors’ surnames and initials (DO NOT INCLUDE FULL NAMES).
• The surname ALWAYS comes first.
• Separate multiple authors with commas.
• Use ‘&’ and not “and” before the final author.

Publication Date:
• Place a bracket around the date of
publication.
• Put a full-stop after the bracket.

Title:
• Presented in SENTENCE CASE (i.e., the first letter of the first word of the title is a
capital letter as is the first letter of the first word after a colon and any proper
noun. All other words are presented in lower case).

Publication Information:
• Give the city and state of books published in the USA.
• Give the city and country of books published outside
the USA.
• Separate location and publisher with a colon.

Remember to end the reference with a full-stop.

Examples:

Cozby, P. C. (2004). Methods in behavioural research (8th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.

Smithson, D., Jackobs, L., & Stein, J. (1992). Culture-bound syndromes: A critical approach. London,
England: Sage.

39
Chapter in an Edited Work:
If the author of the chapter you have read in a book is not the same as the editor of the
book, you need to acknowledge both the author and editor.

Author, A. A. (YYYY). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xx-xx).
Location: Publisher.

• The authors’ names come first as usual and the editors’ names come after the title of
the chapter.
• The title of the BOOK is italicized, but the title of the CHAPTER is
not.
• The initials of the editors come before their surnames.

Example:

Roy, A., & Nhlope, P. (2006). Attitudes and stereotypes. In J. McInery & M. Lowell (Eds.), A social
psychology reader (pp. 443–543). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Journals

Basic Form:
Author, A. A., Author, B., & Author, C. C. (YYYY). Title of work. Title of Journal, volume number
(issue number), pp–pp. doi: XXX XXX

Names:
• As for books.
• If the article has 7 or less authors, give ALL authors’ names.
o If the article has MORE than 7 authors, give the first 6 authors’ names,
followed by an ellipsis (…) and then the final author’s name.

Publication Date:
• As for books.

Titles:
• The title of the article is presented in SENTENCE CASE (i.e., the first letter of the first
word of the title is a capital letter as is the first letter of the first word after a colon
and any proper noun. All other words are presented in lower case).

40
 • The title of the journal is in TITLE CASE (i.e., the first letter of the first word, and of each
word following that which is longer than 3 letters, is capitalised).
• The journal name and the volume number are italicized, but the title of the article is
not.

Publication Information:
• The volume number is placed after the journal title, in italics.
• The volume part number (or issue number) is only included if the journal is paginated
by issue (i.e., each issue begins at page 1). This is not placed in italics.
• Give the page numbers of the article.
• Include the DOI (Digital Object Identifier) if available. If you do not have a DOI assigned,
and the reference is retrieved online, give the exact URL (if available).
• Remember to end the reference with a full-stop.

Example:

Durrheim, K. (1997). Social constructionism, discourse and psychology. South African Journal of
Psychology, 23, 175–182.

Gaudio, J.L., & Snowdon, C.T. (2008). Spatial cues more salient than color cues in cotton-top tamarins
(Saguinus oedipus) reversal learning. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 122, 441–444. doi:
10.1037/0735-7036.122.4.441

Gobodo-Madikizela, P. (2008). Empathic repair after mass trauma: When vengeance is arrested.
European Journal of Social Theory, 11(3), 331–350.

Overbay, A., Patterson, A.S., & Grable, L. (2009). On the outs: learning styles, resistance to change, and
teacher retention. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9, 356–370.
Retrieved from http://www.citejournal.org/vol9/iss3/currentpractice/article1.cfm

41
Abstract Only:
Although it is preferable to use full-text articles, abstracts can be used as sources.

Example:

Woolf, N. J., Young, S. L., Fanselow, M. S., & Butcher, L. L. (1991). MAP-2 expression in cholinoceptive
pyramidal cells of rodent cortex and hippocampus is altered by Pavlovian conditioning
[Abstract]. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 17, 480.

OR

Lassen, S. R., Steele, M. M., & Sailor, W. (2006). The relationship of school-wide positive behavior
support to academic achievement in an urban middle school. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 701-
712. Abstract retrieved from http://www.interscience. wiley.com.

Dissertation and Conference Papers:

Dissertations Basic Form:

Author, A. A. (YYYY). Title of doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis (Doctoral dissertation or
master’s thesis). Retrieved from Name of database. (Accession or Order no.).

OR

Author, A. A. (YYYY). Title of doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis (Unpublished doctoral

dissertation or master’s thesis). Name of institution, Location.

• The first template example is for dissertations or theses available from a database
service.
• The second template example is for unpublished dissertations or theses.

Examples:

McNiel, D. S. (2006). Meaning through narrative: A personal narrative discussion growing up with an
alcoholic mother (Master’s thesis). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
(UMI No. 1434728).

OR

Buur, L. (2000). Institutionalizing truth: Victims, perpetrators and professionals in the everyday work of
the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Aarhus
University, Denmark.

42
Conference Paper Basic Form:
Presenter, A. A. (Year, Month). Title of paper. Paper presented at the meeting of Organisation
Name, Location.

Example:

Hollway, U., & Oakes, B. (2003, October). Understanding political violence: The South African case.
Paper presented at the South African Conference on Trauma and Reconciliation, University of Cape
Town, South Africa.

Magazine and Newspaper Articles

Magazine Article:
Example:

Rennaldine, P. (2007, January). An eating-plan for psychological health. Women’s Lives, 34 – 35.

• Use volume number if available

Newspaper Article:
Example:

Jeffrey, P. (2003, December 5). The state of our schools. Mail and Guardian, p. 11.

• If the newspaper article was found online, then add the words “Retrieved from” and
the website address.

• If there is no author, then alphabetize the source in the reference list by the first
significant word in the title (in the above example, this would be “State”). Follow the
title with the date and then all other information.

Other Internet Sources

There are a wide variety of internet based sources and referencing them can be tricky.
However, in general, one should do so as follows:

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of post [Description of form]. Retrieved from
http://www.xxxx.xxx

43
Example of a Reference List

References

Friedland, J., Renwick, R., & McColl, M. (1996). Coping and social support as determinants of
quality of life in HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care, 8, 15-31.

Gerry, R. (2000). Tempo training for freestyle. Journal of Swimming Technique, 34(1), 40-42.
doi: 10.1022/0202-9822.77.4.444

Haybron, D. M. (2008). Philosophy and the science of subjective well-being. In M. Eid & R. J.
Larsen (Eds.), The science of subjective well-being (pp. 17-43). New York, NY: Guilford
Press.

Shotton, M. A. (1989). Computer addiction? A study of computer dependency. London,

England: Taylor & Francis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Originally compiled by Mignon Coetzee & Terry Dowdall and Gillian Finchilescu With thanks
to Meike Wilhelmy & Dominic Gruijters

Updated by Tamsyn Naylor (2018), Robyn Human

& Nicholas Reid (2017)

Sources used:
APA Publication Manual: 6th Edition (2010)
Essay Referencing & Guidelines for Writing Research Reports (2002)
UCT ADP Study Methods: A guide for first year students (1985)
UCT Essay Writing in Psychology: A handbook for students (1992)
UCT Philosophy course handbook (2002)

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