PHILADELPHIA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
MOLD Design from Start to End

Course Name:
Manufacturing Process 1

Students Name:
ZAIN AlABDEEN SHAHEEN 201610105

Submitted to:
DR.HASAN ALDABBAS
Table of Contents
WHAT IS MOLD MAKING AND MOLD CASTING? .............................................................................................. 5
MOLD ................................................................................................................................................................... 5
MOLD MAKING ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
CAST..................................................................................................................................................................... 5
CASTING ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
CASTING CYCLE ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
1- Preparing the material .......................................................................................................................... 6
2-Material placement phase .......................................................................................................................... 7
3-Hardining phase .......................................................................................................................................... 7
4-cooling time ................................................................................................................................................ 7
DESIGN METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 8
1- REPEATABILITY ............................................................................................................................................... 8
2- EFFICIENCY .................................................................................................................................................... 8
3-QUALITY............................................................................................................................................................. 9
4-TOLRANCES......................................................................................................................................................... 9
OVERVIEW OF APPLICATIONS POSSIBLE .......................................................................................................... 9
1-CNC CARVING ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
2-VACUUM FORMING ............................................................................................................................................ 10
3-PRESS FORMING................................................................................................................................................. 11
4-INJECTION MOLDING ........................................................................................................................................... 11
5-3D PRINTING..................................................................................................................................................... 12
6-ROTATIONAL MOLDING ....................................................................................................................................... 12
7-ROTOCASTING ................................................................................................................................................... 13
8-BLOW MOLDING................................................................................................................................................ 13
HISTORY OF MOLDING ................................................................................................................................... 14
ANCIENT MOLD MAKING........................................................................................................................................ 14
COTTAGE INDUSTRY ............................................................................................................................................... 14
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ........................................................................................................................................ 14
SPARE PARTS........................................................................................................................................................ 14
THE ASSEMBLY LINE ............................................................................................................................................... 15
PLASTIC DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................................................................... 15
MATERIAL SOURCING ............................................................................................................................................. 15
MATERIAL CONNECTION ......................................................................................................................................... 15
MANUFACTURING ................................................................................................................................................. 16
MATERIALS .................................................................................................................................................... 16
POLYMERS ........................................................................................................................................................... 16
1-Thermoplastics .......................................................................................................................................... 16
2-Thermosets ............................................................................................................................................... 17
3- Elastomers ........................................................................................................................................... 17
FORMS ................................................................................................................................................................ 17
1-liquid ......................................................................................................................................................... 17
2- Pellets .................................................................................................................................................. 18
3-Powders .................................................................................................................................................... 18
4-Extrusions.................................................................................................................................................. 18
5-Putty ......................................................................................................................................................... 19
6-Foams ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR MOLDING ..................................................................................................... 19
1-TYPES OF MOLD ................................................................................................................................................. 19
a) Destructive molding ................................................................................................................................. 19
b) One-sided mold ........................................................................................................................................ 20
c) Bivalve mold ............................................................................................................................................. 20
2-PROTOTYPE MODELLING COMPONENTS .................................................................................................................. 21
3-WHAT TO AVOID? ............................................................................................................................................... 23
4-DESIGNING A MOLD PROJECT ............................................................................................................................... 25
One ............................................................................................................................................................... 25
Two .............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Three, ........................................................................................................................................................... 25
THE CASTING PROCESS .................................................................................................................................. 25
1-TYPES OF CASTING ............................................................................................................................................. 25
A) Solid Casting ............................................................................................................................................ 25
B) Combination casting, or overmolding ...................................................................................................... 26
C)Rotational casting, or rotocasting ............................................................................................................ 26
D) Expanding casting ................................................................................................................................... 26
2-END TO END CASTING PROCESS ............................................................................................................................ 27
Step one ....................................................................................................................................................... 27
Step Two ...................................................................................................................................................... 27
Step Three .................................................................................................................................................... 27
Step Four ...................................................................................................................................................... 27
Step Five ....................................................................................................................................................... 27
Step Six ......................................................................................................................................................... 27
Step Seven .................................................................................................................................................... 27
Step Eight, .................................................................................................................................................... 27
Step Nine ...................................................................................................................................................... 28
Step Ten, ...................................................................................................................................................... 28
3-CASTING POSSIBILITIES ......................................................................................................................................... 28
4-FLUID FLOW...................................................................................................................................................... 29
Running simulations ..................................................................................................................................... 29
5-COMPLEX MOLDING (FAMILY MOLD) ..................................................................................................................... 31
3D PRINTING AND CNC FOR MOLDING AND CASTING.................................................................................... 32
1-WHY CAST INSTEAD OF 3D PRINTING? ................................................................................................................... 32
Another example .......................................................................................................................................... 33
My last example ........................................................................................................................................... 33
2-WHAT IS CNC AND WHAT CAN YOU DO WITH IT? ..................................................................................................... 33
3-PIKING YOUR FABRICATION METHOD ...................................................................................................................... 35
3D print technology...................................................................................................................................... 35
The quality of a CNC ..................................................................................................................................... 35
OTHER APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSES ......................................................................................................... 36
1-BLOW MOLDING AND ROTO MOLDING ................................................................................................................... 36
Rotational molding ...................................................................................................................................... 36
Blow molding ............................................................................................................................................... 36
2-CNC FORMS FOR VACUUM FORMING ..................................................................................................................... 37
2-PRODUCTION AT ANY SCALE ................................................................................................................................. 39
Small scale production ................................................................................................................................. 39
Batch production groups .............................................................................................................................. 40
Mass production .......................................................................................................................................... 40
Blank Page
What is mold making and mold casting?
Mold on it is simplest definition is a three-dimensional negative of your
part, sometimes called a die or cavity. The goal of a successful mold is to capture all
geometric features of your original part. A mold can be made from many different types
of materials, depending on the desired end-needs of your components.

Mold making is the creation of a mold or negative from your original or master
part, capturing dimensional and textural detail for the use of creating
reproductions that are identical in form to your original. Mold making takes the majority
of your work time for procedural planning after the design of the part. It includes many
factors that will affect your production process and is the most meticulous
procedure we'll cover in this course.

Cast is a three-dimensional copy of your part, a reproduction. A cast can be made

from any number of materials, chosen specifically for the end-use, reflecting the
project requirements. The goal of a successful casting is to reproduce all geometric
features of the original master part with the added flexibility of different material
choices.
Casting is a reproduction of your original master part and refers to the process of filling
your mold cavity or cavities with material that hardens and is then removed from the
mold once cured into a stable state of solidity. In many cases, casting can be
repeated multiple times with the same mold. A rule of thumb, for ease of prototyping
molds, is that if your final parts are hard, the mold should have some give, if your end
parts are soft, the mold can be hard.

Casting cycle casting involves logistical planning for timing the rhythm of multiple
castings. In prototyping, this process involves preparing the material, getting the
material in the mold, the curing processing time, the cooling period, removal of
the part, and restarting the process. In mass manufacturing, this is generally called a
cycle. This cycle is the end-to-end procedure for preparing the material, getting the
material in mold, the forming cycle, and the ejection of the part.

1- Preparing the material

The material in storage needs to be converted into usable stock, sometimes by
melting it.
2-Material placement phase
The material in storage needs to be converted into usable stock, sometimes by
melting it.

3-Hardining phase
The material in storage needs to be converted into usable stock, sometimes by
melting it.

4-cooling time
The material in storage needs to be converted into usable stock, sometimes by
melting it.
Design methodology
Let us go a little deeper into our understanding of production. I will now define
important core concepts that inform the overall design considerations for mold
making. These terms are repeatability, efficiency, quality, and tolerances. I'll define
them in terms of manufacturing, with a few examples to illustrate my point.

1- Repeatability
Repeatability means production of the same part over and over again in a circular
cycle, the opposite of unique artisanal goods. A repeatable manufacturing
process copies the initial shape again and again, using the same geometry for each
copy. If it is not repeatable, the design must be updated. The technical definition of
efficiency is the ratio of the use of work performed by a machine or in a
process compared to the total energy expended or heat taken in.

2- Efficiency
An efficient manufacturing process utilizes all available resources and technology to
produce as many acceptable parts in as little time as possible, using the least amount
of raw materials and energy. But what does that mean to you? In prototyping, this
translates to the optimal use of time and materials available, eliminating wasted
material, time, and cost to reach the end product goal.
3-Quality
Quality is the conformance to the standards set by either the industry producing the
work or the consumers of the work, but usually both. Quality is the conformance to
the standards set by either the industry producing the work or the consumers of the
work, but usually both.

4-Tolrances
Tolerances refers to the margin of error and slight variations allowed per part. Those
parts that succeed in fitting within that strict margin are used, with those parts outside
tolerances discarded. Parts must be engineered with tolerance in mind so that the
mass majority of part A will fit with the mass majority of part B. Most products are
combinations of multiple parts, which will need to fit together in numerous ways. The
tolerance of snap-fits, hinges, enclosures, moving parts, and material combinations all
need to be built into the design.

Overview of applications possible

The applications discussed in this chapter are CNCcarving, vacuum forming,
compression molding, injection molding, 3D printing, rotational molding, and
blow molding.

1-CNC carving
CNC is short for computer numeric control. Specifically, a CNC router, which is a
subtractive manufacturing method, where a carving head follows computer
code, carving incremental layers out of your material. This is extremely useful
increating mold cavities or forms for other production methods and standalone
pieces. The most common configuration of a CNC is three axes. Three axis means
that the carving head can move in both X and Y to carve flat patterns, but, also, up
and down, in the Z axis, allowing for the creation of undulating forms and multi-depth
cavities.
With the power of CNC, you can also carve rotational forms on a lathe for accurate
revolve surfaces. Even cooler is a five axis CNC, which allows for movement beyond
three axis by having the workpiece able to move and rotate in sync with the cutting
head. Which can even cut at an angle. This articulation of movement allows for the
workpiece to be manipulated at angles
closer to what a human hand could
sculpt, except with the powerful precision of
computer calculations. 5 axis allows for more
complex cutting operations.

2-Vacuum forming
Vacuum forming is a one-sided type of thermoforming that is often combined with the
CNC master which the plastic is formed over. Vacuum forming works by heating thin
sheets of plastic with open faced oven coils, until it reaches the correct
pliability. Once the plastic has reached the right temperature, it's stretched over a
master form with vacuum and downward pressure. There's a short period of
cooling so the plastic will hold the form it's taking. And then it's removed to repeat the
cycle.
The plastic creates an eggshell-like layer over the
geometry it's copying. This production method is
commonly used in blister packaging. A way to position
and display products for sale by sealing them in.
3-Press forming
Press forming, also called press molding or compression molding, is just what it
sounds like. A heated two-part mold squishes material into its final form with high
pressure until it's cured. Material to be press formed comes in raw, granulated
material, pre-made sheets, or pliable putty blobs called charges. Once a material
has solidified, it's removed with injector pins. A common-used example of this
process would be rubber shoe outsoles.

4-Injection molding
Injection molding is a major form of plastic casting manufacture that requires a
minimum of two mold halves. The B side remains in place, while the A side is clamped
shut during the curing cycle and opened for part removal. During the process
cycle, pellets are fed into the top of the machine, where they melt in the heated
cylinder. The cylinder contains a long, rotating screw that stirs the pellets as they melt
into liquid form.Once a plastic is the right temperature, it's injected with forceful
pressure into the mold. Ideally, filling it exactly where it cools in the mold until it's ready
to inject. Injection molding machines often use temperature control built into the dye,
to make sure the entire mold is the right temperature for each part of the process. The
machine uses injector pins to pop the parts out of the mold, into a bin, where they wait
for the next part of production. Injection molding has a fairly quick cycle
time, depending on the part being made. Enabling it to make hundreds or more parts
a day.
Because you can make so many parts quickly, unit price is lower. The savings per unit
contrast the high upfront tooling cost of making the initial dye, starting at around
10,000 US dollars.
5-3D printing
3D printing is an additive manufacturing method wherein plastic, guided by computer
code, is formed layer slice by layer slice to create a final model. I'll go over a couple of
different ways this can happen. The first of which is FDM, short for Fused Deposition
Modelling. In FDM, plastic filament is pulled through a heated extruder head, following
a pattern generated by the computer, depositing incremental layers. These layers are
created by depositing the heated plastic filament. Each layer very slightly overlapping
the last. This overlap helps create lamination or bonding between the layers, so that
your final print is relatively solid. 3D printing can sometimes require support
geometry, due to gravity, utilizing generated support structures that need to be broken
off after printing. Sometimes a separate filament support material is extruded at the
same time. That could be dissolved away after the print is complete. Another method
of 3D printing, creating similarly sliced additive layers, are resin cured printers. Which
cure liquid plastic with highly concentrated laser light. After each layer is deposited, the
platform syncs a specified increment so the process can be repeated. With their layers
combining to a complete geometric volume. These prints could also require support
structures. Both kinds of printers can create high resolution prints with very small
incremental layers, measured in microns, tiny
fractions of a millimetre.

6-Rotational Molding
Rotational Molding (BrE moulding) involves a
heated hollow mold which is filled with a
charge or shot weight of material. It is then slowly rotated (usually around two
perpendicular axes), causing the softened material to disperse and stick to the walls
of the mold. In order to maintain even thickness throughout the part, the mold
continues to rotate at all times during the heating phase and to avoid sagging or
deformation also during the cooling phase. The process was applied to plastics in the
1950s but in the early years was little used because it was a slow process restricted
to a small number of plastics. Over time, improvements in process control and
developments with plastic powders have resulted in a significant increase in usage.
7-Rotocasting
Roto casting, also known as rotomolding or centrifugal casting, is a method for forming
thermoplastic resins where the molten material solidifies in and conforms to the shape
of the inner surface of a heated, rapidly rotating container.

8-Blow Molding
Blow Molding is a specific manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are
formed and can be joined together. It is also used for forming glass bottles or other
hollow shapes.
In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding,
injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding.
The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into
a parison or, in the case of injection and injection stretch blow molding (ISB), a
preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end through which
compressed air can pass.
History of Molding
The comprehensive history of making things via molding is almost as long as the
history of the people who were making them.
Ancient Mold Making Some of the oldest evidence of mold making and casting is
found from the Mesopotamian civilization wherein bronze bowls were made using
sand casting. As the technology developed artisans would hand carve wax into the
master shape and cast it. These ancient examples were often small pieces of
jewellery or religious artifacts.
Other methods of mold making and casting made use of biological resins like animal
horns and tree gums to make master forms from. Due to limitations in materials and
available technology these were usually small-scale goods made by master
craftsmen custom to order.
Cottage industry Prior to the industrial revolution the craftsmanship era was
defined by cottage industry, i.e., artisanal goods made at home. Made objects,
especially the ones using mold making techniques, were made to order, unique, and
difficult to produce.
A considerable amount of skilled labour and craftsmanship was required for the
construction of everyday objects. This took a long time comparatively, which was
reflected in items with built-in longevity and relatively high per-unit cost. Even the
best made goods were inconsistent in shape and usually unique. Each part or
component of a finished product had to be carefully handed shaped or formed to fit
together, even the first automobiles. Crafts made via the cottage industry also had a
complex distribution system, as the purchaser of the goods had to go house to
house to deliver raw materials and then come back to collect the goods for market
sale.
Industrial revolution the industrial revolution created a massive shift from
industrial craftsman or guilds doing every aspect of comprehensive building to
machines doing as much as could be automated with specialized workers doing
repetitive tasks in centralized locations, factories. Development of machine tools
were important in the factory boom as factories increasingly made use of
machines and unskilled repetitive labour and machine tools aided in
making consistently more accurate parts. As metallurgy and refineries
developed cheap by reliable iron and steel, machines started being constructed from
metal parts, which unlike wood-framed machines were not prone to changing
shape with humidity and temperature.
Spare Parts The invention of interchangeable parts by Eli Whitney was massively
important. No longer would individually parts of, say, a motor, have to be machined
and shaped to fit other parts. Near identical parts could be replace, which meant a
less skilled workforce could assemble parts much more quickly. As all parts wear,
this is extremely advantageous, because this increases the lifetime of a machine in
use. The idea of spare parts spread from military usage to other
industries, especially transportation and set the stage for the age of the automobile.
The Assembly line as machine technology and material technology continued to
advance, Ransom Eli Olds, the founder of Oldsmobile, invented the assembly
line. Oldsmobile cars were still pretty custom and expensive at the time, a rich man's
curiosity, so it was still uncommon for people to own their own vehicles. That is until
Henry Ford streamlined factory technology by implementing a moving assembly
line. This implementation was inspired by a meat packing plant and had a massive
impact on the entire industrialized world.
His emphasis on what is now known as lean manufacturing, made his famous car,
the Model T, reliable and affordable for the common person, whereas previous to
Fordism, cars were novelty items only affordable to the extremely wealthy and prone
to all sorts of maintenance issues. Ford also had a massive impact on working
standards for the Western world. The standard work week of 40 hours is based in
part on Ford's emphasis on investing in his workers, forcing competitors to improve
wages and working conditions to keep up.
Plastic development
Around the same time celluloid was developed as the first reliable plastic to
replace the ivory in billiard balls. While it could be shaped and formed easily, a major
downside is that celluloid is extremely flammable, making it unusable in
applications where it might come into contact with heat. Less flammable plastics
were developed for use in film reels and were labelled safety films. A semi-synthetic
plastic, casein, was developed using milk proteins for use in buttons, buckles, and
fountain pens. Casein has a lustrous pearlescent sheen, but deforms under the
curing process.
So, products made from casein were generally machined after curing and suffered
from some splintering effects. The first truly synthetic successful plastic,
Bakelite, was developed using formaldehyde by Leo Baekeland. Bakelite was
originally designed for use in composites with natural fibres, but was later used on its
own for use in heat-resistant applications like phone and radio casings. Chemists
and inventors continue producing more diverse and specialized
plastics, emphasizing or de-emphasizing certain characteristics for use in ever
evolving applications.
Material sourcing the interdependent development of machine technology and
material technology continues to grow in leaps and bounds. The primary focus being
the fastest, cheapest way to produce things. This emphasis on cost efficiency
sometimes fails to take into account the products end of life. Many materials take
thousands of years to biodegrade, which is a necessary even for extremely long
product lifetimes. In addition, most sources of synthetic plastics rely on
unsustainable fossil fuels, which we will run out of.
Material connection Some companies are making a point of including sustainable
principles in material acquisition, production, and closed loop cycles, while new
materials and methods are developing all the time, Lastly, the industry knowledge
developed from naturally occurring formable materials and metal casting had a major
impact on the development of plastics manufacturing. For example, fluid flow,
shrinkage, and temperature control all have metal to plastic correlation. Other design
specifications, like material thickness, post processing, and most importantly
bivalve, or two-part molding production of plastics, would not have been made
possible without developments in metal technology.
Manufacturing In short, current manufacturing technology combines our composite
human knowledge of chemistry, machinery, interchangeable parts, assembly lines,
and user needs. Some traditional methods of mold making and casting are still used
today and be combined with the advantage of modern materials and methods.

Materials
Let's take a look at materials commonly used in prototyping and rapid production.

Polymers
As you can see, polymer is divided first into thermoplastics and thermosetting
categories, which do not intersect. And elastomers are generally thermoset, but some
are thermoplastic.

Polymers are the overall main category of materials that exhibit plastic or formable
characteristics. It's their unique structure that makes them special. Polymers consist
of extremely long molecular chains that are represented with overlapping atom
loops and are the basis for the rest of the materials described in this chapter.
1-Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are a category of polymer that can be heated and reformed multiple
times. They have high plasticity in their ability to melt, flow, bend,
and repeat.
ABS is a common synthetic thermoplastic used for consumer
goods and automotive parts, which exhibits high impact resistance
and durability.
2-Thermosets
Thermosets are the other main category of polymers, which have extra toughness due
to the fact that they go through a chemical reaction called cross-linking where it
cures into its final structure. The change creates strong bonds that don't melt. They're
usually very heat-resistant, though at a certain limit they start to degrade instead of
melting. Melamine and polyester resins are common thermosets used for sheet
applications, like counter surfaces. They hold up for a very long time.

3- Elastomers
are polymers that have both formable plastic characteristics and elastic or squishy
characteristics, which means that when force is applied, they can stretch or
compress. And when force is released, they can spring back
into shape. Elastomers include materials like silicone, natural
gum tree rubber, and some foams.

Forms
Now that the categories have been established, it's time to talk about the different
forms these materials can come in. With thermoset materials, the isolated
components are often kept in a liquid form until they are needed for combination and
molding.
1-liquid
With Thermoset materials, the isolated components are often
kept in a liquid form until they are needed for combination and
molding. With thermoplastic materials, the plastic is melted with
heat in preparation for extrusion or injection molding.
2- Pellets
Pellets are one of the most common forms of thermoplastics prior to injection or
extrusion. Pellets are useful because they're reasonably easy to measure and
because their high surface area helps them melt quickly and completely for
pressurized injection.

3-Powders
Powders are finely ground plastics, generally thermoplastics, using hot mold melting
processes, like rotational molding. Because powders have an extremely high surface
area, this enables them to melt extremely quickly and flow into
all of the surface details of the mold.

4-Extrusions
Extrusions are also generally thermoplastics that have been melted and pushed out of
a machine in a solid cross section. One of the common extrusions you might
have already run into are filaments. Filaments are extrusions with round profiles using
3D printing, kept solid on spools until heated for re-extrusion to 3D print your part.
5-Putty
Putty charges are commonly thermoset materials placed in heated molds for thermo-
forming. The material is already in a semi-solid clay-like consistency. Other materials
in this category would include both naturally occurring and synthetic clay and waxes
used to create master forms.

6-Foams
Foams are special because of the way that they're made. Air is introduced, either by
mixing components that create a chemical reaction, or by being frothed up
mechanically with an inert gas to encourage bubble formation. Foams could be made
from either thermoset or thermoplastic materials to create strong and rigid foams or
soft and pliable ones. An interesting thermoset elastomer
foam is polyurethane foam which combines highly squishy
pliability with high toughness. This addition of air creates a
great application for flotation devices, impact, and sound
insulation due to its low density.

Design considerations for molding

1-Types of mold

a) Destructive molding is just what it sounds like. You have to crumble, break, or
destroy the mold in order to get the cast out. One of the most common types of
destructive molding is sand casting, where specialized sand is packed around patterns
of the master shape that you're going to be molding. The master shape is melted
out, and then the void is filled with molten metal. Once the metal is cooled, the sand is
broken up and recycled back into the process and can be reused many
times. Foundries are specialized factories that do sand casting. and-cast parts can
range dramatically in size, from tiny cast iron skillets to massive industrial parts,
weighing literal tons. Destructive molding is well-suited for the creation of complex,
single-piece metal parts. Lost-wax casting can be a great solution for projects like this
one, that would be otherwise difficult to mold.

b) One-sided mold are useful for creating relief sculptures and architectural facade
blocks, because they don't require detailed backs. Additionally, open-faced mold can
make sense for any kind of expanding or foam
material, so that irregular muffin tops can be
easily shaved off to exact measurements.

c) Bivalve mold, also called two-part mold, are

one of the most common types of mold. Bivalve mold are created in two separate
pours. The first pour requires you to affix your master part in place with clay, pins or
glue, to firmly stabilize your part into position. When you use clay, you're able to put
the parting line exactly where you want it to be. The parting line is the line that
defines your two mold halves, and where they meet up. When you're using soft mold,
your parting line can follow a relatively curvy path, if needed. If you're using clay, you
can combine this technique with the creation of registration marks. These are
shapes placed to register your mold pieces together, so they can line up as exactly
as possible. Ideally, they should work like 3-D puzzle pieces that can only fit together
in one way.
2-Prototype modelling components
sprues, runners, and vents are important to understand in the complexity of molding. It
will help with your design to consider some of the mold physics. n a cast component,
the parting line is the sometimes-visible line where the two mold halves meet. In many
cases, the parting line is plainer and flat, though sometimes it could fall along a
curve due to design constraints.
The direction of pull is perpendicular to the parting line, If your parting line splits your
part in half like this, along the plane, then your direction of pull is straight up and
down. That parting line is important to one of the most important aspects of molding,
which is draft. Draft is the angle of taper away from perpendicular, measured in
degrees.

When your material is cooled, it needs to be ejected from the machine. You don't want
your part to get stuck. If your part has texture, you may need more depending on how
deep the texture is. For most parts, the starting minimum degree of draft is 2
degrees. Without draft, your part could get stuck, or, have drag marks and
scuffing. Your parts can even get misshapen. Save yourself a world of heartache by
consulting with your molder as soon as you can in the design process so you know
exactly how much draft you have to build into your part. As you can see here,
Another necessary component to mold design is the inclusion of rounded edges
called fillets.
The viscous material that supporter ejected into your mold has surface tension. If
your design has very sharp edges or acute angles, the material will have a lot of
trouble flowing smoothly throughout the mold, introducing stress into the part and
can catch bubbles. There are fillets right along these edges here, to aid with
demolding. Fillets and smooth wall transitions between volumes make it that much
easier for your material to flow and fill the entire cavity, as per your design. On the
note of physics, you have to build in some vents.
The air is being displaced by the liquid plastic; it has to go somewhere. I've added
some vents along the edges of the parting line. Plastic flows into the cavity with the
help of sprues and runners. Sprues are often the first river of the material to then
splits into runner streams to different parts of your mold. Larger surface area parts
benefit from having more than one point of material introduction, making it easier and
faster to fill the entire mold. I've also added vents here, and here.
3-what to avoid?
a) the direction your mold comes apart in, is straight up and down and your part
doesn't have enough draft, it won't demould properly and you might end up with some
unusable parts. Negative draft is almost impossible to remove with a hard mold.
If your plastic hardens and you start trying to pull it out, what do you think will happen?

I select the parting surface here and it shows me that my part has three degrees of
draft. Green is good, yellow needs some work, and red won't work. So if we look here
with this undercut, this will call for a separate part of your mold called a pull, so that
this whole part can come out correctly. The addition of pulls and other moving parts in
your mold definitely add costs. So be mindful of that. Another pitfall to avoid would be
long, spindly things and major discrepancies in part thickness, as shown in this
sculptural object.
b) maximum, start to warp in shape. You can mitigate this with tapering between
parts. But you should pay special attention to your manufacturer’s guidelines on what's
actually possible. Let's say we wanted to mold this sculpture. Then spindly features
tend to stick in the mold. If you have spindles, try to design them along the parting
plane so you have a chance of getting them out. Different thickness of parts solidifies
at different rates, which can make your part shrink at different rates, and deform your
parts often outside of tolerance.
Also, the longer it takes for a part to be made, the more expensive it is per part. These
are some of the reasons why well-designed parts have a nominal wall thickness that
is consistent throughout the entire part.

c) Keeping a design manifold with sufficient draft, filets, and flow consideration is hard
enough without your design being full of a hole. I could quite possibly mold this lattice
vessel in two pieces and assemble it later but the draft would get very complex. If the
design requires this to be a single part, the interior volume makes this a
destructive molding part by nature.

d) At first, this looks fine. But on closer inspection, the two walls are
different thicknesses and where they meet is incorrect. Maintaining a nominal wall
thickness applies to where parts of your model meet up in every direction. If you have
two same thickness walls, meaning up and a 90-degree angle, the hypotenuse right
here is too thick. Your corners are going to warp. If you have two same thickness walls
meet up, but your rounded corner has the same radius apply to both interior and
exterior, you can see it does get thicker in that corner.
4-Designing a Mold Project
There are many kinds of boxes that can be used. But they share a couple of key
characteristics.

One, the material the mold box is made from has to be non-porous. The material could
be made from sealed plywood, acrylic or any kind of sheet plastic, exceeding one
quarter thickness, for structural integrity. You can even use pre-existing
containers, like buckets or pvc piping.

Two, they need to be watertight. This means that when you pour liquids into it, it won't
come pouring out of the sides or through holes in the bottom. Basically, it needs to not
leak fluids and also have a surface smooth enough, that your mold material won't bond
to it.

Three, they need to hold their shape during

pouring, and they need to come apart easily
and repeatedly. For the duration of your pours,
they need to stay rigid and support the weight of
the material, and after your pour is cured, it
needs to come apart easily and consistently.

The Casting Process

1-Types of Casting
With all of the considerations I have mentioned before, it's time for a look at the
practical applications. In prototype molding, there are also different kinds of casting. I
will discuss solid casting, combination casting, also known as overmolding, hollow
rotational casting, and expanding casting.

A) Solid Casting is the most common type, a solid casting. In solid, or standard, casting,
the entire cavity of your mold is filled with one material, resulting in a solid cast
component.
I it is recommended to use solid casting for small to medium parts. If you decide to
cast a larger solid, the weight could become an issue and the cost increases. The more
material you use, the more expensive it is, so many designs
minimize unnecessary bulk. Large, volumetric plastic parts
made with factory methods found around you are generally
hollow with structural design features and consistent wall
thickness. These parts would still be considered a solid casting
B) Combination casting, or overmolding, is a process of casting a part in more than one
cycle, usually combining materials into a single product. The most common example
you might know with overmolding is a toothbrush. Handles are often made of three or
more types of material to create the desired textural combination of soft grip and
structural handle. This makes use of the
unique characteristics of multiple materials. A
specific portion of the part is molded, usually
with the harder material, and cooled. It is then
placed in a second mold with bristles and to
add the rubberized grip material, which will
bond with final part and becomes one
toothbrush.

C)Rotational casting, or rotocasting, is a

method whereby the mold cavity is filled partially while being rotated so that the curing,
or cooling, materials fills a near equal layer of material on every surface of the
mold. This results in hollow components that main their exterior detail and texture, but
don't have an exact wall thickness. The material melts, flows, and contacts all parts of
the mold at its lowest gravitational point because it's not
filled by force. There are limited inherent stresses and can
be very strong. Rotational casting is well suited for
projects that don't have interior mechanisms or specific
project needs for exact wall thicknesses. Rotational casting
is generally for thermoplastics and involves a heating
element where it heats up the plastic and then cools it
down. Rotational molding using thermoset resin
materials that combine and cure, doesn't heat up at all, and
can be done by hand for short run projects.

D) Expanding casting This type of casting has some special

considerations for where your inflow will go and how many
outflow ports you'll need to design into your project, which are these.
Contributing factors, like heat and moisture, will
affect the process so pay close attention to
those factors on your specific material. This
method is often used for project that will have an
unseen back face. This is an opportunity to use
back pressure and have an open-faced pour.
Foams are also sometimes used to fill hollow
rotational molds for things like insulated
coolers or flotation devices.
2-End to End Casting Process

Step one, prepare your work area. Cover your work surface with a disposable barrier.
Step Two, assemble all of your casting material compounds and unseal
them. Containers can sometimes be sealed shut with spilled material. Gather all of
your cups, mixing sticks, measuring cups, and additives, like colorants, within arm's
reach.
Step Three, if you are using a mold release spray, spray in a well-ventilated area, not
directly in the space you'll be using to mix and pour into your mold. Let the mold
release off-gas for a certain amount of time before using your mold for casting. The
can will have specific instructions per the mold release.

Step Four, place your bottom mold piece into your box for support, making sure that
there's no debris in the mold box, or trapped air deforming in the silicone.

Step Five place the upper mold piece on top of the bottom mold piece, making sure
that any registration blocks for alignment are lined up properly. You're going to want to
pre-stir your resin parts with separate, dedicated mixing sticks in their
containers, making sure to scrape the sides and the bottom. Materials can sometimes
start to separate in storage. So, make sure it's homogenous throughout. Do not mix
up your sticks.

Step Six, determine how much volume you need to mix to avoid waste. If you over-pour
the first casting, note how much material you really needed to fill that cavity. A handy
tip for measuring amounts. If you can, using a measuring cup that has lines along the
side helps, because you can see how much water the addition of your master form
displaces in the total liquid volume. If you start out with one litter, and adding your
master form makes the total volume 1.25 litters, you can then make a quarter litter of
material total, though I'd mix a little extra, just in case.
Step Seven, read and comprehend the instructions on your material
packaging. Measure the specified portion into separate cups. Take your time doing
this, and double-check that you have the correct portion amounts in their separate
cups.
Step Eight, once you've determined you have the right amount of A and B, pour them
into a third cup and use a third separate mixing stick to mix them together
thoroughly making sure to scrape the sides and the bottom of the cup to make sure
you're getting all of the material thoroughly mixed in there. Larger volumes call for
specialty tools. if you have a longer working time on your material, you can use this to
decast the mixture in a vacuum chamber, pulling the bubbles to the top of the liquid,
and out. Careful, you could make the container squeeze. So, leave lots of extra room
in your cups for deformation and splash.
Step Nine, once you've got everything mixed together, and de-gassed if
applicable, you can begin pouring into your one or more intake ports, try to pour a thin
stream that will help release any remaining bubbles through surface tension into the
air and not remaining into your mold.

Step Ten,
once you've waited the specified time to demould your new cast component, you can
the mold apart to reveal a solid cast copy of your master part. You can keep
repeating with the same mold and make multiple copies. Of note, this little sprue
here will need to be trimmed off of every cast component because you must make
sure that you fill it completely.

3-casting possibilities

Mold A will capture the geometry of the inner layer of hard

plastic including the shank, the main handle body, and also
little mechanical keys for the rubber to lock onto. You'll
capture this detail in a two-part soft mold in this horizontal
position.

I've elected to have two funnels that serve as both inflow and
venting of the material. If you're worried about these very
small areas getting filled in, you can elect to add small
channels between them and straight to the top. I would place
additional slim channel vents at the vertexes of these small
keys. I've included registration blocks so the halves line up
properly.

Mold B will capture the entire volume including the outer Figure 1moldA
layer of the soft rubber grip. You'll use a separate master
form to get the mold for this with added funnels and vents at
the topmost part of the rubber grip.
In this example I would want to create some sort of mark so
I know where the parting line of the inner materials is so
that when I put my first inner plastic component in the second
mold that it lines up properly. An easy way to add vents for this
type of mold are the use of chopsticks, skewers, and
toothpicks added along the seam between your mold
halves during the molding process. Both of the molds created
for the single product start in a horizontal orientation for
pouring the mold but I'd recommend that the first mold is a soft
mold and the second mold is a harder mold.
Both molds will be filled in the vertical orientation so the
venting should be always up following the direction of the
shank. If you do decide to do two soft molds, make sure you're
not trying to mold silicone or urethane to itself, as it will Figure 2:Mold B
bond and potentially ruin your master shape. Because you'll be molding over this
metal insert initially, you'll have to secure the shank of your screw driver in place
before you pour the plastic around it. Be sure that if you decide to do a two-part
mold that you don't block your materials.
Plan to make channels specifically for the cavity you're trying to fill. This procedure
mimics overmolding in mass production but it's a lot more labour intensive per unit. In
injection or pressure molding the die would be metal and you could produce parts in a
matter of seconds, not hours. If you're doing a prototyping test, think ahead to how you
plan on producing your product in masse so you don't have to redesign it excessively.

4-Fluid Flow
when forming a part, you'll be dealing with liquid material at one stage or
another. Different plastics have different characteristics while molten. Depending on
how thick it is, the harder it will be to completely pack into the mold. Think about trying
to squeeze honey into your mold and what
that honey would stick to. A properly
designed part has enough gaps, vents,
and avenues for the molten plastic to flow
into and fill the part completely. It's also
helpful in a larger surface area part to fill
from the centre of volume and vent at the
outer most extents of the model. Most
importantly, it reduces built in tension and
stress as much as possible. Non uniform
filling and cooling can introduce
stress. This can lead to your part warping
out of shape or even cracking.

Running simulations and working to eliminate material stress in the design phase is
better than on the spot problem solving later. On some plastic parts, you'll be able to
see flow lines where there are visible
waves, following the path of the
molten plastic as it fills and cools in
the mold. When plastic is flung from
different directions, and these
masses meet, you'll get something
called a weld line or a knit line. Some
level of texture and the right amount
of materials can emphasize or
camouflage this mark of manufacture.
Whether you're working with
thermoplastics or thermosets, you'll
have to beware of your worst enemy,
bubbles. The bubbles that I'm talking
about aren't fun soap bubbles with low surface tension. They're tolerance blasting
problematic voids. In prototype patches, bubbles can be introduced to both mold and
casting material during mixing from the ambient air. Any bubbles in your mold will be
present on every single cast. Bubbles in your casting material can disrupt clarity and
leave ragged corners.

The rate of shrinkage depends on a couple of factors. Since polymers are long chains,
think cooked spaghetti, they can have a grain direction, like wood. Even 3D prints have
shrinkage. Just for kicks, some polymers will shrink at different rates along the access
of the grain than they do perpendicular to the grain.
Different materials shrink at different rates, so play
close attention to the shrink rate when working
with material suppliers. Other factors that can
affect shrinkage have to do with how long the
material is kept under pressure in the mold, the
thickness of the part, temperature, flow rate, et
cetera. If you aren't filling the part uniformly or
features of your parts are too thick, they can
shrink at different rates. A part with the feature
exceeding recommended thickness for the
material may still be functional, but due to
shrinkage will look oddly deflated. There’s a whole science to predicting shrinkage.

you should also consider The gravity of the situation. Gravity comes into play when
your casting material is being introduced without external pressure, i.e. molding by
hand. It's less important with pressurized mass production methods. If you're pouring
material into the mold from the top, your mold with be subject to the force of
gravity. Even the strongest of wills will still be subject to this force, so part of your mold
design will require picking the best orientation of your project to the ground.

Positioning helps aid my elephantine

example. If it's integral to my design to
have the parting line along the midplane of
the elephant, this curling trunk is going to
be a problem. If you can put the elephant
on its side, these problems are
solved. Because you're pouring down the
material, it's going to have a very hard time
traveling up and around corners like
this. My solution to this would be to add
more than one point of material introduction with plenty of vent toothpicks to trim off
later.
5-Complex Molding (Family mold)
we have talked about molding individual parts, or in pairs. Lots of smaller parts are
made into family molds where the same part is repeated. Another common use of
family molds is when many different parts of a whole are made of the same
material. There are several different configurations one can use for this, and there is a
more extensive use of runners. In this example, I have a simple bottle cap. It wouldn't
make sense to have such a small part in an individual mold. I've demonstrated both
the use of a radial family mold, and a grid.

In the Radial mold, the initial sprue river of

plastic splits into eight individual runner
streams into the centre of mass for each
cap.

In the Grid Mold example, the main sprue could be at almost any point of this
grid, though likely closer to the canter, before separating out into individual runners.

There are also Injection Molders that can produce products with more than one
material at the same time. These parts are sometimes produced in something
called a two-shot machine. In a two-shot machine, the first and smaller volume
goes through a process cycle while the second mold remains empty. The interior
parts are then transferred robotically to the second die. Both of the molds open and
close with the same mechanism at the same time. You can save time by using a
two-shot machine if you design calls for it.

But calculate the time per unit with using separate machines and make sure it's
worth the extra cost of a more complicated machine.

3D Printing and CNC For Molding And Casting

1-Why cast instead of 3D printing?

First off, I want to say that 3D printing is really cool; it's so cool. You could do so much
with it that we couldn't do before, but it's got its limit. These limits come to the
fore when you move past display models into functional prototypes. Improvements are
being made all the time on the strength and durability of available materials. However,
not every project can be solved with filament the same way that not every problem is
a nail. So, for example, you need to make 10 of these.
They're cute little desk toys that don't need to bear weight or
pressure or attach to anything. You've got access to a handy
desktop 3D printer, piece of cake, right? But wait, your social
media photo of this project goes viral and turns your
order into the magnitude of thousands. How fast can your 3D
print this design anyway? Is there a way you could make this
process go faster? In fact, you could. You could send off the
digital design to a company, like Shape ways, and take the
profit loss.
You may anticipate this need and only take a many order as
you can comfortably produce, or you could 3D print 10, mold
them, and make as many pours as you need over a couple
of days. With casting, you could do multiple colours and opacities with the same mold.
Another example, for personal use, you want to make a climbing hold with your own
FDM 3D printer.

The aspect of FDM 3D printing that makes it

unique is its downfall because after a certain
point, no manner of pattern wrangling for your
manifold print will make it withstand the impact of
a sudden or static weight of a large human without
the layers tearing.
It's got to hold, and it needs to withstand that force
repeatedly. Customization could be fun.
Let's say you want a custom decoration logo or
brand. This would be a great opportunity to do a pour of a solid object, and once you
have the mold, you could just keep making them.

My last example is pretty hot. If you recall, FDM 3D prints are thermoplastics, which
mean they can remit partially under heat. You could 3D print a dashboard organizer
for your car, but on a warm day, in a closed vehicle, it could warp into uselessness or
worse.

If you need your project to hold up under hot

temperature. You can find a filament, or 3D
printing process, that fits the bill. Alternatively,
you could make a mold and make as many
copies as you want in a thermoset resin. So, if
your project calls for stresses beyond what your
available material is capable of and you want it
to reflect your design, you can 3D print the
master and then mold and cast copies. In short,
you could 3D print most of your things, but is it the best, most efficient, and singular
method for your project? Not always.

2-What is CNC and what can you do with it?

CNC is a category of manufacturing that stands for Computer Numeric Control. A high-
speed carving head removes material following a computer-generated path in
incremental layers. Since CNC is a subtractive method, your starting material must
exceed the volume of your final part's bounding box. You can carve away your block
to reveal both stand-alone volumes and cavities. CNC is also incredibly handy for
carving single-layer designs out of sheet material, like plywood or acrylic.
CNC can carve away most
materials, from hardened steel to
the softest foams. The tool bits
are made of special hardened
material designed to cut in every
direction. The best materials to
be used are ones that have
consistent densities. Materials
that melt easily or have
inconsistent densities are not
recommended. There a couple of different levels and types of CNC. I'll use these
planes to demonstrate. 2-axis will only cut along the x and y axis, with very limited up
and down, z axis adjustment.

3-axis, adds another layer of movement, and can move along all three axes, x, y and
z, more freely, but within certain height limits. 3-axis is one of the most common types
of CNC, and is a great choice for large sheet carving operations. 5-axis combines the
technology of 3-axis, but also moves the work piece in concert with the carving head,
enabling more complex geometric volumes. Another type of CNC is CNC lathing.

The work piece rotates along a central axis, while the

carving head creates revolved volumes. Once you've
modelled a project in the computer, you can use specialized
software packages to generate tool paths. These are the
paths the cutting tool will take to make your design a
reality. I'll use the Section View Tool to demonstrate what
these layers could look like. Depending on your layer
height, you could do a rough cut, resulting in aggressive stair
stepping, as shown, or take longer to shave much more
incremental layers, and remove smaller amounts.
So, while your computer model may look smooth and
undulating, you'll still have layer marks. Finally, CNC has
some limitations. For example, the size of the carving
tool can only be so small. And even with the thinnest spindle
head, it can only carve so deep. Your manufacturer will have specific information on
how deep they can drill and how thin features can get. Knowing these limits will help
save time in the production process, in combination with the consideration of the
plastic's ability to flow through the mold.
It's considerably harder to get super fine interior sharps. This is another reason why
interior fillet are so important. There are some specialized carving bits than can get
close to a true sharp. But as you may know, the more difficult it is to make, the more
expensive it'll be.
3-Piking your Fabrication method
Here are many factors to consider when deciding which fabrication method to use in
your project. I'll talk about some of the best uses of 3D printing and CNC carving
technology. Both methods can come from 3D models, are highly accurate, can use a
variety of materials, are well suited for both prototyping and mass production, and are
considered agile production methods. When choosing between them, you have to
consider the size, the speed, and the end use of your process.
3D print technology is limited mostly by size. You can print parts and assemble them
into a larger whole, but you will still have to factor in the maximum size you can
print. Within those size limitations, 3D printing, like SLA, or DLP, can be extremely
accurate and well-suited for visual prototype samples. With the right settings, you can
test for fit-up, get feedback from focus groups, or get a hands-on look at your
project. It's a good idea to utilize 3D printing technology before moving to batch or
mass production, especially if you're still working out the details.
It's one of the most agile production methods possible. You can edit iterations of your
design with ease before finalizing it in hard steel. Keep in mind that 3D printing is still
quite a slow production method, and therefore, is poorly suited for mass production of
identical products. The flip side of this is that you can create custom prosthetics that
match the patient exactly and cost significantly less, while still being able to create
shapes that would be nearly impossible using other production methods. One of my
favourites uses for 3D printing is the ability to create customized surgical inserts.
The quality of a CNC part is highly dependent on the quality of the starting material
block. You have to be careful that the process of shaping does not introduce any
material stresses in your part. If your material block is continuous, your resulting part
will be, too. CNC is incredibly well-suited for creating molds, whether they be high-
volume steel dice, or short-run aluminium molds for testing. Because it can be such
an agile production method CNC is great for prototyping as well. It's smart to work
out volume metric details and cheaper materials or smaller sizes prior to doing
production runs.
It's also great for doing highly repetitive cutting tasks and can place precision holes
and notches for assembled construction and sheet goods. One of the best uses in
CNC may be carving molds for use in secondary forming operations. Between these
two scale is one of the most important factors. CNC can accomplish quality small
parts all the way to parts on an eight by four bed. 3D printing is generally limited by
bed size, measured in inches not feet. You can stretch those limits by printing
parts and assembling them later, but these added steps and time and cost.
The CNC moving carving head limits the kind of interior structures that are
possible. No curving interior channels for example. Cost again is a factor. If you need
something carved or printed with a fine macron accuracy it can be expensive. With
higher resolution comes higher cost. Material is also an important factor. Both in
terms of what your project needs and what you have access to. You can CNC
metals, plastics, and even organic materials so as long as they start in a semi rigid
block form.
You can CNC materials and retain their integral strength and even combine
materials into composites. In block form the possibilities are extensive. 3D printing is
a newer technology. Restricted by materials that could be astute, centred, or cured in
layers. At the time of this recording you still can't print in structural plywood. 3D
printing is also limited by the strength of the bonds between the layers of material. To
improve this companies are working on increasing the strength of these materials in
a variety of ways.

Other Applications and Processes

1-Blow molding and Roto molding

Rotational molding and blow molding are methods we've over viewed a little bit, but
now it's time to talk specifics. In rotational molding, plastic powder is measured into
the mold, and the entire mold is placed in a heating oven. The machine then rotates
the mold along one or more axes, letting the material coat all of the walls to a
nominally even coating. Rotational molding is well suited for vessel containers for
liquids, and for parts that have specific outside measurements required.

The benefit of this method is primarily cost, as it's cheaper than injection
molding. Rotocast parts are a great choice for parts that don't have interior
geometry, and don't have strict wall thickness requirements. Roto parts can be robust
and have a reduced tooling cost, though sometimes the material cost per unit is
higher. Rotomolded parts can be entirely self-contained, meaning they don't have to
be assembled later. Rotopart tooling still has to follow mold guidelines though.

Draft, flash, and drag marks for mold

separation are still factors to consider. Also,
temperature control is extremely important to
all thermoplastic forming, especially for
rotational molds, as consistent temperature
for forming and cooling cycles make the best
parts. Inconsistent heating could result in
voids, warping, or other defects. Examples of
parts that benefit from this process over
injection molding include plastic road
barriers that are filled later with
sand, flotation, or insulated cases, that are
then filled with foam, and large liquid
containment vessels, like this.

Other examples of rotomolded parts you might have seen include, playground
equipment, liquid tanks, and coolers.

Blow molding is an umbrella term for molding a thin, hollow container using air to blow
it into shape. Predating machine use, and still done today, glass blowing by hand was
the original method for making clear drinking bottles, inflated with the lungs of the
glass blower. Currently, glass blowing is done on an industrial scale, using machines
to blow air into the mold, stretching the glass.

Plastic blow molding shares some similarities. It

also uses air to press the plastic
outward, contacting the mold surface, usually in a
thin, watertight layer. Material can be introduced
into the mold in a few ways. Extruded tubes or blobs
of malleable hot plastic can be dropped in, pinched,
and inflated. Or, you can use something called a
preform. Preforms are injected molded parts made
of thermoplastics that follow draft considerations in
the direction of the cap.
All material introduced needs to be hot and
stretchy, and is blown up like a balloon. Blow
molding shares similarities with rotational
molding in that its primary purpose is to create
vessels, but in general, blow molded parts have much thinner walls.
A common example of this are water bottles, like these. If you're using a preform, the
initial part is placed into the mold, heated, and then blown up with air like a
balloon. The plastic is pressed into the walls of the mold while it's still hot, and then
begins a rapid cooling process to maintain its shape.

Once the cooling process has completed, sometimes as short

as a few seconds, the finished part is ejected into the
machine and the cycle repeats. Blow molds usually include
design details, like ridges to enhance bottle style and improve
the structural strength. Keep in mind that all design details will
need to follow molding rules, including draft, and have no
sharp edges, as thin plastic is even more vulnerable to
tearing. Blow molding is a great choice for round
containers, because round profiles have inherent draft, which
will minimize scuff marks.
If you look closely at disposable water bottles, the bottom
usually has its own parting line. This pull helps create the
bottom features you see, like the concave lift and recycling
information. While both of these methods result in hollow
containers that could work for your project, always consider
the scale, thickness, and end use of your solution.

2-CNC forms for vacuum forming

As previously discussed, CNC is a versatile manufacturing method. It can make
extremely precise final parts and is a method used to create most factory plastic
forming dies, out of metal. Another capability of CNC is making volumetric, one-sided
forms for heat-forming sheet plastic. Vacuum forming is a process, in which flat,
extruded sheet plastic is shaped over a master form, with heat and suction. The plastic
used in this process can vary, in thickness and texture, but calls for thermoplastic
sheet, as it may need to be heated and formed multiple times.

There are a few steps to

vacuum forming. First, the
sheet is clamped into a sturdy
frame, to keep it square, and
is then heated with coils, by an
oven, until it reaches a right
temperature and pliability.
Once the sheet has reached
the specified softness and
sag, it will be immediately
pulled over the form, capturing
an impression of the detail and allowed to cool. After the plastic has cooled enough, to
retain the shape of the form, the vacuum pressure ceases, and the new part in the
sheet, is removed from the vacuum table. And the excess is trimmed off.
Some facilities recycle these discarded plastic scraps and recycle them back into the
sheet extruding process. Because of the stretching involved in this process, the sheet
does not maintain perfectly even thickness. The interior of the part, will approximately
match the exterior of the geometry of the master form. This method is not as precise
as some of the others but is relatively cheap and might be the right method for your
project. This is a technique commonly used for thin, translucent plastic, in the
application of blister packaging, divider trays and pills.
Because the sheet material is often thin, you'll need to watch out for aggressively,
pointy geometry, which can tear the sheet. The application of fillets is your friend. Let's
say I want to make a form, for decorative ceiling panels. The material used for these
master forms should be inert to heat and not melt on contact. You can make forms out
of any number of materials: wood, plywood, aluminium, high-density foams and
composite stock, like MDF or LDF. The advantage of having porous or perforated
material is that the vacuum can pull, not just around your form, but through it.
And release of the vacuum pressure will aid in the removal of the formed sheet. There
are, however, restrictions in the usage of this method. Too much additional height can
result in tearing, as there are limits to the plastic's ability to stretch. Other problems
can arise, in the form of webbing, where the walls are too high and straight, and the
material cannot pull down and around this. It sometimes folds together. Depending on
the thickness and size of your sheet, taller forms can be made, but every inch, above
the support platform, makes it harder and more complex to form.
It's not recommended to try and vacuum form geometry with severe undercuts, sharp
sharps, or if you need perfectly uniform parts. You can have parts with holes, but they
will have to be cut out of your part, after the molding process.
2-Production at any scale
The method of production you choose will depend heavily on the volume of
production. How many parts you need will help inform the scale?
Small scale production generally refers to manufacturing that is done in more intensive
per part human labour often requiring highly skilled workers who can perform a variety
of tasks. It may include specialized machinery and combination with
craftsmanship. These goods are produced on the scale of handfuls to hundreds of
identical or similar items. Small scale
production methods can include 3D
printing, CNC of custom parts and vacuum
forming for tray inserts.
At this scale, the design process is more agile
and able to adapt to changes in design as
needed. For example, with CNC of custom
parts it takes much less setup time per
individual design and as necessary can
update and produce families, variations, or series of similar but unique items. With 3D
printing you can print individual, unique, and complex projects each design taking
similar amounts of time and resources to produce. Each of these projects can be
completely individual but if you're managing your own equipment in
house, maintenance, down time, and those pesky shop goblins have to be kept track
of.
Complications arise from scaling up your process from being boutique and
custom. This requires improvements and efficiency and specialization of
workers. Scaling up from artisanal products can also require switching up your
production procedures by creating products in larger batches or forming more
continuous assembly line. For example, I had a client who had a particular
product from their offering go viral which is great for business but production went
from five orders a week to thousands. This meant that the single item had to be
duplicated in many more orders of magnitude and fast.

Rapid growth means that space has to be made, processes have to become more
efficient, and specialized roles have to be designated for different parts of the
process.
Batch production groups similar tasks and needs a more efficient assembly line. Steps
start forming order and dependencies. This production progresses to a more
continuous output. Batches can range in size from dozens to hundreds and are easier
to scale than individual items. As output scales up, the process becomes less
agile and able to withstand last minute changes.

If your bakery business starts producing

cookies in the thousands, recipe changes to
the batter, or the size of the cookie will affect
the entire chain of production.

Mass production generally refers to manufacturing that is done in a factory setting

using rollers, along an assembly line of highly specialized individual procedures
in sequence for the forming and assembly of parts in a finished manufactured
goods. These goods are produced on a scale of hundreds of thousands to millions of
identical parts. Examples of large or mass scale production are injection molding
machines for plastic components like keyboard keys, and blow molding plastic drink
bottles.

At this scale, it's a high investment of upfront cost and lower cost per unit. But it's a
lot harder to change down the line. You won't be able to change the tooling
without incurring significant cost. So, a considerable amount of engineering,
testing, and resources are involved in getting it right the first time. A downfall of this
high-speed assembly line is that a lot of tasks are dependent on other tasks. If a
single procedure fails or a single part goes missing, there goes the entire line
until the production can be addressed.
Even something as small as a USB cable can stop the entire production of a car
manufacturer because of the layers in which the parts are assembled. This can be a
very expensive logistical mistake. If you can't add the cable, you can't lay in the
interior which moves on down the line. Additionally, it would be more expensive to
store the cars partially assembled. This constant stream of production works well
when all of the parts are in place and working, which isn't always the case. This
method is less agile to component breakdown and needs management maintenance
and efficiency experts to keep everything running like a well-oiled machine.