GLOBAL NAVIGATION

SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS)

CED, UET LAHORE
• HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
• SPUTNIK

On Oct. 4, 1957, Sputnik 1 successfully

launched and entered Earth's orbit. Thus,
began the space age. The successful launch
shocked the world, giving the former Soviet
Union the distinction of putting the first
human-made object into space.

After Russia launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik,

scientists at Johns Hopkins University began tracking the
satellite signals noting Doppler shift data. (The Doppler
effect is the shift in frequency and wavelength noted
by an observer when the source of the waves moves
relative to the observer.) After acquiring data for
several days, scientists were able to define Sputnik’s
orbit, and from this predictability of orbit, scientists
saw that the technology could be developed to
determine various receivers’ positions on Earth, thus
began positioning and navigation by satellite tracking.
• HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
• ORIGIN OF NAVSTAR
• The U.S. Navy took an interest in this development because it was keen to
use such navigation capabilities for their Polaris submarines while they
were at sea. The U.S. Navy Navigation Satellite System, called Transit, was
started in 1959 and completed in 1964. In 1967, the U.S Government
made this navigation system available to commercial ships and aircraft of
all nations.
• By 1996, the Transit Satellite System was retired, giving way to the United
States’ more modern Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging (NAVSTAR)
Satellite System
• CURRENTLY ACTIVE GNSS SYSTEMS
• After USA and RUSSIA, various countries have developed their own navigation
system. The entire scope of satellite systems used in positioning is now referred to
as global navigation satellite systems (GNSS).
• The systems can be operated day or night, rain or shine, and do not require
cleared lines of sight between survey stations. This represents a revolutionary
departure from conventional surveying procedures, which rely on observed angles
and distances for determining point positions.
• NAVSTAR – GPS (USA)
NAVSTAR global positioning system (GPS) is generally referred to as the GPS. As of
2016, It has total active satellites of 31. The GPS does not require the user to
transmit any data, and it operates independently of any telephonic or internet
reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS
positioning information.
• CURRENTLY ACTIVE GNSS SYSTEMS
• GLONASS
It provides an alternative to GPS and is the second navigational system in
operation with global coverage and of comparable precision. Currently
there are 24 active satellites in GLONASS constellation. Development of
GLONASS began in the Soviet Union in 1976. By 2010, GLONASS had
achieved 100% coverage of Russia's territory and in October 2011, the full
orbital constellation of 24 satellites was restored, enabling complete
global coverage. Accuracy is similar to GPS.
• CURRENTLY ACTIVE GNSS SYSTEMS
• GALILEO
Galileo is the European Union's Global Satellite Navigation System (GNSS).
Sometimes called the ’European GPS‘, Galileo provides accurate
positioning and timing information. Galileo is intended to provide
horizontal and vertical position measurements within 1-metre precision,
and better positioning services at higher latitudes than other positioning
systems. It has 18 operational satellites.
• CURRENTLY ACTIVE GNSS SYSTEMS
• BEIDOU (COMPASS)
The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System is a Chinese satellite
navigation system. Since December 2012, it has been offering services to
customers in the Asia-Pacific region. BeiDou-3 will eventually consist of 35
satellites and is expected to provide global services upon completion in
2020. When fully completed, BeiDou will provide an alternative global
navigation satellite system to the United States owned GPS and is
expected to be more accurate than the GPS.
• CURRENTLY ACTIVE GNSS SYSTEMS
• JAPANESE (QUASI-ZENITH) and INDIAN (NAVIC) PROVIDE PARTIAL
COVERAGE

• The obvious advantage of using multiple systems is that many

more satellites are available for observation by receivers. By
combining these systems, the surveyor can expect
improvements in increased speed and accuracy. Furthermore,
the combination of systems will provide a viable method of
bringing satellite positioning to difficult areas such as canyons,
deep surface mines, and urban areas surrounded by tall
buildings (urban canyons).
• CURRENTLY ACTIVE GNSS SYSTEMS
• GNSS SYSTEMS WORKING PRINCIPLE
• TRILATERATION
• Trilateration is a mathematical technique used by a global positioning
system (GPS) device to determine user position, speed, and elevation.
Trilateration uses distances from satellite to receiver to determine the
receivers location. Unlike triangulation, there are no angle measurements
in trilatertion where only distance measurements are involved. Atleast
three satellites are required to ascertain receivers location.
• Imagine you are standing somewhere on Earth with three satellites in the
sky above you. If you know how far away you are from satellite A, then you
know you must be located somewhere on the its circle. If you do the same
for satellites B and C, you can work out your location by seeing where the
three circles intersect. This is what GPS receiver does, although it uses
overlapping spheres rather than circles.
• GNSS SYSTEMS WORKING PRINCIPLE
• TRILATERATION
• All the GPS devices require three satellites for an accurate calculation of
position. Data from a fourth satellite or even more than four satellites
further enhances the precision of the point's location, and also allows
factors such as elevation or, in the case of aircraft, altitude to also be
calculated. GPS receivers routinely track four to seven satellites
simultaneously and use trilateration to analyze the information. The more
satellites there are above the horizon the more accurately your GPS unit
can determine where you are.
• GPS OVERVIEW
• Satellite positioning is based on accurate data for the real-time location of
each satellite and on very precisely kept time.
• It uses satellite signals, accurate time, and sophisticated algorithms to
generate distances to ground receivers and thus provide positions anywhere
on Earth.
• Satellite signals can also provide navigation data, such as the speed and
direction of a mobile receiver, directions to an identified (via coordinates)
location, and estimated arrival times.
• Satellite orbits have been designed so that ground positioning can usually be
determined at any location on Earth at any time of the day or night. A
minimum of four satellites must be tracked to solve the positioning
intersection equations dealing with position (x, y, and z coordinates).
• In reality, five or more satellites are tracked, if possible, to introduce additional
redundancies and to strengthen the geometry of the satellite array. Additional
satellites (more than the required minimum) can provide more accurate
positioning and can also reduce the receiver occupation time at each survey
station.
• Spacing of GPS satellites is such that at least six satellites are always visible
anywhere on Earth.
• GPS OVERVIEW
• The global positioning system can be arbitrarily broken into three parts:
(a) the space segment, (b) the control segment, and (c) the user segment.
• The space segment consists nominally of 24 satellites operating in six
orbital planes spaced at 60° intervals around the equator. Precise atomic
clocks are used in the satellites to control the timing of the signals they
transmit. These are extremely accurate clocks,2 and extremely expensive
as well.
• The control segment consists of monitoring stations which monitor the
signals and track the positions of the satellites over time.
• The user segment in GPS consists of receivers
• GPS RECEIVER
• GPS receivers range in ability (and cost) from survey-level (millimeter)
receivers capable of use in surveys requiring high accuracy and costing
more.
• Mapping and geographic information system (GIS) receivers (sub meter
accuracy)
• Marine navigation receivers (accuracy 1–5 m)
• Orienteering (hiking) and low-precision mapping/GIS receivers which are a
lot cheaper.
• GPS SATELLITE CONSTELLATION
• GPS satellites are manufactured by Rockwell International, weigh about
1,900 pounds, span 17 ft (with solar panels deployed), and orbit the Earth
at 10,900 nautical miles (20,000 km) in a period of 12 hr.
• The GPS satellite configuration ensures that at least four satellites (the
minimum number needed for precise measurements) are always
potentially visible anywhere on Earth.
• Some GPS receivers are now capable of tracking both GPS and GLONASS
satellite signals. Using both constellations has two advantages. Additional
satellites results in the potential for shorter observation times and
increased accuracy. The increased number of satellites available to a
receiver can also reduce interruptions due to poor satellite geometry or by
local obstructions caused by buildings, tree canopy, and the like.
• GPS SIGNAL
• As the GPS satellites are orbiting, each continually broadcasts a unique
signal on the two carrier frequencies. The carriers, which are transmitted
in the L band of microwave radio frequencies, are identified as the L1
signal with a frequency of 1575.42 MHz and the L2 signal at a frequency of
1227.60 MHz.
• REFERENCE COORDINATE SYSTEM
• In determining the positions of points on Earth from satellite observations,
three different reference coordinate systems are important.
• 1) SATELLITE REFERNCE COORDINATE SYSTEM: Satellite positions at the
instant they are observed are specified in the “space-related” satellite
reference coordinate systems. The satellite coordinate system is centered
at mass center of the Earth.
• 2) GEOCENTRIC COORDINATE SYSTEM: Because the objective of satellite
surveys is to locate points on the surface of the Earth, it is necessary to
have a so-called terrestrial frame of reference, which enables relating
points physically to the Earth. The frame of reference used for this is the
geocentric coordinate system.
• 3) GEODETIC COORDINATE SYSTEM: Although the positions of points in a
satellite survey are computed in the geocentric coordinate system, in that
form they are inconvenient for use by surveyors (geomatics engineers).
This is the case for three reasons:
(1) with their origin at the Earth’s center, geocentric coordinates are typically
extremely large values
(2) with the X-Y plane in the plane of the equator, the axes are unrelated to
the conventional directions of north-south or east-west on the surface of
the Earth.
(3) geocentric coordinates give no indication about relative elevations
between points.
For these reasons, the geocentric
coordinates are converted to geodetic
coordinates of latitude longitude
and height, so that reported point
positions become more meaningful
and convenient for users.
• ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS
• Satellite and receiver clock systematic errors.
• Refraction Errors: Ionosphere refraction (occurring 50–1,000 km above
Earth) and troposphere refraction (occurring from the Earth’s surface to 80
km above Earth). Signals are slowed as they travel through these Earth-
centered layers. The errors worsen as satellite signals are received near
the horizon. These errors can be reduced by scheduling nighttime
observations, by gathering sufficient redundant data and using reduced
baseline lengths (1–5 km).
• Multipath interference: Some signals are received directly and others are
received after they have been reflected from adjacent features such as tall
buildings, steel fences, etc. the surveyor should make every effort to avoid
all features that may contribute to multipath errors.
• ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS
• Positioning of satellites: Like in the case of triangulation survey, strength of
figure is an important consideration, in satellite surveying, a weak geometric
figure results from poorly located, four-satellite signal intersections (it is better
when satellites are wide spread instead of being jumbled). This consideration
is called the dilution of precision. DOP can be optimized if many satellites
(beyond the minimum of four) are tracked; the additional data strengthen the
position solution. Most survey-level receivers are now capable of tracking five
to twelve satellites simultaneously.

• Errors associated with the satellite orbital data.

• Setup errors: Centering errors can be reduced if the equipment is checked.
• Selective Availability: Data access limit from GNSS owner.
• DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING (DIFFERENTIAL GPS, DGPS)
• Accuracies of observed readings are degraded by errors that stem from clock
biases, atmospheric refraction, and other sources. Because of these errors,
positions of points determined by point positioning techniques using a single
receiver can be in error by a few meters.
• While this order of accuracy is acceptable for certain uses, it is insufficient for
most surveying applications.
• Differential GPS (DGPS) on the other hand, is a procedure that involves the
simultaneous use of two or more receivers. It can improve positional
accuracies by meters, and thus the method is suitable for certain types of
lower-order surveying work.
• In DGPS, one receiver occupies a so-called base station (point whose
coordinates are precisely known from previous surveying), and the other
receiver or receivers (known as the rovers) are set up at stations whose
positions are unknown.
• Since this base station receiver and the rover are relatively close to each other
(often less than a kilometer but seldom farther than a few hundred
kilometers), the errors at both the base station and at the rovers will have
approximately the same magnitudes. Thus, after computing the corrections
for each visible satellite at the base station, they can be applied to the roving
receivers, thus substantially reducing or eliminating many errors.
• DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING (DIFFERENTIAL GPS, DGPS)
• DGPS (Differential GPS) is essentially a system to provide positional
corrections to GPS signals.
• RELATIVE POSITIONING
• The most precise positions are currently obtained using relative
positioning techniques. Similar to DGPS, this method removes most errors.
The objective of relative positioning is to obtain the coordinates of a point
relative to another point. This can be mathematically expressed as:

• Relative positioning involves the use of two or more receivers

simultaneously taking observations. Assuming that simultaneous
observations have been collected, different linear combinations of the
equations can be produced, and in the process certain errors can be
eliminated.
• RELATIVE POSITIONING (SINGLE DIFFERENCING)
• When two receivers simultaneously observe the same satellite, it is
possible to correct for most of the effects of satellite clock errors, orbit
errors, and atmospheric delay.
• RELATIVE POSITIONING (DOUBLE DIFFERENCING)
• When one receiver observes two (or more) satellites, the measurements
can be freed of receiver clock error and also atmospheric delay errors.
Further, when using both differences (between the satellites and between
the receivers), a double difference occurs. Clock errors, atmospheric delay
errors, and orbit errors can all be eliminated.
• RELATIVE POSITIONING (TRIPLE DIFFERENCING)
• The difference between two double differences is the triple difference.
That is, the double differences are compared over two (or more)
successive epochs (time). This procedure is also effective in detecting and
correcting cycle slips and additional errors.
• FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY OF SATELLITE SURVEYING
• Many factors can have a bearing on the ultimate success of a satellite
survey. Also there are many different approaches that can be taken in
terms of equipment used and procedures followed. Because of these
variables, satellite surveys should be carefully planned prior to going into
the field.

(1) accuracy of the reference station(s) to which the survey will be tied.
(2) number of satellites visible during the survey
(3) geometry of the satellites during the observation sessions
(4) atmospheric conditions during the observations
(5) lengths of observation sessions
(6) number and nature of obstructions at the proposed receiver stations
(7) number of redundant observations taken in the survey
• FIELD PROCEDURES IN SATELLITE SURVEYS
• Field procedures employed on surveys depend on the capabilities of the
receivers and the type of survey. Some specific field procedures currently
being used in surveying include the static, rapid static, pseudokinematic,
and kinematic methods.

• Static Relative Positioning

• For highest accuracy, for example geodetic control surveys, static
surveying procedures are used.
• In this procedure, two (or more) receivers are employed. The process
begins with one receiver (called the base receiver) being located on an
existing control station, while the remaining receivers (called the roving
receivers) occupy stations with unknown coordinates. For the first
observing session, simultaneous observations are made from all stations
to four or more satellites for a time period of an hour or more depending
on the baseline length.
• Except for one, all the receivers can be moved upon completion of the first
session. The remaining receiver now serves as the base station for the
next observation session. It can be selected from any of the receivers used
in the first observation session. Upon completion of the second session,
the process is repeated until all stations are occupied, and the observed
baselines form geometrically closed figures.
• FIELD PROCEDURES IN SATELLITE SURVEYS
• Rapid Static Relative Positioning
• This procedure is similar to static surveying, except that one receiver
always remains on a control station while the other(s) are moved
progressively from one unknown point to the next. An observing session is
conducted for each point, but the sessions are shorter than for the static
method.
• The rapid static procedure is suitable for observing baselines up to 20 km
in length under good observation conditions. Rapid static relative
positioning can also yield accuracies on the order of about (+/- 3 to 5 mm).
• FIELD PROCEDURES IN SATELLITE SURVEYS
• Pseudokinematic Surveys
• This procedure is also known as the intermittent or reoccupation method,
and like the other static methods requires a minimum of two receivers. In
pseudokinematic surveying, the base receiver always stays on a control
station, while the rover goes to each point of unknown position. Two
relatively short observation sessions (around 5 min each in duration) are
conducted with the rover on each station. The time lapse between the
first session at a station, and the repeat session, should be about an
hour.This produces an increase in the geometric strength of the
observations due to the change in satellite geometry that occurs over the
time period.
• A disadvantage of this method, compared to other static methods, is the
need to revisit the stations. This procedure requires careful presurvey
planning to ensure that sufficient time is available for site revisitation, and
to achieve the most efficient travel plan. Pseudokinematic surveys are
most appropriately used where the points to be surveyed are along a
road, and rapid movement from one site to another can be readily
accomplished. During the movement from one site to another, the
receiver can be turned off.
 • FIELD PROCEDURES IN SATELLITE SURVEYS
• Kinematic Surveys
• As the name implies, during kinematic surveys one receiver, the rover, can
be in continuous motion. This is the most productive of the survey
methods but is also the least accurate. The accuracy or a kinematic survey
is typically in the range of (+/- 1 to 2 cm).
• This accuracy is sufficient for many types of surveys and thus is the most
common method of surveying. Kinematic methods are applicable for any
type of survey that requires many points to be located, which makes it
very appropriate for most topographic and construction surveys.
• It is also excellent for dynamic surveying, that is, where the observation
station is in motion.

Coastal monitoring using

Real time kinematic
surveying aboard ATV
• FIELD PROCEDURES IN SATELLITE SURVEYS
• FIELD PROCEDURES IN SATELLITE SURVEYS
• KINEMATIC SURVEYING (REAL TIME KINEMATICS-RTK)
• In many areas of surveying, speed and productivity are essential elements
to success. In satellite surveying, the most productive form of surveying is
kinematic surveying. These surveys can provide immediate values to the
coordinates of the points while the receiver is stationary or in motion. Its
accuracy is typically less than that obtainable with static surveys, but is
adequate for most forms of surveys.
• Kinematic surveying can provide immediate results using the real-time
kinematic (RTK) mode. Kinematic surveying provides positioning while the
receiver is in motion. For example, kinematic surveys have been
successfully used in positioning sounding vessels during hydrographic
surveys, and aerial cameras during photogrammetric surveys. and aerial
cameras during photogrammetric surveys.
• It shares many commonalities with static surveys. For example, a
kinematic survey requires two receivers collecting observations
simultaneously from a pair of stations with one receiver, the base,
occupying a station of known position and another, the rover, collecting
data on points of interest.
• FIELD PROCEDURES IN SATELLITE SURVEYS
• KINEMATIC SURVEYING (REAL TIME KINEMATICS-RTK)
• The main difference between static and kinematic surveying techniques is
the length of time per session. Establishment of control points using a
static surveying method requires much longer sessions.
• Kinematic surveys generally follow two forms of data collection. In true
kinematic mode, data is collected at a specific rate. This method is useful
for collecting points along an alignment, or grade elevations for
topographic surveys.
• An alternative to the true kinematic mode is to stop for several epochs of
data at each point of interest. This method, known as semikinematic or
the stop-and-go mode, is useful for mapping and construction surveys
where increased accuracy is desired for a specific feature.
• In post-processed kinematic (PPK) surveys, the collected data are stored on
the survey controller or receiver until the fieldwork is completed. The data
are then processed in the office using the same software and processing
techniques used in static surveys.
• FIELD PROCEDURES IN SATELLITE SURVEYS
• KINEMATIC SURVEYING (REAL TIME KINEMATICS-RTK)
• RTK surveying, as implied by its name, enables positions of points to be
determined instantaneously as the rover occupies a point. Like the other kinematic
methods, RTK surveying requires that two (or more) receivers be operated
simultaneously. The unique aspect of this procedure is that a radio is used to
transmit the base receiver coordinates and its observations to the rover. At the
rover, the observations from both receivers are processed in real time by the unit’s
on-board computer to produce a nearly immediate determination of its location
• The radio link used with RTK can limit the distance
between the base receiver and rover(s) to under 10 km,
or about 6 mi. This distance can be increased with
more powerful transmitters, or through the use of
repeater stations
• FIELD PROCEDURES IN SATELLITE SURVEYS
• KINEMATIC SURVEYING (REAL TIME KINEMATICS-RTK)
• PLANNING SATELLITE SURVEYS
• All new high-accuracy survey projects that employ relative positioning techniques
must be tied to nearby existing control points.
• One consideration in station selection is the assurance of an overhead view free of
obstructions. This is known as canopy restrictions. Canopy restrictions may possibly
block satellite signals.
• At a minimum, it is recommended that visibility be clear in all directions from a
mask angle (altitude angle) of 10° to 20° from the horizon.
• Selecting suitable observation windows is another important activity in planning
surveys. This consists of determining which satellites will be visible from a given
ground station or project area during a
proposed observing time

• It is also recommended to
avoid connecting to satellites
Within in mask angle since
They tend to have weaker
Signals at low horizon and
Hence give inaccurate results.
• SELECTING APPROPRIATE SURVEY METHOD
• In high-accuracy surveys that involve long baselines, the static surveying
method with GNSS receivers is the best solution.
• However in typical surveys limited to small areas, a single-frequency
receiver using rapid static, pseudokinematic, or kinematic surveying
methods may be sufficient.
• For navigation purposes, kinematic methods are used.
• Because of the variability in requirements and restrictions of surveys, the
selection of the appropriate survey method is dependent on:
• (1) desired level of accuracy in the final coordinates.
• (2) intended use of the survey.
• (3) type of equipment available for the survey.
• (4) size of the survey.
• (5) canopy and other local conditions for the survey.
• (6) available software for processing the data.
• FIELD RECONNAISSANCE
• Once the existing nearby control points and new stations have been
located on paper, a reconnaissance trip to the field should be undertaken
to check the selected observation sites for:
• (1) overhead obstructions that rise above 10° to 15° from the horizon
• (2) reflecting surfaces that can cause multipathing
• (3) nearby electrical installations that can interfere with the satellite’s
signal
• (4) other potential problems.
• Web services such as GOOGLE EARTH can often be used to make
preliminary decision about the suitability of a site for occupation by a
GNSS receiver. However, a site visit is the only method to confirm its
suitability.
• CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS USING GNSS EQUIPMENT

• Usually static surveys are used to establish project control and kinematic
surveys are used to produce maps for planning and design. Real-time
kinematic (RTK) surveys can be used to locate construction centerlines.
• In construction surveys, the base receiver does not have to occupy a
station with known GNSS coordinates. Instead the application software
can be instructed to determine its position in autonomous mode.
However, all points determined from this station will have GNSS-type
accuracies relative to the base station coordinates.
• Care must be taken to ensure that points located using GNSS are placed in
the same reference frame as the project coordinates.
• Using the project coordinates and the GNSS coordinates, transformation
parameters are computed so that the GNSS derived coordinates can be
transformed into the local project reference frame.
• LAYOUT SURVEYS
• For layout work, the coordinates of all relevant control points and layout
points are uploaded from computer files before going out to the field.
• After the base station receiver has been set up over a control point and
the roving receiver appropriately referenced by first occupying a control
station for a backsight, the layout can begin.
• As each layout point number is keyed into the collector, the azimuth,
distance, and elevation to the required position are displayed on the
screen.
• The surveyor, guided by these directions, eventually moves to the desired
point, which is then staked.
• One base receiver can support any number of rover receivers, permitting
the instantaneous layout of large project boundaries, pipelines, roads, and
building locations by several surveyors.
• As with topographic applications, the precision of the proposed location is
displayed on the receiver as the antenna pole is held on the grade stake or
other marker to confirm that layout specifications have been met; if the
displayed precision is below specifications, the surveyor simply waits at
the location until the processing of data from additional epochs provides
the surveyor with the necessary precision.
• LAYOUT SURVEYS
• On road layouts, both line and grade can be given directly to the builder
(by marking grade stakes), and progress in cut and fill can be monitored.
• Accuracy can also be confirmed by re-occupying selected layout stations
and noting and recording the displayed measurements, an inexpensive,
yet effective, method of quality control.
• TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

• GPS technique permits the collection of data on specified profile, cross-

section, and boundary locations utilizing the navigation functions;
contours may be readily plotted from the collected data.
• GPS is also useful when beginning the survey in locating boundary and
control markers that may be covered by snow or other ground cover; if the
marker’s coordinates are in the receiver, the navigation mode can take the
surveyor directly to its location.
• Data captured using these techniques can be added to a mapping or GIS
database or directly plotted to scale using a digital plotter.
• GPS topographic surveys can be completed more quickly than total station
topographic surveys.
• MACHINE CONTROL
• With RTK surveying methods, it is possible to load the project design,
digital terrain models, and site calibration parameters into a computer
that guides the vehicle during the construction process. This technology
known as machine control allows the machine operator to see their
position in a construction project, cut and fill levels, and finished grades of
the project, all in real time. This is achieved by placing RTK units on the
construction equipment.
• FUTURE PROSPECTS

• The use of satellites in the surveying (geomatics) community has

continued to increase as the costs of the systems have decreased. This
technology has and will undoubtedly continue to have considerable
impact on the way data is collected and processed. In fact, as the new
satellite technologies are developed, the use of conventional surveying
equipment will decrease. This is due to the ease, speed, and achievable
accuracies that satellite positioning technologies provide.
• As is the current trend, less field time will be required for the surveyor
(geomatics engineer), and more time will be used to analyze, manage, and
manipulate the large volumes of data that this technology and others
provide. Those engaged in surveying (geomatics) in the future will need to
be knowledgeable in the areas of information management and computer
science and will provide products to clients that currently do not exist.