Heat Recovery Systems & CHP Vol. 15, No. 7, pp.

675-689, 1995
Copyright © 1995. Elsevier Science Ltd
Pergamon 0890-4332(94)00061-1 Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0890-4332/95 $9.50 + .00

SOLAR-ASSISTED LIQUID METAL M H D POWER

GENERATION: A STATE OF THE ART STUDY

S. C. KAUSHIK, S. S. VERMA a n d A. CHANDRA

Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110 012, India

(Received 31 December 1993 and in revised form 1 March 1994)

Abstract--The research and development of LMMHD energy conversion (EC) systems which started in
the 1960s has already come a long way and is heading towards commercialization. Design and
development of such systems has to deal with a number of questions relating to single- and two-phase
flows of molten metals, including different patterns of two-phase flow, interphase phenomena, heat
transfer, performance of LMMHD components and compatibility of liquid metals with other fluids and
with confinement materials. Liquid metal MHD (LMMHD) power conversion systems proposed many
years ago are gaining increasing attention in their various proposed modes, consisting of single-phase or
two-phase fluid flow for a wide range of heat sources, e.g. solar energy, waste heat, nuclear energy, etc.
Liquid metal MHD (LMMHD) power systems have been recently proposed for direct electrical energy
conversion of low grade thermal sources of energy, like solar energy. Solar-powered LMMHD power
generation systems are very attractive regarding efficiency and cost per unit of installed power. Theoretical
and experimental investigations carried out in the various aspects of these systems are presented. A state
of the art review of activities in the solar-powered LMMHD power systems field which have taken place
so far is described here.

NOMENCLATURE
Coefficients used in solar flat collectors and concentrators analysis
outlet fluid temperature
r~ inlet fluid temperature
T~ ambient temperature
r~ plate temperature
r~m average absorber tube temperature
rhf mass flow rate of fluid through collector
Cr specific heat of the fluid
Qab rate of energy absorbed by plate/area
u~ heat loss coefficient for collector
collector heat removal factor
/, incident solar radiation in the plane of absorber
1 absorbed solar flux
N number of collectors
A¢ collector area
W aperture of the concentrator
L length of the concentrator
D outer diameter of absorber tube
C concentration ratio
'Co transmissivity of glazing surface
~Xo absorptivity of the plate surface
P specific reflectivity of the reflecting surface
intercept factor
(~o~o)b average value for transmissivity absorptivity product from beam radiation
solar flat plate collector thermal efficiency
optical efficiency
?~¢on solar concentrator thermal efficiency

Coefficients used in M H D channel analysis

J current density
a electrical conductivity
E intensity of the electric fluid
u velocity of the fluid
B intensity of magnetic field
V voltage
b,d,l duct dimensions (height, width, length)
P power
~/mHD MHD generator efficiency

675
676 S. C. KAUSHIK el a[.

-,,~ ratio of specific heats

M Mach n u m b e r
1 currenl

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N

It is well known that the overall conversion efficiency of the conventional steam-turbine generator
process is, at best, about 40% which implies that when a primary fuel is used, more energy is wasted
that can be usefully converted to electrical energy. Research has been carried out for decades to
increase this figure, by improving various stages in the process. The conventional process of
electrical power generation passes through three stages (i.e. thermal-mechanical-electrical) of
energy conversion. The major drop from maximum efficiency is due to the losses in the mechanical
conversion. Great efforts have therefore been devoted to seeking an energy generation technique
that could bypass the mechanical stage. Besides, the other major weakness of a conventional plant
is that its input temperature, which governs the efficiency, falls far below that obtained from
practical heat sources.
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation, based on Faraday's law of induction, is free
from the mechanical loss because it converts the thermal and kinetic energy (in the case of
compressible fluid) and kinetic energy (for an incompressible fluid) directly into electrical energy.
Besides, the system is capable of working over the temperature range of 600-2000"C. Moreover,
M H D energy conversion systems can be used, along with existing conventional steam-cycle power
systems as a topper or bottomer.
M H D power systems are of two types (i) open-cycle and (ii) closed-cycle. An open-cycle system
is one where the working fluid passes once through the generator to an exhaust, whereas in a
closed-cycle the gas which passes through the generator is in a completely closed cycle and the high
electrical conductivity of the gas is due to non-equilibrium conditions. Working fluids for
conventional M H D power generators (open or closed) are ionized/inert gases with appropriate
seedings. The major problem of gaseous plasma-based M H D power plants (open or closed) is
related to the requirement of a very high temperature range of operation (i.e. >~2500-3000 K) to
obtain a reasonable value of electrical conductivity (a) of the seeded combustion products.
Efforts have also been made to replace the gaseous combustion fuel of M H D power generators
with a suitable liquid metal (LM) and this mode of M H D is known as liquid metal M H D
( L M M H D ) power generation. Incompressible fluids, such as liquid metals, can be used in MHD
generators with the advantage of having higher electrical conductivity (about lff' times that of an
ionized gas) at low temperatures [6]. Thus a reasonable electrical power output can be obtained
by using a suitable liquid metal, thereby avoiding the problems of having very high temperature,
pressure and flow velocity for an ionized gas to be used in M H D power generation. L M M H D
power generation phenomena have been studied in the literature, both theoretically and experimen-
tally, by many workers [1-88].
Research and development on L M M H D energy conversion systems was started in the beginning
of the 1960s [1-15] and since then a number of concepts of such systems have been developed
[16-35] and several systems have actually been built and tested [36-88]. The liquid metal as a
working fluid in the L M M H D generator is heated directly or indirectly to make it flow through
the M H D channel. Recently, attention has been drawn to the possibility of using solar energy for
this purpose, applying an L M M H D system in combination with a solar concentrator-receiver: this
is known as solar-assisted L M M H D power generator [35-37, 42-47, 64-69].
Environmental problems, e.g. ozone layer depletion, acid rain, photochemical smog (PAN) and
the greenhouse effect, are directly or indirectly related to the rate and efficiency of fossil fuel burning
for power generation. The concern of scientists and the general public about the grave environmen-
tal consequences will also give more support to the development of environmentally friendly
renewable energy sources, like solar-based L M M H D power systems. At low temperature operation
of the solar assisted-LMMHD power generator, the M H D duct becomes free from many problems,
namely electrode and duct life, erosion-corrosion, preheating, cooling, etc., and the overall system
is free from the emission of any type of environmentally unfriendly chemical species.
 Solar-assisted LMMHD power generation 677

2. LIQUID METAL MHD GENERATOR

Liquid metal MHD energy conversion systems are based on two types of fluid flow patterns, i.e.
(i) single-phase flow and (ii) two-phase flow [1-3, 7-11, 32, 39, 40]. Basically, both systems consist
of a liquid metal as an electrodynamic fluid and some suitable vapour/gas as a thermodynamic
fluid. The single-phase flow system has been discussed and developed fully in terms of the optimized
magnetohydrodynamic conversion system (OMACON) at its various stages and the basic diagram
representing it is as shown in Fig. 1 [49, 70, 74, 76, 78, 81, 85-88]. In the LMMHD system, such
as OMACON, two-phase flow of the fluid takes place in a vertical riser, whereas inside the MHD
channel, fluid flow is single-phase. Such a system is envisaged with the components, namely mixer,
riser, separator, downcomer, MHD channel and heater, etc., all within the system itself.
The basic system (Fig. 1) consists of two pipes (an upcomer and downcomer) connected at the
bottom with a cross-over pipe and with a separator element joining them at the top. A mixer is
located at the bottom of the upcomer and a single-phase MHD generator (from which electrical
power is drawn) is present in the downcomer or lower cross-over pipe. A vapour/gas or volatile
liquid (as the thermodynamic working fluid boiled in direct contact with the hot liquid metal) is
introduced into the mixer at the bottom of the upcomer at an appropriate temperature and
pressure. A two-phase fluid of lower density is created. As the two-phase fluid flows to the
separator, the gaseous phase undergoes an expansion from the high pressure in the mixer to the
low pressure in the separator, accelerating the fluid and lowering its density. The gaseous phase
(working fluid) is removed in the separator, thus producing a single-phase flow return into the
downcomer.
The pressure differential that exists between the upcomer and downcomer due to the density
difference causes the LM to circulate in the system; as the single-phase LM passes through the
MHD generator, an electrical voltage is generated and power is extracted. The flow rate in the
loop self-adjusts to balance the density differential between the upcomer and downcomer with
the frictional and acceleration flow losses and the power extracted from the MHD generator.
A disadvantage of the OMACON concept is that it has a lower power density compared
with non-gravitational LMMHD systems. The working methodology of each of the components
of the OMACON LMMHD system is described in detail by many workers
[10, 12, 18, 21, 22, 39, 63-67, 74, 82, 84].
The LMMHD system can be coupled with low-temperature heat sources, such as thermal energy
or industrial waste heat. The concept of making use of the heat sources, namely solar, nuclear

-~-- ~ Steam to
regenerator and
~oo OS~~a?a,~0,~ o o o o o I process
~e~D~°°°°°Q" -- 1

, ~ iquid metal

"IN.
m ~-~ o NIL~IIS
agnet

~" ~ N ~ " J~_~_ ~ - - MHDchanne,

•

Volatile ---~ ~ _ ~ ~--~

fluid injectionn "~~ f ~ ~

1 I
Liquid metal heater
Fig. I. A schematicof an OMACON LMMHD EC system.
HRS 15/7--F
678 S.C. KAUSHIKet al.

geothermal and waste heat, to convert the thermal energy into the kinetic energy of the LM gives
rise to many working cycles involving single-phase, as well as two-phase, fluid flow. The idea of
employing single-phase and two-phase liquid metal flow for the conversion of solar energy into
electricity has been discussed in the literature [I--88].
Solar-assisted liquid metal MHD systems are very attractive regarding efficiency and costs and
they are definitely able to compete with both photovoltaic and conventional thermodynamic
conversion systems [36, 37, 42, 46]. When the L M M H D system is coupled with solar collectors, it
is desirable to circulate the liquid metal of the MHD system directly through the receiver of the
collector. Such liquid-metal-cooled collectors provide essentially higher temperatures than water-
or oil-cooled collectors of the same efficiency. Two different solar-assisted L M M H D power systems
are discussed below:
(i) A two-phase fluid flow solar-assisted L M M H D energy conversion system [36, 37, 42, 46, 82]
lacking a mixer and separator is shown in Fig. 2 [36]. In this type of system, the two-phase fluid
flows in the natural circulation-cum-inertial mode in the MHD channel. Liquid metal is mixed with
bubbles in the solar concentrator itself. Power in this system is generated as a byproduct of solar
energy utilization for industrial or domestic heating. The investment for such a system is very low
because of the elimination of mixer and separator components of the system. The solar-assisted
L M M H D energy conversion system with a single-phase fluid flow (gravitational) has the
advantages of a simple design and control and elimination of mixer and separator parts. A
disadvantage of this system is its lower power density.
(ii) The operation of the non-gravitational, single-phase and two-phase fluid flow solar-assisted
L M M H D energy conversion systems is as follows [1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 36, 37, 42, 46]: a liquid metal is
heated in a solar collector (fiat plate collector for low temperatures and concentrators for higher
temperatures) depending on the range of temperature needed and then enters the mixer. An organic
liquid is injected into the liquid metal in the mixer and is boiled, due to direct heat transfer from
the latter. The organic gas undergoes an isothermal expansion and accelerates the flow of the
two-phase mixture into the M H D generator with the help of an efficient nozzle. In a single-phase
fluid flow, a separator is used downstream of the MHD channel in the cycle, whereas in the case
of two-phase flow it is used upstream, as shown in the Fig. 3(a) and (b) [11], respectively. However,
having the separator downstream of the generator instead of upstream, and hence operating with
two-phase flow through the generator, has the distinct advantages of higher load voltage and better
cycle efficiency [1-15]. The gas is separated from the liquid metal in the separator and is then cooled
and condensed. The organic liquid pressure is raised to its boiling pressure with the help of an
electromagnetic (EM) pump.

Liquid metal with vapour bubbles

MHD converter

Condenser~:~- Hot water

Solar collector ~" [ I / ~ Heat exchanger ~--..,,--Cold water
o r c°ncentrat°.x
~'x

Liqmd metal
with volatile droplets N

MHD pump
Fig. 2. Solar-assisted LMMHD system without mixer and separator.
 Solar-assisted LMMHD power generation 679
(a)

~~Regenerator

pa

(b)

Fig. 3. (a) Schematic solar-assisted LMMHD energy conversion cycle with separator upstream-single
phase generator: (b) Schematic solar-assisted LMMHD energy conversion cycle with separator down-
stream-two-phase generator.

Vapour
I
Direct contact boiler ~ I
LMnozzle\ ~ 3~ 4

pump

metal-cooled T Liquid metal I

solar collector ' i n

Pump

(~I ~Co'5ndenser
Fig. 4. Schematic of solar-assisted LMMHD Rankine cycle with liquid metal cooled collector.
680 S.C. KAUSHIKet al.

I-2-3-4-5-6-1 Two-phase LMMHD cycle

1-2-3-4-5'-6-1 Conventional Rankine cycle

4 5

/
TL

S (entropy)
Fig. 5. Temperature~ntropy diagram for a solar-assisted LMMHD two-phase cycle and a conventional
(turbine) organic Rankine cycle.

The temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram for a typical Rankine cycle (low temperature operation)
with isothermal expansion representing the power system of Fig. 4 [37, 75] is as shown in Fig. 5.
In the diagram, TH and TL are the high and low temperature levels for the organic fluid; Po and
Pc are the pressures at the inlet and outlet of the channel and are constant. Liquid metal does not
experience any type of phase change in the cycle. Hence, the T - s diagram for the organic fluid only
is represented in Fig. 5. Points 1-6 on the diagram represent the positions on the cycle, as shown
in Fig. 4 and represents the various processes of the organic fluid going through the cycle operation.
A comparison of single-phase and two-phase non-gravitational systems [1-15] recommends a
preference for the latter. In the case of two-phase fluid flow, solar-assisted L M M H D power systems
of the two types shown in Fig. 3(a) and (b), there are many advantages and few disadvantages.
In general, the solar-assisted L M M H D energy conversion system has the following advantages
and disadvantages:
1. The versatility and diversity suggest that the L M M H D technology may offer better
performance, less maintenance and better economy for certain applications than alternative
EC technologies.
2. Best use of low grade thermal energy sources.
3. Simplicity of design and control, isothermal expansion, direct contact heat transfer, higher
cycle efficiency, simple and robust components.
4. The efficiency and installation cost of the solar-powered MHD generator is virtually
independent of the scale and small units have a particular advantage.
5. The advantages of a LM-cooled solar collector are expected to be more evident in the case
of concentrating collectors with a heat flux of higher density.
6. Unlike turbines and conventional generators, the L M M H D power system does not have any
moving mechanical parts and no bearing/lubrication problems.
7. Besides the role of an electromagnetic media, the liquid metal has a second important role,
namely it serves as a heat store for the expanding vapour.
8. Such a system is very attractive in space applications where a long life is required.
9. The system is more environmentally friendly, compared to conventional options.
10. Major disadvantages are giving very high electric current with very low voltage, increasing
transmission power loss, as well as heavy circuitry.
11. Wetting layer, slip ratio and void fraction problems arise due to the mixing of two-phase
fluids and contribute to the non-uniformities in the electrical output efficiency.
12. Material confinement and erosion-corrosion problems are associated.

3. T H E O R E T I C A L ANALYSIS

L M - M H D cycle analysis of each component of a natural circulation loop, as shown in Fig. 1

(namely a mixer, upcomer, downcomer, separator, M H D channel, heater, pump, condenser), is well
established in the literature. Analysis of OMACON or ETGAR 1-7 stages has already reached a
 Solar-assisted LMMHD power generation 681

very satisfactory level from the research and development point of view and the units are leading
towards commercialization with various power capacities. The solar-assisted LMMHD systems as
shown in Figs 2, 4 and 6 are mainly divided into two subsystems, i.e. solar subsystem and MHD
subsystem. For a cycle analysis, the contribution in terms of work extracted or work required by
other components (mixer, separator, condenser, pumps) has also to be included. The overall cycle
efficiency, which is of more interest, for the solar-assisted LMMHD energy conversion system is
a function of the respective efficiencies of the different component subsystems, particularly solar
collector, mixer, nozzle, MHD channel, separator, diffuser, condenser, pumps and heat exchangers,
in the overall power generation system.
A detailed mathematical model to describe the physicochemicai interphase phenomena related
to the solar-assisted LMMHD generator components is also well defined in the literature
[49, 70, 74, 76, 78, 82, 85-88]. The component description and modelling is given here.

3.1. Solar collection subsystem

The temperature of the liquid metal (used as a working fluid in LMMHD) is a very important
parameter in the case of solar-assisted LMMHD energy conversion systems. It is achieved by the
solar collector subsystem converting solar energy into heat. This conversion can be accomplished
with the use of some solar collection systems, namely fiat plate collectors and concentrators.
The design and development of the solar collector is well advanced. The solar collector is used
to convert solar energy into heat and to transfer that heat to a stream of liquid or air. A flat-plate
solar collector generally consists of the following components: glazing; tubes or fins; absorber plate;
header or manifolds; insulation and container; their operation is well known and well described
in related scientific literature [53]. The basic performance equations are

O, = Oab -- OL
Q~b = (roCto)lt
QL = U L ( T p - T~)
Q, = rhfCr(Tfo- T~)
and

qc = Qd/(Aclt).
The collector heat removal factor (FR) for a flat plate collector is given as

/Gas

LMnoze
metal-cooled~ •~ Liquidmetal t
solar
concentrator
9 Regenerator~ ]
Compressor ~ I

~3~ ~.J ~Gasturbine\

-" ~ ~'
Aijr;ctl~etd;xchanger
Fig. 6. Schematicof solar-assisted-LMMHD Brayton cycle with a gas turbine,
682 S.C. KAUSHIKet al.

/T/fCf(Tfo- Tfi)
F.=
Ac[Q.~b- U L ( T n - T.)]"
The outlet temperature of the fluid at the Nth flat plate solar collector is given as

Tfo=(Q"b' Td)II--exp( NAcULFR exp( NAcULFR

In the case of a solar concentrator, the central receiver is, typically, a set of heliostates or
reflectors, such as those already used in solar turbo-alternator plants [36]. The central receiver is
a heat exchanger which would absorb solar energy from the concentrator and would utilize it for
heating the liquid metal.
The solar concentrator temperature/efficiency analysis is described elsewhere in full detail [53]
and is summarized here in brief. From the basic knowledge of a flat-plate collector, one can derive
the relation for collection efficiency or thermal efficiency of a solar concentrator (e.g. fixed mirror,
compound parabolic concentrator (CPC), Fresnel lens) in terms of inlet fluid temperature, fluid
mass flow rate, ambient temperature and solar intensity, as given below [53]. The heat removal
factor (FR) for the CPC is given by
Qu
FR = ( W -- D ) L [I - ( U L / C )( T~ - T~)]
U~(T, - 7:a)]
tl¢o° = FR rio ~

Ib=Aclt.
Solar flux absorbed (I) on the tube is
D
I = l b R b p 7 (%ao) b + IbRb(Voao)b
(W-D)
and the overall heat transfer coefficient is
( W - D ) L I - Qo
UL
~ D L (TpM -- T,,~)

3.2. M i x e r
The function of the mixer is to mix the thermodynamic fluid with the electrodynamic fluid (liquid
metal) in an efficient way. The heat and pressure losses occurring in the mixer have also to be taken
into account, in order to obtain an accurate theoretical overall cycle efficiency.
In solar-assisted L M M H D energy conversion systems, the inertial circulation principle is applied.
Hence, in a two-phase solar-assisted liquid metal M H D system, as shown in Fig. 3, a liquid metal
is heated in a solar flat plate collector or concentrator as per the requirement of the fluid outlet
temperature range, up to the highest working temperature, TH. The hot metal then proceeds to
a mixer where a volatile liquid is injected in the form of small droplets. These droplets are heated
by the surrounding hot metal through the highly efficient direct contact heat converted into
expanding vapour bubbles which accelerate the two-phase (LM and vapour) mixture in the channel
of the MHD generator. In the channel the bubbles push the surrounding LM forward against the
electromotive force caused by the interaction of induced electrical currents and the magnetic field
where electrical energy is extracted. Besides the role of an electroconductive media, the LM has
a second important role, namely, it serves as a heat store for the expanding vapour.
3.3. M H D channel
The MHD subsystem would consists of a nozzle, channel and diffuser. For the analysis of an
MHD converter, we require the equations which describe the fluid dynamics, electromagnetism and
thermodynamic processes involved in this subsystem, which are given here. A detailed mathemati-
cal model applicable for describing the physicochemical interphase phenomena along with results
related to the L M M H D components, i.e. nozzle, MHD channel, diffuser, is well defined in the
literature [I-20, 30-50, 55-70].
 Solar-assisted LMMHD power generation 683

For the M H D converter having a constant velocity M H D channel, the simple, basic equations
which are obtained by combining laws from fluid dynamics, electromagnetism and thermo-
dynamics, neglecting the effects of void fraction (inhomogeneity of the distribution of the gas
phase), slip ratio (difference between the flow velocities of vapour phase and liquid metal) and the
end effects, etc., are given as follows:
Basic M H D equations
Momentum equation:

pu -~x + -~x +JB=0.

Energy equation:

d ( h + ~1u )2+\ J
pU-~x E =0.

Continuity equation:
puA = rh = constant.
Simplified equations for a constant velocity channel are given by:
Momentum equation:
dP + JB = O.
dx
Energy equation:
dh
pu-~x + JE = O.

Continuity equation:
puA = rh = constant,
where p, u, P, J, B, h, E, A are the density, flow velocity, pressure, current density, magnetic field,
enthalpy, electric field and area of the MHD channel. The current density is given by Ohm's law
as applied to a M H D generator:
J=a(-E +uB),
where a is the electrical conductivity of the fluid, E is the applied electric field, B is the external
magnetic field and u is the fluid flow velocity and uB is the generated electric field. The momentum
equation on integration within the inlet and outlet conditions gives

;o t
dP = - JB ;o dx,

where l is the length of the M H D channel. Integrating, we get

P, - Po = J B t

The electrical power output is equal to the change in energy of the fluid, since other energy losses
are being neglected, so the M H D efficiency is
(hi - ho) (Ti - To)
r/M~D-- h~ - T~

(l
where h = Cp Tar, d T,/To are the temperature at the inlet/outlet of the M H D channel respectively;
Ts is the stagnatioh temperature which the fluid would reach if it was brought to rest and its kinetic
energy is all reconverted adiabatically to thermal energy. The thermodynamic parameters for the
constant velocity M H D generator at inlet and outlet conditions are related as follows.
The Mach number relation at the inlet and outlet conditions gives
684 S.C. KAUSHIK et al.

M~=u2/yR~; M'-o=U2/TRT,,
and, hence,

7"~---T~ I + ~ - M ~ =T,N~

T~=To l+~-M2o =ToN °,

where

N~=
,;-1 M~]
1+~ T-

and

No = I1 + 7 - 1 ~-m2o].
In another form, tlMHDcan be written as

~MHD - -
r,]
2 Z, TsTo
T, ToT,
Using the above set of equations, the efficiency can be rewritten as
1 -(To~T,)
qMHD = 2NI - No(To/Ti)"
The relationship between pressure and temperature for a constant velocity MHD channel at inlet
and outlet conditions is given by
(,o) n
pt/t = ( TjJ
where

E / u B is the ratio of the terminal voltage to open circuit voltage and is defined as the load factor.
Hence MHD channel efficiency can also be written as
1 -(To/T~)
/TMHD - -
2Ni - No (Po/Pi )"'
where subscripts i, o and s represent the values of the parameters at the inlet, outlet and stagnation
conditions, respectively. All other symbols used in the text are defined in the nomenclature• The
efficiency of MHD power generators would be changed by the suitable control of the input
parameters in the above equation. Modifying iteratively the converter design parameters, MHD
converter efficiencies of the order of 80% are reported in the literature with output electrical power
from 1 to 10 MWe. The efficiency figure discussed above is the theoretical value from the MHD
generator which can only be obtained by fixing proper design parameters, namely length, width,
height, magnetic field, load factor, inlet temperature, etc.
The typical thermodynamic cycle of the two-phase LM system (with an organic volatile liquid)
is shown in Fig. 5. Provided that the heat extracted from the vapour during its cooling from
working temperature Tx down to condensation temperature TL (sensitive heat) is used for
regeneration, the efficiency of the cycle is essentially higher than that for a conventional turbine
Rankine cycle (with organic vapour), operating between the same temperature limits.
 Solar-assisted LMMHD power generation 685

3.4. Solar-assisted LMMHD cycles

The mixer temperature determines the system efficiencies. On the basis of liquid metal
temperature in the mixer, three L M M H D concepts have been proposed to date.
(i) Rankine cycle: The Rankine cycle, as shown in Fig. 4 for a solar-assisted L M M H D energy
conversion system is best suited to low heat-source temperatures, 370-850 K. Because there
is no compression work, it yields calculated efficiencies higher than those of conventional
steam cycles for the same top steam temperature. The use of the heat exchanger depends
on the temperature range required. For low temperature applications, boiling of the
thermodynamic fluid occurs in the mixer, due to direct contact with the hot liquid metal
only. The choice of working fluids (electrodynamic fluid) for a low-temperature L M M H D
Rankine cycle is limited mainly by the melting temperature of the liquid metal. NaK is found
to be a suitable liquid metal (LM) under these conditions because of its excellent properties
and it remains a liquid below ambient temperature [36, 39,42,46]. A detailed survey
regarding the suitability of thermodynamic and electrodynamic fluids is given in the research
work [1-15, 20-35, 60-70].
(ii) Brayton cycle: It is reported that heat source coupling to a L M M H D subsystem
can be improved with suitable working fluids and, thus, higher steam temperatures
may be obtained, resulting in even higher LMMHD efficiencies
[36, 37, 42, 46, 49, 70, 74, 76, 78, 82, 85, 88]. The Brayton cycle version, as shown in Fig. 6
gives good performance at source temperatures above approximately 900 K with coal and
at lower temperatures for other energy sources. In this scheme, an L M M H D generator can
be coupled to high-temperature solar concentrators, coal combustors or controlled thermo-
nuclear reactors. The Brayton cycle, as shown in Fig. 6, differs from the Rankine cycle of
Fig. 4 only in replacing the condenser and pump with a reject heat exchanger and
compressor. The L M M H D cycle efficiencies can also be influenced by the use of multiple
stages. However, the best cycle performance will be obtained by combining the highest
attainable component efficiencies with two or three stages.
(iii) Open cycle: The open-cycle L M M H D concept operates at the highest temperatures. Higher
efficiencies can be obtained with L M M H D systems if the LMMHD-steam (open cycle)
version of Fig. 6 is used, i.e. the L M M H D cycle is a topping cycle for a steam bottoming
plant [34, 35, 37].
The operation of all the L M M H D cycles of interest for solar applications and the L M M H D solar
system configurations appropriate to low, intermediate and high collection temperatures is
discussed in great detail by refs [1-88].

4. P A R A M E T R I C STUDIES

For source and sink temperatures of 353 and 298 K the Carnot efficiency for a L M M H D power
generator is 0.156 [36,37,42,46]. The thermal efficiency (r/th) of the system (Fig. 3), if all
components are assumed ideal and the working fluids are NaK mixture and refrigerant R- 113 [47],
is calculated to be 0.121 without a regenerator and 0.145 with a regenerator at an average void
fraction of 0.8. However, if real components are taken into account, with a generator efficiency
(r/g) of 0.7, a solar collector efficiency (r/sc) of 0.6 and other component efficiency (r/sy) of 0.7 to
account for friction and pump losses, etc., then overall efficiency (r/o) is calculated as follows [36]:
r/o = r/th × r/g × q~ × qsy
=0.145 × 0.70 × 0.60 X 0.70 =0.043.
This value is reported to be around 0.043 at a temperature of 353 K and can be improved to 0.058
by raising the liquid metal temperature to 378 K. The calculation of overall efficiency of the
solar-assisted L M M H D generator includes the efficiency of solar collector MHD generator
efficiency and other components. Overall efficiencies for solar-assisted L M M H D systems of the
order of 0.30 are also being reported [36] for higher inlet solar temperature in the range of 1200 K,
with other usual values of design parameters for higher power outputs.
686 S. C KagsmK ('1 al.

The agreement between theoretical and experimental results depends on the slip ratio, void
fraction and the rate of growth of the bubbles: all of them are a function of the temperature,
pressure, and flow rate [1-88]. The efficiency of the solar-assisted L M M H D system as a function
of void fraction is discussed in detail elsewhere [42, 75, 79, 82, 84, 87]. The overall efficiency as a
function of different parameters related to solar-assisted L M M H D energy conversion system, e.g.
mixer temperature, mixer void fraction, turbine pressure ratio, mixer pressure, various organic
fluids, liquid metals, M H D subsystem parameters (nozzle, M H D duct, diffuser, separator,
condenser, pump) is partly discussed in the literature [1 88] and has to be studied further. The
installation cost for a 50 KWe conversion system operating at TH = 373 K and 7\---298 K is
estimated at about $500/KWe [46], while that of a conventional turbine system for the same
conditions is about three times higher.

5. C U R R E N T S T A T U S

The L M M H D power generation concept given due consideration many years ago has now
reached a satisfactory level of technology, due to the efforts of many scientists actively involved
in this field, particularly in Israel, France, U.S.A., former U.S,S.R., India, etc. Research and
development in Israel progressed in phases of E T G A R 1--7 and a full description of all these
stages of the O M A C O N system known as E T G A R can be found in the literature
[49, 70, 74, 76, 78, 82, 85, 88]. A low temperature L M M H D pilot plant with an electrical output
of 5 - 1 0 k W was designed jointly by Ben-Gurion University (Israel) and Argonne National
Laboratory (U.S.A.).
The primary calculation is based on the assumed efficiencies of the solar collector, M H D
generator, mixer, nozzle, separator and diffuser, then a step-by-step calculation of flow in each of
these components has been performed, along with levels of thermal input, output voltage,
sensitivity to variation of working conditions without and with time dependent parameters. For
theoretical simulations, computer codes have been generated and the results from such studies have
indicated that capital costs for a 10 MWe conversion system lie in the range of $350 500/kWe.
The influence of the wetting layer and void fraction non-uniformity on the performance of an
M H D generator is also investigated extensively. Results of experiments with LM-cooled solar
collectors and solar powered-LMMHD power systems prove that the application is feasible for
temperatures ranging from 350 to beyond l l00 K.
The E T G A R program for the commercialization of the natural circulation L M M H D energy
conversion technology is outlined [76]. ETGAR-5, the first semi-industrial L M M H D demon-
stration plant is planned to operate in the cogeneration mode, providing 5 bars process steam to
a fluidized bed phosphate drying plant and 680 kWe (a.c.) to the Israeli grid. ETGAR-7, the first
L M M H D energy conversion system to be commercialized, is designed to generate 3.2 MWe (a.c.)
and to provide 13.4 MW~h of 5 bars steam to process heat customers; its capital and operating costs
are estimated to be lower than that of a corresponding steam turbine plant.
A time-dependent model has been developed to analyze the response of the L M M H D power
system to the external disturbances. It is a very new and promising study concerning time-
dependent control of the L M M H D generator, which gives interesting automatic control possibil-
ities for such a generator. The research and development work of solar-assisted L M M H D energy
conversion systems is being undertaken in many countries. The theoretical and few experimental
results given in the literature [1-88] show a promising future for these systems. More efforts have
to be carried out in m,der to proceed towards the commercialization of such systems. A detailed
data bank related to the parametric variation studies, cost evaluation, etc. has already been
developed in this direction. The solar-assisted L M M H D configuration appears to be an attractive
option for electrical power generation and should be studied in more detail to determine its full
potential for commercial exploitation.

6. C O N C L U S I O N S AND R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S FOR F U R T H E R WORK

Coupling of two-phase liquid metal M H D power cycles to solar collectors and concentrators has
the potential for higher efficiencies in converting solar energy to useful electrical power output at
 Solar-assisted L M M H D power generation 687

any collector temperature, i.e. low, intermediate, high, with their respective usefulness. To use low
waste heat energy, low and intermediate temperature Rankine cycles are of preference, whereas for
higher temperatures, Brayton, as well as open, cycles have superior advantages. The high
temperature LMMHD Brayton cycle efficiencies are higher than other energy conversion systems
for the same solar collector heat and sink temperatures. In addition, LMMHD can effectively and
safely use liquid-metal-cooled receivers and is uniquely suited to solar cogeneration applications
which require high temperature process heat. Besides, an open-cycle solar-assisted LMMHD power
generator has the advantage of being used as a topping cycle for the exiting steam power plants.
Scale up of solar-powered LMMHD power systems is expected to be relatively straightforward,
since the systems are easily modularized and there are strong technical incentives to proceed in that
direction. Initial results from ongoing system studies indicate that large-scale modular systems can
be designed to be highly efficient, as well as economical, and have excellent off-design operating
characteristics.
However, the design and analysis will be heavily dependent on the inputs from the supporting
R & D program in the subject. A further investigation of various physical processes, characteristics
of solar-powered LMMHD power facilities (mainly involving the ability to control two-phase flow
operations, slip values) and further parametric studies on component optimization and on materials
engineering have to be carried out.
Uses of LMMHD power generation in industries which use liquid lead for their processes, FBC
energy conversion, solar energy conversion and nuclear energy conversion in one or another way
are now well established. Studies related to chemical compatibility studies of working fluids and
confinement materials, electrode contact resistance and its possible reduction, design of supercon-
ducting magnets, cost optimization, d.c. to a.c. invertor adjustments, etc. are to be continued. Its
versatility and diversity suggest that the solar-powered LMMHD energy conversion (EC)
technology may offer better performance, less maintenance and better economy and be more
environmentally friendly (for certain applications) than alternative EC technologies.

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