02/09/2015

RELATIONSHIP WITHIN THE DISCIPLINES

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

By

G.C.Enyi
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING, SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD, MANCHESTER.

AIMS OF THE MODULE MODULE CONTENT

• To understand the principle of exploration, • Geology and Exploration

drilling, reservoir analysis and production
operations. • Drilling Engineering

• To develop systems in term of: geology, • Reservoir Engineering

reservoir acquisition, production and
operations relating to oil and gas engineering
• Production Engineering

1
 02/09/2015

LEARNING/TEACHING STRATEGIES READING LISTS/REFERENCES

• Minimum of 72 hrs lectures + laboratories.
• Books / Publications in Oil & Gas operations.
• Minimum of 228 hrs of independent study and
preparation of assessment.

• Group presentation.

• Maximum of 3 hrs examination.

• Assessment Components: Examination 70%

Course Work 30%

AIMS
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY AND
EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES • To provide students with the knowledge of the underlying
concepts associated with geology and geophysics.

• To understand types of Rocks formation and their properties.

• To understand different geological methods, Traps and

By exploration techniques.

• To understand processes leading to the formation of

G.C.Enyi petroleum reservoirs.

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING, SCIENCE & ENGINEERING • To discuss the principles and methods of geophysical
UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD, MANCHESTER. exploration and their applications.

2

OBJECTIVES
1. General introduction of the subject of geology in
terms of its definition and concept. The internal
structure of the Earth.
2. General principles of the various methods of
geophysics and the discussion of the physical
properties and parameters on which these
methods are based and utilised with brief
discussion on some of the end products
(geologic information) obtainable from them.
3. Discussion of the theory, the field operations,
interpretation and applications of each of the
more frequently used methods (seismic and well
logging).
LEARNING OUTCOMES
5. Understand the principles, methods and field
operations of each of the geophysical
techniques.
6. Have a grasp of the general interpretation
procedures of geophysical data from each
technique.
7. Be familiar with the applications of each
technique.
02/09/2015
LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this course, students should be
able to:
1. Name the two main types of sedimentary rock.
2. Define the rock properties of porosity and
permeability.
3. Explain in broad terms the origin of petroleum.
4. Identify the types of rock structure which can
form a petroleum reservoir.
Texts and Other Learning Materials and
Resources
1. Hydrocarbon exploration and production by J. Frank,
Pub. Elsevier, 1st edition, 1988.
2. A geology for Engineers, F. Blyth, M.H. De Freith, 7th
edition, Elsevier, 2006
3. Knovel Library, University of Salford Library, ISD, Oil
and Gas Engineering.
3
 02/09/2015

UNIT CONTENT INTRODUCTION

Natural petroleum is contained in underground reservoirs.
The aim is to get it from the reservoir to the surface in a safe
• Introduction and efficient manner.
• Structure and Composition of the Earth
There are two main stages involved in this:
• Types of Rocks
• Geologic Structures • Finding the petroleum
• Petroleum Reservoir • Transporting it to the surface and processing it for the next
phase.
• Rock Properties
• Exploration Techniques The first of these stages is called exploration and the second
• Formation Evaluation production.

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Natural petroleum is also referred to as:
• A reservoir is not a huge underground cavern
• Petroleum filled with fluid, as many people still imagine.
• Oil and Gas
• Hydrocarbons
• Reservoir Fluids • It is actually a rock system and within the
pores, cracks and channels of this system the
We are never absolutely sure whether oil or gas is present in reservoir fluid – oil, gas, water or in many
a reservoir until we have:
cases, a mixture of the three is stored.
• Drilled into that reservoir.
• Obtained a sample of the reservoir fluids at the surface.

4
 02/09/2015

Geology , Petroleum Geology STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF

and Geophysics THE EARTH

Geology is the study of the Earth and its formation Knowledge of what is below the earth comes from:

Petroleum geology is that branch of geology concerned with • Earthquakes

the formation of oil and gas in the earth’s crust.
Geophysics is concerned with the application of physical
principles to the study of the earth. The objective is to
determine the structure and property of rocks within the
earth by quantitative measurements of physical properties at
the surface.
• Seismic waves
• Meteorites (rocks from spaces)
Analysis shows changes in density with depth. From
this density we can associate the rocks that make
up the sessions of the earth.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH THE THEORY OF GRAVITATION

• The theory of all gravitational studies is Newton’s Law of

Gravity which quantifies the mutual attraction between 2
masses (m & M) separated by a distance R.

• The Earth’s gravitational field always looks as though all

the mass is concentrated at the centre of the earth.
• The force on a mass (m) falling towards the earth under
the influence of gravity alone may be written as:

F = mass x acceleration = mg

5
 02/09/2015

The Theory of Gravitation

THE THEORY OF GRAVITATION
The general relationship between gravity and the Earth’s average
density ρ assuming Earth is a perfect sphere is given by:
From the two equations:
𝑀 𝑀 3𝑀
𝜌= = =
𝑣 4 3 4𝜋𝑅3
𝜋𝑅
3

And

3𝑔𝑅 2 3𝑔
𝜌= =
4𝜋𝑅 3 𝐺 4𝜋𝑅𝐺

This gives the value of g at all point on the Earth surface. Hence if g, R and G are known or measured, the Earth’s average
density can be calculated.

The Theory of Gravitation The Theory of Gravitation

Density of the Earth ≈ 5520 Kg/m3.

This value is much greater than the densities of 4𝜋𝜌𝑅𝐺

rocks. 𝑔=
3

The acceleration due to gravity is not the same at all

points on the Earth’s surface. Hence there are points
on the earth where there are excess mass and
density and other points where are deficit mass and
density

6

WORKED EXAMPLE
Given that the mass of the earth is 5.97
x1024 Kg, universal gravitational constant is
6.67 x 10-11Nm3/Kg2, based on your
estimated radius, calculate the acceleration
due to gravity.
THE CRUST
The crust ranges from 5–70 km (~3–44 miles) in depth and is the
outermost layer. The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie
the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are composed of dense (mafic) iron
magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt. The thicker crust is
continental crust, which is less dense and composed of (felsic) sodium
potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The uppermost
mantle together with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. The crust-
mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there
is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity, which is known as the
Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought
to be a change in rock composition.
Many rocks now making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million
(1×108) years ago; however, the oldest known mineral grains are 4.4
billion (4.4×109) years old, indicating that Earth has had a solid crust
for at least that long.
02/09/2015
SOLUTION
Mass of the earth = 5.97 x 1024 kg
Universal gravitational constant = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg
Radius of the earth = 6371 km = 6371000 m
= 9.81 m/s2
THE MANTLE
Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest
layer of Earth. The pressure, at the bottom of the mantle, is ~140
GPa (1.4 Matm). The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are
rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. Although
solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate
material to be sufficiently ductile that it can flow on very long
timescales. Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface
through the motions of tectonic plates. The melting point and
viscosity of a substance depends on the pressure it is under. As there
is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the
mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the
upper mantle (chemical changes within the mantle may also be
important). The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 1021 and
1024 Pa·s, depending on depth.
7
 02/09/2015

THE MANTLE EXAMPLES SEA FLOOR SPREADING

• 83% by volume and 68% mass of the earth
• Mantle is divided into two sections:

• Upper mantle lies 33 – 700 km, density = 4.3 x 103kg/m3.

• Lower mantle lies 700 – 2900 km, density = 5.5 x 103kg/m3.
• As we move to the mantle, we notice an increase in density and
velocity waves.

• Within the upper mantle (33 - 200 km) we refer to as Low Velocity
Zone (LVZ). It is semi solid zone composed of Dunite/Olivine (Mg
minerals).

• The LVZ is the source of earth internal energy – volcanism,

earthquakes, mountain building and seafloor spreading are generated
by this zone. A situation where solid material rest on semi-solid state.

THE CORE TYPES OF ROCKS

• The core is made up of two zones:

• Upper Core: 2001 – 5350 km, Density= 10.0 x
103kg/m3. It can’t transmit waves. It is liquid.
• Inner Core: 5150 – 6371 km, Density = 13.6 x
103kg/m3. It is solid and made up of Fe & Ni
Silicates.
• The core occupies 16% of the earth by volume
and 32% by mass.
The earth’s crust or outer shell is composed mainly of rocks. A rock is defined as
“an aggregate of one or more minerals.” The three major rock types, based on their
origin, are igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Petroleum Systems and most
oil and gas production occur in sedimentary rocks, which form a thin veneer on the
surface of the earth’s crust.
Types of Rocks Encountered in Petroleum Geology
The earth’s crust is composed of three main types of rocks – igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic, which are classified according to their origin. Igneous and
metamorphic rocks form the base beneath the sedimentary rocks in which the oil
maybe found. The source beds are made up of shales or limestones or dolomite.

8
 02/09/2015

Classification of Rocks THE ROCK CYCLE

IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

The rocks of the earth’s crust are constantly being

recycled. Magna solidifies to form igneous rocks. If
igneous rock are exposed at the surface, they weather, and
weathered rock fragments are transported and sediment,
Rock-forming Source of
material

Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
deep crust and erosion of rocks
temperatures
and pressures in
deposited, and lithified into sedimentary rocks. If the
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust igneous or sedimentary rocks are subjected to
temperatures and pressures that exceed those under which
process

Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
heat, pressure, or
chemically active fluids
they solidified, they may undergo changes to form
metamorphic rocks.

The Rock Cycle IGNEOUS ROCKS

Magma

Igneous rocks are the main/primary rocks that are

formed from magma (molten/viscous mixture of
Metamorphic
Rock
Heat and Pressure Igneous
Rock
silicates- Mg, Fe,Ca, Al). These compounds are
called rock forming minerals. Owning to their origin
n
a

and lack of porosity, igneous rocks are rarely oil-

bearing.
Weathering,
Transportation
Sedimentary and Deposition
Rock Sediment

9

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
When rocks of any nature are subjected to great heat or
pressure or a combination of both – their mineral
composition is altered without melting. They become
metamorphic rocks. Slate (a modified form of shale) and
marble (altered limestone) are common examples.
Metamorphic rocks do not contain oil. They can be derived
from Igneous and Sedimentary rocks.
The main agents of metamorphism are HEAT and
PRESSURE. Pressure is due to the weight of overlying
rocks and the partial pressure of any volatiles substance
which may be present eg water.
SIZE SCALE OF SEDIMENTS
• Boulder > 256 mm in diameter
• Cobble 64 – 256 mm
• Gravel 2 – 64 mm
• Sand 0.6 – 2 mm
• Silt 0.02 – 0.6 mm
• Clay < 0.02 mm (can not be measured even under
microscope unless with scanner).
• Between silt and clay we have mud (a combination of silt
and clay)
• From boulder to gravel we have conglomerates or breccias.
• Conglomerates – if the grains are sub-rounded to
rounded in shape.
• Breccias – if the grains are angular.
02/09/2015
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Oil accumulations occur almost entirely in sedimentary rock. Sediments that
form sedimentary rocks are deposited in valleys, lakes, deltas, and seas.
Sediments deposited in lakes and seas are often evenly distributed over large
areas. The depth of sedimentation (stratigraphic layers) varies , depending on
the amount of erosion and the length of time over which the sediment was
deposited.
Sedimentary rocks fall into two major groups: (1) Clastic rocks (2) Nonclastic
rocks
•Clastic Rocks
Wind, water, and ice erode rocks into sediments such as gravel, sand, silt, and
clay. These sediments then combine and harden to form clastic rocks,
including conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale.
•Nonclastic rocks
Nonclastic rocks are formed from the accumulation and compression of marine
organisms and chemical precipitates. Typical nonclastic rocks are limestone,
dolomite, coquina, anhydrite, chert, and salt.
The Origin of Sedimentary Rocks
Weathering Process
10

BASIC GEOLOGY OF RESERVOIR ROCKS
Most reservoirs are made up of sedimentary rocks.
There are two principle types of sedimentary rock
in which hydrocarbons are commonly found. These
are:
•Clastic rocks
•Biochemical rocks
BASIC GEOLOGY OF RESERVOIR ROCKS
Biochemical rocks are formed by the accumulation of
marine life remains – fragments of shells, coral, skeletons
etc. Again, application if pressure and other changes
result in the formation of typical biochemical rocks such
as limestones, chalks and dolomites.
02/09/2015
BASIC GEOLOGY OF RESERVOIR ROCKS
Clastic rocks are formed by the settling out and accumulation of solid particles
such as sand. These particles are formed by the weathering of larger rocks. They
are carried by rivers etc to the point where they are deposited. Further layers of
rocks particles may be laid down on top of this sediment layer which will
eventually form the reservoir.
The force exerted by these further layer (known as the overburden) together with
other chemical and physical changes result in the formation of typical clastic rock
such as sandstones and shales.
GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES
Geologic Structures:
dynamically produced patterns or arrangements of rock or sediment that result
from forces acting within the Earth.
Structural Geology is study of shapes, arrangements and relationships among
rocks and stresses that deform them
structures yield information about these forces.
11
 02/09/2015

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES

• Geologic structures include faults, folds, traps and
joints. Before we discuss the details of each type of
structure, let’s distinguish between stress and strain.
Rocks, like the fence below, deform in response to
• Stress, defined as force per unit area, is what causes
stress rocks to deform (change shape).
3 types of stress:

1) compression: pushed together

2) tension: pulled apart

3) shear stress: moved horizontally past each other

can bend or break

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES

strain is change in shape or volume arising from stress 4 responses possible to stress
…rock flattens after being hit with hammer
time 1 time 2
Stress and Resulting Strain translation
1) compression: shortening (no change in shape)
2) tension: stretching

rotation
(no change in shape)

distortion
(shape changes)

volume change
(dilation, contraction)
3) shearing stress: shear strain

12
 02/09/2015

How Rocks Respond to Stress GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES

Rocks behave as elastic, brittle, or ductile
bodies depending on From where does stress come?
• amount and rate of stress application • motions of tectonic plates on Earth’s surface
• type of rock
• temperature & pressure

elastic: rock returns to original shape

when stress is removed. (think rubber rock under compression (break)
band)
deformation primarily
brittle: rock breaks at yield point occurs along plate
(strength of rock overcome)
lower T and P rock under compression
boundaries
(break)

ductile: rock “flows” at yield point

rock under compression
(no continuous break) (change in shape)
higher T and P rock under compression
(change in shape)

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES

Factors that affect deformation of rock “Bending” or “Breaking” of rocks yield different structures
• lithostatic pressure: is weight of overlying rock
(lithos = rock)

• heat: causes atomic bonds to weaken

--temperatures low at shallow depths (brittle)
--temperatures high at great depths (ductile)

• time: allows stress to be applied slowly or quickly

--initial stress may not be enough, but will be given enough time Bending: folds - Breaking: faults
(sagging bookshelves)
--stress applied quickly (snap stick) (brittle)
--stress applied slowly (bend stick) (ductile)

• composition: controls rock response to stress

--minerals, weaknesses in rock, fluids in pores, etc.

13
 02/09/2015

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES (FOLDS) GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES (FOLDS)

• Folds are wavelike bends in layered rock which represent ductile Folds occur at all scales from < mm to mountains
deformation formed during compression.
• Upward-arching folds are called anticlines, whereas downward-
arching folds are called synclines. To remember this, try associating
the word “anticline” with the letter, A, which sort of looks link an
upfold. On the other hand, “syncline” sort of reminds one of the
word, “sink”, which resembles a downfold. Here’s a sketch of an
anticline:

Fold divided into two limbs by its axial plane.

Hinge is where fold curves.

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES (FAULTS)

“Bending” or “Breaking” of rocks yield different structures Faults are brittle fractures (failure planes within a rock sequence) along which
movement has taken place. Faults are one of the most important rock structures in
petroleum geology as they are large fractures which control the distribution of rock
units within fields and provide both migration pathways and seals for fluids.

Bending: folds (already discussed) Breaking: faults (discuss now)

Fractures: cracks in rocks

Fault -- fracture along which movement has occurred. Considered active if motion has
occurred < 11,000 years recognize by juxtaposition of different types of rocks
or offset layers . Faults have noticeable movement across them.

14
 02/09/2015

TYPES OF FAULTS TYPES OF DIP-SLIP FAULTS

We use strike and dip to classify faults
Reverse fault
dip-slip fault with
motion of hanging wall
up the fault plane.

Normal fault
dip-slip fault with
motion of hanging wall
down the fault plane

dip-slip fault: slip parallel to dip (up or down plane)

strike-slip fault: slip parallel to strike (horizontal)

Normal vs. Reverse Faults: GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES (TRAPS)

Key Concepts
--locations where petroleum accumulates

Trap in anticline

motion of hanging wall down motion of hanging wall up gas and oil migrate
fault plane leads to fault plane leads to up through
omission of section, i.e. repetition of section, i.e. permeable layers
• younger layers over older • older layers over younger and are trapped by
(gray layer is missing along (gray layer is repeated along Impermeable units
yellow line). yellow line).
A borehole that penetrates a normal A borehole penetrates the
fault will find some beds missing or reservoir sandstone twice
cut-out near the fault plane. (along with some other beds).

15
 02/09/2015

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES - TRAPS

Eroded anticline will not serve as trap …no impermeable cap to trap oil or gas

SEDIMENTARY BASINS
• Sedimentary basins are (holes in the Earth’s surface into which sediments are
deposited) regions of the earth of long-term subsidence creating accommodation space
for infilling by sediments. The subsidence results from the thinning of underlying crust,
sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic loading, and changes in the thickness or density of
adjacent lithosphere. Sedimentary basins occur in diverse geological settings usually
associated with plate tectonic activity.

• Two basin-forming mechanisms are: stretching and flexing of the lithosphere.

• When lithosphere is stretched, it thins to form an extensional basin. Subsidence in these

basins occurs as a result of active stretching and thinning of the lithosphere.

• Flexing occurs when a large load (eg a mountain belt or overriding plate ) is imposed on
the lithosphere. The resultant flexural basins subside very rapidly and fill up with
sediment eroded from the nearby mountains or overriding.

• Both basin-forming mechanisms can occur in oceanic or continental lithosphere.

However the largest accumulations of sediment occur in continental basins. Most
hydrocarbon-bearing basins are of the extensional type.

16

BASIN FORMATION
Stretching Mechanism
Flexing Mechanism
DIAGENESIS
• Diagenesis encompasses the multitude of processes
(compaction, dissolution and dolomitisation) that may
occur in sediments after they have been deposited.
• Many of these processes result in the reduction of the
depositional (or primary) porosity and permeability of
the sediment.
02/09/2015
Depositional Environment
Various depositional environments seen travelling from the crest of
a mountain range across the edge of a continent to the adjacent
margin of a nearby ocean basin (Murck and Skinner, 1999)
DIAGENESIS
The term diagenesis refers to “the chemical and
mechanical changes that occur in sediments after they are
deposited.” Although most diagenetic changes degrade
reservoir quality, some diagenetic effects , such as
dissolution, may enhance reservoir quality.
As sediments are buried, the fluid and pressure systems of
the basin evolve and the temperature increases. Also,
ground water (meteoric) systems develop at the basin
flanks. Diagenesis occurs as minerals in the sedimentary
rock equilibrate to these new physical conditions and fluid
chemistry.
17

DIAGENESIS
COMPACTION
• Compaction of sand occurs in response to the pressure
caused by deposition of further layers of sediment.
During the process, the grains are packed more closely
and there is a reduction in porosity.
• Freshly deposited clay has a much higher porosity than
sand and also contains a good amount of water. This is
rapidly expelled so that compaction occurs soon after
burial.
• The water escapes up through the clay and any
overlying sediment, where it may have an important
role to play in the later cementation of rocks.
DIAGENESIS
CLAY MINERALS
• Clay minerals are deposited from suspension and so
may filter down into the fabric of sands after the large
grains have been deposited.
• They may also be precipitated in pore spaces during
diagenesis in which case they are known as authigenic
clay minerals. The presence of clay reduces the
porosity of the reservoir sands and may also lead to
clogging of pore throats.
• During production, clay minerals may be dislodged
from the pore throats by acid injection or other fluids
during secondary recovery operations.
02/09/2015
DIAGENESIS
CEMENTATION
• Cementation involves ions carried in groundwater
chemically precipitating to form new crystalline material
within sediment pores; this is how "sediment" becomes
"rock". The new pore-filling minerals form "bridges"
between original sediment grains, thereby binding them
together. So sand becomes "sandstone",
and gravel becomes "conglomerate". Cementation occurs
as part of the diagenesis of sediments.
• The cement is usually precipitated from the pore waters
expelled from interbedded or underlying clay sediments
during compaction. They are common processes in
sandstones and limestones.
• Carbonates of calcium, magnesium and iron are common
cements in sandstone.
DIAGENESIS
DISSOLUTION
• Limestones are very susceptible to chemical weathering
because they dissolve in rainwater that has been acidified
by atmospheric carbon dioxide. The chemical reaction that
takes place is:
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca2+ + 2HCO3
• The weathering of limestones is a major source of both
calcium and bicarbonate ions in river waters and
groundwaters, which explains why water in limestone
regions is “hard”. Calcium carbonate is re-deposited when
the water is boiled.
18
 02/09/2015

DIAGENESIS RESERVOIR FLUIDS

DOLOMITISATION
• Scientists do not agree on how oil and gas were originally
• Dolomitisation is an important diagenetic process which affects limestone. It formed. The most popular idea is called the organic theory.
involves replacement of calcite (CaCO3) crystals with dolomite [MgCa(CO3)2].
The source of the magnesium is usually an evaporite layer (any of a variety of
individual minerals found in the sedimentary deposit of soluble salts that
results from the evaporation of water).
• This supposes that these hydrocarbons were created from the
• Dolomitisation is important as it can increase porosity. Dolomite crystals are
remains of small plants and animals living mainly in the sea.
smaller than those of calcite, therefore a crystal-by-crystal replacement results Their remains would be covered up by other rock deposits
in an increase in porosity. washed down by the rivers, sealed from the air and over time
• If the process continues unabated, the rock can become completely dolomitised exposed to pressure and other changes.
with the original pore spaces filled with dolomite, resulting in a “tight” dolomite
with little or no porosity.
• The oil and gas formed by this process however did not usually
stay in the same place. A lot of sea water was trapped with the
plant and animal life and when petroleum was formed it tend
to float upwards through the water-filled pores of the rock,
Evaporites Deposit until it could no longer rise.

RESERVOIR FLUIDS RESERVOIR FLUIDS

• The place where petroleum was first formed is known as
the source rock.
• The process of moving from source rock to where it is
settled is called migration.
• The rock in which this petroleum comes to rest is called
the reservoir rock.

Activity:
Add about ¼ full of oil in a container of empty yoghurt. Fill
the container with coarse sand (free from mud and clay).
Pour some water into the container until free water is
visible at the surface. Leave overnight. What do you notice?

19

GENERATION OF PETROLEUM
• On burial and exposure to heat and pressure, the organic material
degrades into an intermediate substance known as kerogen (Kerogen is a
mixture of organic chemical compounds that make up a portion of the
organic matter in sedimentary rocks. It is insoluble in normal organic
solvents because of the high molecular weight of its component
compounds).
• The maturation of kerogen into crude oil and natural is achieved mainly by
an increase in temperature. Hence the formation of petroleum depends
on the depth of the burial and the geothermal gradient in the crust.
Maximum crude oil production is about 2700m and the peak for gas is at
about 3500m.
• Geothermal gradients vary from basin to basin. Source rocks that remain
at very shallow depths will not normally generate petroleum.
• Exposure to excessive heat by very deep burial favours the production of
gas only.
Hydrocarbon Generation, Migration,
and Accumulation
Petroleum system processes
02/09/2015
MIGRATION OF PETROLEUM
• Although the generation of petroleum in the source rocks is
fairly well understood, its migration into other rocks is not.
• The source rocks are mainly shales which are very fine-
grained and impermeable. So how can the generated
petroleum move out of the source rocks?
• When kerogen is subjected to maturation temperature,
methane is formed which then permits the primary
migration of the hydrocarbons. Having escaped out of the
source rocks, the petroleum appears to move with greater
freedom along joints and faults into a reservoir rock such as
sandstone.
STRUCTURE OF RESERVOIRS
• The migration of petroleum will continue until it
is stopped when it encounters a rock layer which
does not contain any pores or channels. This layer
is called an impervious rock or seal – not
permeable.
• The impervious rock layer or seal must be shaped
in a certain way, otherwise the petroleum would
fine its way round the edges and continue its
upward migration. The shape configuration forms
what is known as trap.
20
 02/09/2015

STRUCTURE OF RESERVOIRS HYDROCARBON PLAYS AND PROVINCES

• The set of geological circumstances necessary for the
accumulation of oil and gas is known as the hydrocarbon play. The
circumstances required for a hydrocarbon play are: Source rock,
Reservoir, Seal, Traps and Timing (40-60 million years ago after
the formation of the trap)

• As knowledge of a play is improved by exploration, quantitative

estimates of hydrocarbons likely to have been trapped can be
made in order to evaluate the likely success of exploration drilling.

• Areas in which circumstances favourable to hydrocarbon

generation and entrapment have occurred and in which many
different plays occur are termed hydrocarbon provinces eg North
Sea.

ROCK PROPERTIES

PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

21
 02/09/2015

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

22
 02/09/2015

RESERVOIR PORE SYSTEM RESERVOIR PORE SYSTEM

A physical description of the properties of the reservoir

rock is required to quantify the amount of fluid present in
a reservoir and to understand how fluids will flow through
the reservoir.

Three parameters that describe the properties of the pore

system are:

- Porosity
- Permeability
- Fluid Saturation
Pore-space of Sandstone Containing Fluids

RESERVOIR PORE SYSTEM POROSITY

• Rock consists of crystals or grains between which
For rock to contain petroleum and later allow petroleum to flow, it spaces or pores are left that are occupied by fluids.
must have certain physical characteristics. Obviously, there must be
• The pore space is of interest to PE as it is potentially
some spaces in the rock in which the petroleum can be stored. hydrocarbon-bearing.
• It is defined as the ratio of the amount of pore
If rock has openings, voids and spaces in which liquid and gas may space present in a volume of rock to the total
be stored, it is said to be porous. For a given volume of rock, the volume (pore space + rock matrix) of that rock.
ratio of the open space to the total volume of the rock is called
porosity, The porosity may be expressed a decimal fraction but is
most often expressed as a percentage. For example, if 100 cubic
feet of rock contains many tiny pores and spaces which together
have a volume of 10 cubic feet, the porosity of the rock is 10%.
• It is the fluid storage capacity of the rock

23
 02/09/2015

TYPES OF POROSITY
POROSITY
• Porosity cannot be expected to remain constant
over the extent of a particular porous formation.

• Differences in grain shape, angularity, packing,

degree of cementation will result in variable
porosity. Porosity is independent of grain size.

• Porosity variation may be determined from cores

or from electric, radiation or sonic log analysis.

TYPES OF POROSITY TYPES OF POROSITY

Absolute porosity
As the sediments were deposited and the rocks were
being formed during past geological times, some void The absolute porosity is defined as the ratio of the total pore space in the
spaces that developed became isolated from the other rock to that of the bulk volume. A rock may have considerable absolute
void spaces by excessive cementation. porosity and yet have no conductivity to fluid for lack of pore
interconnection. The absolute porosity is generally expressed
mathematically by the following relationships:
Thus, many of the void spaces are interconnected while
some of the pore spaces are completely isolated. This
leads to two distinct types of porosity, namely:
or

• Absolute porosity

• Effective porosity
where fa = absolute porosity.

Absolute porosity is also known as Total porosity

24
 02/09/2015

TYPES OF POROSITY POROSITY AND COMPACTION

Effective porosity

The effective porosity is the percentage of interconnected

pore space with respect to the bulk volume, or

where f = effective porosity.

POROSITY AND COMPACTION POROSITY AND COMPACTION

• Porosity depends on how the grains are packed
together. The cubic packing of uniform size grains
has higher porosity (48%) than the rhombohedral
packing of uniform size grains (26%). To calculate
the porosity of cubic packing.
Bulk Volume (BV) = L3
Matrix Volume (MV) = No of Spheres x Sphere Volume
• Compaction of a sand occurs in response to the
pressure caused by deposition of further layer
of sediment.
• During this process, the grains are packed more
closely and there is a reduction in porosity.
• Porosity may be reduced from an initial value
of 30-40% in a freshly deposited sand to 20-
30% after compaction or by the presence of
some other material in the pore space like
calcite cement or clay minerals.

25
 02/09/2015

POROSITY AND COMPACTION • This is because certain processes have helped

to reduce porosity eg:
Porosity is dependent on: • Chemical Processes
Cementation
• Grain shape Recrystallisation
• Grain packing • Mechanical Processes
• Grain sorting Overburden
• Overburden and Compaction Compaction
• Cementation • Combination of both Chemical & Mechanical
• Clay Content processes.

POROSITY RANGE PERMEABILITY

• A rock field appraisal of porosity is as follows: This is a measure of the ease with which a fluid can flow through a rock.

or
0–5 Negligible
5 – 10 Poor
10 – 15 Fair Q = flow rate
15 – 20 Good K = Permeability
A = Cross—sectional area
20 – 30 Very good ΔP = Pressure drop from P1 to P2
L = Length of the core
µ = Viscosity

26
 02/09/2015

PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a property of the porous medium that measures the where n = apparent fluid flowing velocity, cm/sec
capacity and ability of the formation to transmit fluids. The rock
k = proportionality constant, or permeability, Darcys
permeability, k, is a very important rock property because it controls the
m = viscosity of the flowing fluid, cp
directional movement and the flow rate of the reservoir fluids in the
formation. This rock characterization was first defined mathematically dp/dL = pressure drop per unit length, atm/cm
by Henry Darcy in 1856. In fact, the equation that defines permeability
in terms of measurable quantities is called Darcy’s Law. The apparent velocity determined by dividing the flow rate by
the cross-sectional area across which fluid is flowing.
Substituting the relationship, q/A, in place of n in above Equation
and solving for q results in
Darcy developed a fluid flow equation that has since become one of
the standard mathematical tools of the petroleum engineer. If a
horizontal linear flow of an incompressible fluid is established through a
core sample of length L and a cross-section of area A, then the
governing fluidflow equation is defined as: where q = flow rate through the porous medium, cm3/sec
A = cross-sectional area across which flow occurs, cm 2

One Darcy is a relatively high permeability as the permeabilities of

most reservoir rocks are less than one Darcy. In order to avoid the use
APPLICATION OF PERMEABILITY
of fractions in describing permeabilities, the term millidarcy is used. As
the term indicates, one millidarcy, i.e., 1 md, is equal to one-thousandth
of one Darcy or,
Linear flow model
1 Darcy = 1000 md

The negative sign in Equation is necessary as the pressure increases in

one direction while the length increases in the opposite direction.

Integrate the above equation

27
 02/09/2015

PERMEABILITY PERMEABILITY
• Assumptions:
The flow must be laminar and horizontal
No reaction between fluid and rock
There must be presence of ONE fluid phase at
100% saturation.

• These assumptions are not obtained in nature. It is

rear to find one hydrocarbon phase in a formation:
We have gas/water; oil/water; oil/gas/water.

• Hence in such multiphase case different types of

permeability were defined.

UNIT OF PERMEABILITY

28
 02/09/2015

MEASUREMENTS OF PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS OF PERMEABILITY

DARCY, OHM & FOURIER’S LAWS DARCY, OHM & FOURIER’S LAWS

29
 02/09/2015

FLUID SATURATIONS FLUID SATURATIONS

If the formation contains oil, water and free gas,

then:
So + Sw + Sg = 1

FLUID SATURATIONS COMPRESSIBILITY OF POROUS MEDIA

• Hydrocarbon saturation in a reservoir is related to
pores sizes as well as capillary pressure and capillary
forces.
• For oil to accumulate in a hydrocarbon trap and form
a reservoir, the surface tension between water and
oil must be exceeded. This means that the pressure
in the oil phase must be greater than the pressure in
the water phase.
• If the pressure in the oil is slightly greater than that
in the water phase, the radius of curvature will be
large and the oil will enter only large pores.
• As the pressure in the oil phase increases the radius
of curvature decreases and oil can enter smaller
pores.

30
 02/09/2015

COMPRESSIBILITY OF POROUS MEDIA SURFACE TENSION AND WETTABILITY

• When two immiscible fluids of different density are
poured into a tank, the lighter fluid will float on top of
the heavier fluid and a sharp interface will exist between
the two fluids.
• If a narrow capillary tube is inserted through the
interface, the fluid contact inside the tube will establish
itself at a different level than that outside the tube.
• This is caused by the interactions between the molecules
of the two fluids and between the fluids and the solid –
capillary effect.
• Capillary effect plays an important role in the way fluids
distribute themselves in the reservoir, where the glass
tube is replaced by countless narrow pores.

SURFACE TENSION AND WETTABILITY SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION

The capillary effect in the smaller pores (tubes) is stronger and therefore a
progressively greater pressure differential must be applied in order to make oil
enter the smaller pores.
In the lab, we can measure the amount of water displaced from the core sample as
a function of differential pressure that is applied via the oil phase.

31

SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION
Drop of Water Surrounded by Air
• Consider a drop of water surrounded by air. The water
molecules at the surface experience a relatively stronger
inward attraction to the water molecules inside the drop and
a relatively weak attraction to the air molecule outside it.
SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION
• The magnitude of the pressure difference
depends on the magnitude of the net inward
force at the surface of the drop and is
therefore proportional to the surface tension
of the two fluid system. The pressure
difference also depends on the radius of the
drop. The net effect can be expressed as
follows:
02/09/2015
SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION
This imbalance in forces acting on the molecules at the surface
causes the drop to contract to a geometry in which the surface
area of the drop is minimised. Any attempt to change the shape of
the drop will meet resistance.
This resistance is described by the surface tension of the two
fluids.
CONTACT ANGLE AND WETTABILITY
• Wettability describes the behaviour at the
contact between two fluids and a solid eg air,
water and glass.
• A contact angle (θ) will form at any point where
the two fluids and the solid meet.
• This contact angle is a property of the system
and depends on the molecular interactions
within and between the two fluids and the solid.
32
 02/09/2015

CONTACT ANGLE AND WETTABILITY CONTACT ANGLE AND WETTABILITY

If cohesive forces are greater than adhesive forces (θ >

90o), the liquid is said to be non wetting.

If adhesive forces are greater than cohesive forces (θ <

90o), the liquid is said to be the wetting phase.
A fluid that is non-wetting in one system may be wetting
in another system.

CAPILLARY EFFECT CAPILLARY EFFECT

• The capillary effect is a combined result of the

influence of surface tension and wettability. In a
glass tube passing through the interface in an oil-
water system, we can measure the contact angle
between the inner wall of the glass tube and the Capillary Effect in a Glass Tube
oil-water interface.
• The oil-water interface in the glass tube will be • Surface tension causes a pressure differential across the curved
curved, with the radius of curvature given by: interface between the two fluids. This is called the capillary
pressure, and denoted by the symbol Pc.

33
 02/09/2015

CAPILLARY EFFECT CAPILLARY EFFECT

• We can therefore relate the hydrostatic pressure
• To balance the surface tension effect, the fluid differential to the capillary pressure as follows:
pressure on the concave side of the interface will
be higher than that on the convex side. ΔP = hg(ρw – ρo) = Pc
• The pressure in the water at any depth is Where h = height of the rise in water in the capillary tube
described by the hydrostatic pressure equation. g = gravitational constant

• The pressure in the oil and water at the flat ρ = fluid density

interface outside the glass tube must be equal

• The height to which the water rises as a result of the
but the pressure in the water at the curved capillary effect can be calculated by:
interface inside the capillary tube will be lower
than the pressure in the oil at the same point.

CAPILLARY EFFECT
CAPILLARY EFFECT

• The above expression indicates that for a As the capillary pressure

given fluid-fluid-solid system (ie for a given σ increases linearly with
and θ), the height of the capillary rise is reservoir height, there
will be a corresponding
inversely proportional to the radius of the increase in oil saturation.
capillary tube and to the density difference
between the fluids.
A) Only the largest pores contain oil at the base of the reservoir.
B) Smaller pores are filled with oil as capillary pressure and reservoir
height increase.
C) Smallest pores are filled with oil toward the top of the reservoir

34

In nature, the pressure differential (capillary pressure) is produced by the difference
in density between water and oil.
At the zero capillary pressure level (zcp), the reservoir pressure is equal to the
pressure in the water. Above the zcp level, the pressure in the water phase and oil
phase will be reduced by the height above the zcp times their densities.
Pressure in water phase = Pw = Pzcp – Hgρw
Pressure in oil phase = Po = Pzcp – Hgρo
At any height in the oil column, the pressure difference between the oil phase and
the water phase (capillary pressure) is the difference between the specific gravity of
the two fluids multiplied by the height of the oil column.
Po - Pw = Hg(ρw - ρo)
CAPILLARY EFFECT
• Most sediments are saturated with water when
they are deposited. Traps are formed by
impermeable cap rock and deformation of the
sediments by movements in the Earth’s crust.
Fluid Distributions in water bearing and oil bearing Reservoirs
02/09/2015
CAPILLARY EFFECT
• Consider the pressure distribution outside the three
capillary tubes. Starting at the oil water interface, the
pressure will increase as we go down into the water as
described by the hydrostatic pressure equation.
• Going up from the oil-water interface, the same
expression applies for the pressure in the oil at any
given point.
• The interface of the oil and the water is called the FREE
WATER LEVEL.
• In general, if fluids are confined in narrow spaces
where capillary effects will play a role, the oil water
contact will be higher than the free water level. This is
also true for a reservoir.
CAPILLARY EFFECT
• Hydrocarbons form in source rock migrate into the
traps to form accumulations.
• The migrating hydrocarbons will move through the
upper part of the reservoir rock just below the cap
rock and fill the trap from the top down.
• This process is called drainage – the non-wetting
phase (oil) is pushing or draining the wetting phase
(water) out of the system. The opposite which may
occur when water from aquifer re-enters the
reservoir during oil production is called imbibition.
• The pressure distribution will be similar to that in
the capillaries.
• The oil water contact is at different elevations in the
capillaries of different sizes.
35
 02/09/2015

INTRODUCTION
• Knowing that a petroleum reservoir could be
contained within a sedimentary basin which
may be hundreds of miles across is not much
help to an oil company. They want to know
EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES where to drill the first well – precisely.
• Therefore, we require other techniques which
will pinpoint more accurately the most
favourable location for drilling.
• The techniques must be suitable for land and
water locations.

DEFINITION AND CONCEPT GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF SURVEY

Geophysical investigations that seek to reveal the

Geophysics is concerned with the application of
make-up of the whole earth including its internal
physical principles to the study of the Earth.
structure are generally of large regional scale
while the ones that seek to reveal the natural
The objective is to determine the structure and
resources for man’s exploitation and use are
property of rocks within the earth by quantitative
comparatively small scale. The latter is usually
measurements of physical properties at the
referred to as Exploration or Applied Geophysics
surface.
or Geophysical prospecting.

36

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH
Incidentally, in all the depths of the Earth, all exploration
activities for natural resources take place within just about
the first 10km of the crust. Natural resources where they
occur are formed through various geologic processes many
of which are exclusive. In other words, resources such as
coal or hydrocarbons do not form during processes that
can form minerals such as Olivines, Quartz etc.
While volcanic activities give rise to the formation of the
above minerals, sedimentation, diagenesis and time give
rise to the formation of coal and hydrocarbons.
02/09/2015
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH
The analysis of seismological data recorded from
earthquake waves, shows that the Earth is internally
made up of 3 principal regions CRUST, MANTLE and
CORE.
This study is usually referred to as Earthquake
seismology. The recording and analysis of resulting
seismic waves from earthquakes (especially since the
1906 San Francisco Earthquake) show a whole range
of variations of the physical properties of the rocks of
the Earth with depth, wave velocities, density,
pressure and temperature.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH
Therefore distribution of natural resources is not
arbitrary but well organised and structured. All
successful applications of geophysical investigations
for subsurface resources must then take into account
the regional and/or local geologic setting.
Exploration for coal or hydrocarbons should take
place within sedimentary basins while the search for
Olivines, Felspar, Quartz etc should be concentrated
in basement regions.
37

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF SURVEY
These surface methods provide areal coverage and
are in general cheaper than drilling wells. However
DRILLING a well is the surest way to evaluate the
formation.
The method applied most today is the reflection
seismic method.
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF SURVEY
02/09/2015
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF SURVEY
Of the geophysical data acquired worldwide, more than
95% are acquired for the petroleum industry where it is
particularly useful for finding geological structures within
the earth that trap hydrocarbons.
The total expenditure is in the order of 3 – 4 billion US$ per
year.
Seismic – 98%
Gravity, Magnetic and other methods - 2%
Seismic surveys allow an “X–ray” picture of the earth’s
subsurface to be interpreted from the collected data.
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF SURVEY
There is a broad spectrum of geophysical methods of survey
presently in use for the study of the earth. However
differences exist in the scale of instrumentation and logistics
for the various objectives of study.
The various geophysical exploration methods available
include:
• Seismics (reflection and refraction)
• Gravity
• Magnetics
• Electrical and Electromagnetics
• Radiometrics
• Well Logging
38
 02/09/2015

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF SURVEY GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF SURVEY

• For each of the geophysical methods and
There are two categories of geophysical techniques in current use, there is an operative
techniques classified in terms of the nature of physical property to which the method is
their source fields: sensitive.
a.Those that make used of the natural fields • This involves the recognition of a parameter-
such as earthquakes, gravity, magnetics and contrast in a measured parameter/physical
radiometrics. property relative to a background value.
b.Those that utilise artificially generated • These parameter contrasts are termed
energy fields such as seismic, electrical and geophysical anomalies and they are indications
of the presence or absence of zones of economic
electromagnetics.
or general interest.

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF SURVEY GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF SURVEY

Method Parameter Measured Main Applications
Contrast Parameter
Seismic •Propagation Travel time of •Exploration for hydrocarbons
velocity of seismic reflected / •Geologic structures
waves refracted •Ground water
•Density seismic waves
•Elasticity
Electromagnetic •Electrical Response to •Exploration for metalliferous
conductivity electromagnetic mineral deposits
•Magnetic radiation
induction
Radiometric Radioactivity Radioactive •Exploration for Radioactive
emissions rate materials.
•Determination of Radioactive
levels

39
 02/09/2015

The Gravity Method The Gravity Method

• Gravity and magnetic methods are very much related in
principles and theoretical backgrounds and are usually
referred to as potential methods. Both derive their sources
from natural potential fields (earth’s gravity and magnetic
fields).
• An underlying concept is the idea of a causative body
which is a rock unit having either different density or
different magnetisable property from its surroundings.
• The earth’s gravitational field as felt or measured at the
surface of the earth is of some general average value
usually indicated by the acceleration it produces or
generates from materials which is approximately 9.8m/s2.
Since gravity field is indicated by acceleration, gravity
measurements are done by measuring the
acceleration due to gravity on a unit mass on the
surface of the earth or at any point where
measurement is desirable.
The principle underlying geophysical method is in
contrasts or variations or anomalies and as such,
measurements are usually made of the VARIATIONS in
acceleration due to gravity (∆g) which is an indicative
response of density contrasts of underlying rocks.

The Gravity Method

The Gravity Method
The gravity method measures small variation
(10-6g) of the earth’s gravity field caused by
density variations in geological structures. The
sensing element is a sophisticated spring
balance. Variations in the earth’s gravity field
cause changes in the length of the spring
which are measured in mgal.

40
 02/09/2015

The Theory of Gravitation The Theory of Gravitation

From the two equations:

And

This gives the value of g at all point on the Earth surface.

The Theory of Gravitation The Theory of Gravitation

The general relationship between gravity and the Earth’s average
density ρ assuming Earth is a perfect sphere is given by: Density of the Earth ≈ 5520 Kg/m3.

This value is much greater than the densities of

rocks.

The acceleration due to gravity is not the same at all

Hence if g R and G are known or measured, the Earth’s average
density can be calculated.
points on the Earth’s surface. Hence there are points
on the earth where there are excess mass and
density and other points where are deficit mass and
density

41
 02/09/2015

The Theory of Gravitation

The Magnetic Method
In magnetics, the Earth’s total magnetic field is measured at positions along the
earth’s surface. The variation of the earth’s total magnetic field laterally along
points of measurement indicates the magnetic susceptibility contrasts of
underlying rocks.

From the analysis of the measurements obtained as discussed above, the depths of
burial, the dimensions and orientation (dips) of the causative bodies are
calculated.

The inferred parameters from both methods are the geologic interpretations of the
calculated parameters from which the following can be obtained:

• (1) Mineral deposits (high or low density)

• (2) Magnetic ore deposits (high susceptibility)
• (3) Geologic structures associated with oil and gas
• (4) Buried channels or intrusives

The Magnetic Method The Radiometric Method

The Magnetic method detects changes in the
earth’s magnetic field caused by variation in the
magnetic properties of rocks. Igneous rocks are
relatively highly magnetic which gives rise to
anomalies in the earth’s magnetic field. A sensor
can be towed by a low-flying aircraft, which permits
rapid surveying and mapping. As with gravity
surveys, this low cost survey technique is often
employed at the beginning of a new venture.
The demand for Nuclear fuels has sustained the quest and
demand for naturally occurring radioactive elements
especially Uranium (U238), Thorium (Th232), and
Potassium (K40). Some other radioactive elements have
very weak emissions.
Uranium and Thorium are the main sources of nuclear
energy and reactors and are not as abundant as potassium.
The main principle of radiometric is that certain naturally
occurring elements have the ability to naturally emit
particles and rays such that they transform to different
forms of the same element. These elements emit alpha and
beta particles and gamma rays.

42

The Radiometric Method
The contrasting physical property is then the presence or
absence of such elements or rocks associated with them. The
measured parameters here are the radioactive emissions.
Counts are taken for the number of emissions per unit time
characteristic of U238, Th232 and K40.
Their relative abundance in terms of ratios are obtained and
used to infer (interpret) the availability of rocks associated
with radioactive elements or the elements directly, and their
depths of burial from the surface. Measurement of
detectable radon gas also indicates presence of U238 as
radon gas is one of its daughter nuclei and as a noble gas
moves around intact for the period of its half-life.
The Seismic Method
These records showed waves that had propagated
deep into the earth and had been reflected and/or
refracted back to the surface from seismic/acoustic
interfaces of the subsurface.
By the extension of these earthquake studies, the
techniques of refraction and reflection seismology
using artificial seismic sources were carried out
about 1915 by Minthrop.
02/09/2015
The Seismic Method
The origin of seismic methods dates back to the early 1900s
when instrumentation was designed to detect wave signals
propagating through the earth arising from earthquakes.
These waves propagated outwards from the focus (source) of
the earthquakes and were detected and recorded by
instruments on the surface of the earth.
The study and analysis of the recorded signals resulted in the
resolution of the source/focus and the magnitude of the
earthquake. More importantly the nature of the internal
structure of the earth’s subsurface was well known from
more detailed analysis of the form of the recorded waves
and their travelled ray trajectories.
The Seismic Method
Seismic surveying has since been and still is the single
most utilised geophysical surveying method in the
search for oil and gas and also in hydrogeological and
geotechnical problems.
As discussed earlier, seismic waves are generated and
they propagate through the earth and get detected and
recorded usually on the surface of the earth, We shall
then discuss the types of seismic waves, their mode of
propagation and the various seismic sources used for
their generation.
43

The Seismic Method
Seismic waves are elastic waves that travel within the Earth; i.e.
they spread out from a source by elastic deformation of the rocks
through which they travel. This propagation depends on elastic
properties that are described by the relationships between stress
and strain .
The linear relationship between stress and strain in the elastic
range is specified for any material by its various elastic moduli
(Young’s, bulk, shear and axial), each of which expresses the ratio
of a particular type of stress to the resultant strain, Seismic wave
velocities are determined by the type of seismic wave and by
elastic modulus and the density of the rocks they travel through.
There are two groups of seismic waves: surface waves and body
waves.
SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD
02/09/2015
The Seismic Method
Surface waves travel along the boundary between different
materials, most noticeably at the surface of the Earth (the boundary
between the solid Earth and the atmosphere) and the outermost
parts of the crust because they require a free surface to ripple in
order to exist. Their speed is slightly less than that of shear waves
(body wave) and hence they are the last seismic waves to arrive at a
recording station.
The surface disturbance produced by surface waves is termed ground
roll. Two types of surface waves are recognised:
• In Rayleigh waves, the ground vibrates in a rolling, elliptical
motion that dies down with depth beneath the surface.
• In Love waves, the ground shakes sideways with no vertical
motion.
The Seismic Method
Body waves as their name implies, propagate through
the Body of the Earth and move radially away from the
energy source. There are two main types:
• Compressional waves (also known as longitudinal,
primary, or P-waves) propagate by compressional
and dilatational unaxial strains in the direction of
wave travel. Particle motion associated with the
passage of a compressional wave involves oscillation
about a fixed point in the same direction of wave
propagation.
44
 02/09/2015

The Seismic Method The Seismic Method

• Shear waves (also known as transverse,

secondary, or S-waves) propagate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.
Particle motions involve oscillation about a fixed-
point at right angles to the direction of wave
propagation. Unlike compressional waves, shear
waves cannot travel through liquids or gases
(fluids).

The Seismic Method REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF

WAVEPATHS

AI = Density x Velocity

Where : AI = Acoustic Impedance

45
 02/09/2015

The Seismic Method The Seismic Method

The velocity of propagation of a body wave in any material is given by the equation :
The reflective capability is indicated by the
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 reflection coefficient given by:
𝑣=
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

Theoretically, the velocity of a P-wave in a rock, vp, can be calculated from the
RC = (ρ2V2 - ρ1V1) / (ρ2V2 + ρ1V1)
equation:
4
𝑣𝑝 =
Ψ
=
𝑘 + 3𝜇 where
ρ 𝜌
RC = reflection coefficient
where
Ψ= axial modulus
2 = reflecting interface layer
k = bulk modulus 1 = overlying layer
𝜇= shear modulus
ρ= density of the rock

The Seismic Method Seismic Methods

The three phases of the seismic method are:

• Data acquisition
• Processing
• Interpretation

Data Acquisition
There are three components in all acquisition
system
• Source
• Receivers
• Recording Instrument

46
 02/09/2015

SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD

SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD Generation of Seismic Waves

Any boundary between rock layers with different properties can constitute a
seismic reflector. Due to a difference in the properties at this boundary, part
of the energy is transmitted back to the surface where it is detected by a
“receiver”.

47
 02/09/2015

Seismic Wave Detectors (Seismometres) GEOPHONES

GEOPHONES Explosives

48
 02/09/2015

Non-Explosives
Explosives

Vibroseis

HYDROPHONES HYDROPHONES

49
 02/09/2015

HYDROPHONES HYDROPHONES

Air-Gun IMAGE PROCESSING

50
 02/09/2015

Seismic Interpretation Seismic Interpretation

Compare the sample interval with the geological and petrophysical
logs
Interpretation tries to assess the geological
significance of the geophysical data by:

• Recognising depositional sequences

• Time to depth conversion
• Identifying reflectors seen in wells

Formation Evaluation
• Formation evaluation is a broad topic
encompassing numerous technologies that span
various disciplines and practices.
FORMATION EVALUATION
• A formation is everything underneath the earth
surface.

• Formation evaluation is the process of using

borehole measurements to evaluate the
characteristics of subsurface formations.

51

Objectives of Formation Evaluation
• The objectives of Formation Evaluation are:
 Reservoir identification
 Estimation of hydrocarbon in place
 Estimation of recoverable hydrocarbon
Core Analysis
• Touch and do experiments in the laboratory to
determine parameters (ф, K, Sw)
Disadvantages:
Different conditions underground and on the surface
(P, T).
Only a piece of rock cut off ( not representative
enough)
02/09/2015
Well Logging and Core Analysis
• Measurement of certain rock properties directly, while
instruments are lowered into a borehole.
• The detailed analysis is of a carefully chosen suite of wireline
service provides a method of deriving or inferring accurate values
of the hydrocarbon, water saturation, porosity and permeability
of the reservoir rock.
• Advantage:
Parameters are determined in-situ (ф, Sw , K, h)
• Disadvantage:
Very shallow radius of investigation ( we will not see too far into the
formation.)
WELL LOGGING METHODS
52

WELL- LOGGING METHODS
Well logging is also known as borehole logging. It is used in
Formation Evaluation (FE).
• It is the practice of making a detailed record (a well log)
of the geologic formations penetrated by a borehole.
• The log may be based either on visual inspection of
samples brought to the surface (geological logs) or on
physical measurements made by instruments lowered
into the hole (geophysical log).
• Well logging is done when drilling boreholes for oil and
gas. It is performed at various intervals during the
drilling of the well and when the total depth is drilled
which could range from 300 m to 8000 m (1000 ft to
25,000 ft) or more.
Types of Logs
Electric and Radioactivity Logs
Electric Log
Electric logs are used to measure the resistivity of a formation.
The resistivity of a formation is a key parameter in determining
hydrocarbon saturation. Electricity can pass through a formation
because of the conductive water it contains.
Formation resistivities are measured by either sending electric
current into the formation and measuring the ease of the current
flow through it or by inducing an electric current into the
formation and measuring how large it is.
02/09/2015
TYPES OF LOG
• Electric logs (only in open holes) - measure resistivity,
conductivity.
• Sonic logs – measure travel time of sound over fixed
distances measured in uncased holes.
• Nuclear logs (cased holes) – the formation is bombarded
with electrons emitted by some radioactive elements and
the response is observed.
• Porosity logs – NL, DL and sonic logs to determine porosity.
The first two have deeper investigation depths affected by
lithology, fluid, shalines.
• Resistivity logs – Latero, SFL, Microlatero to measure the
resistance of flush zone (Rxo). Resistivity log differentiates
water bearing intervals from hydrocarbon bearing
intervals.
Types of Logs
• The factors that affect formation resistivity are:
 Hole conditions
 Formation characteristics
1.Borehole effect:
the resistance of the borehole is usually less than that of the
formation of interest. Considerable current distortion can occur.
The magnitude of the borehole effect is a function of the size of
the borehole and the relative resistivity between the mud and
formation.
2.Invaded zone:
Influence of the invaded zone is a function of the depth of
invasion and its resistivity. If invasion is deep, most of the
response is from the invaded zone.
53
 02/09/2015

Types of Logs INTRODUCTION

3.Formation thickness
Spacing of the tool controls the vertical resolution of the device. As the
spacing is increased to obtain deeper investigation, the bed thickness must
be greater in order to obtain a response representative of the formation of
interest.
4.Influence of surrounding beds
The influence of surrounding beds depends upon their resistivity relative to
the resistivity of the formation of interest. When the resistivity contract is
high, the current flow is highly distorted and the apparent resistivity
recorded by the tool must be corrected.
Radioactivity Log
Radioactivity log can be run in both open or cased hole. It is extremely
useful for delineation of porous formation and determination of porosity
and to distinguish between clean and shaly bed.
• Logs are obtained by lowering a sonde or tool attached
to a cable or wire to the bottom of a wellbore filles with
drilling mud.
• Electrical, nuclear or acoustic energy is sent into the
rock and return to the sonde or are obtained from the
rock and measured as the sonde is continuously raised
from the wellbore bottom at a specific rate.
• The well is logged when the sonde arrives at the top of
the interval to be investigated.
• Formation water saturation, porosity, permeability,
radioactivity and resistivity are rock properties that
affects logging and the types of logs to be obtained.

INTRODUCTION Why Run Logs

• Electric line is the common term for the armored, insulated cable used to
conduct current to downhole tools used for well logging.
• Logging is done in both open hole and cased hole.
• Open hole operations or reservoir evaluation, involves the deployment of
tools into a freshly drilled well. As the toolstring traverses the wellbore, the
individual tools gather information about the surrounding formations. A
typical open hole log will have information about the density, porosity,
permeability, lithology, presence of hydrocarbons and oil and water
saturation.
• Cased hole operations or production optimisation, focuses on the
optimisation of the completed oil well through mechanical services and
logging technologies. A typical cased hole log may show cement quality,
production information and formation data.

54

VUGS
Vugs are defined as non-connected
pore space.
• They do not contribute to the
producible fluid total.
• Vugs are caused by the
dissolution of soluble material such
as shell fragments after the rock
has been formed.
• They usually have irregular
shapes.
Mud Logging
Its aim is to ensure the well site geological monitoring, the
behaviour of the weII, while also maintaining the desired
drilling conditions. Mud Iogging is carried out during the
entire drilling of the hole and the information is:
- Recorded from sensors positioned on the rig
or
- Recorded by physical analysis of the cutting coming out of
the hole inside the mud.
The Mud Logging Record covers the whole geological study of
the well by analysis of the cutting as well as the complete
drilling parameters for each drilling phase.
02/09/2015
INTRODUCTION
As soon as an oil target has been defined by geological and geophysical studies
a well positioning analysis is performed to optimize chance of oil encountering
and drilling can begin.
The measurements in boreholes correspond to a set of techniques whose
purpose is to obtain local information on the formations being drilled, the fluids
that they contain and the state of the well; this information can confirm or not
the surface studies. The direct information (cuttings, cores, fluid samples) is
always insufficient, so it needs to be supplemented by a whole series of
downhole operations called logging, a term including all the various methods
used for carrying out measurements in a borehole. The logging operations are
regrouped in three categories:
1) Mud Logging
2) Wireline Logging
3) MWD/LWD – Measurement While Drilling & Logging While Drilling
WeII Logging (Wireline logging)
These are measurements of physical parameters (electrical,
acoustic, nuclear etc.) carried out periodically during the halt
phases in the drilling, (usually after the completion of a drilling
phase) after the drill pipe string has been pulled out.
The measuring equipment is incorporated inside sondes that are
lowered in the hole by means of an electrical cable.
The information measured by the logging equipment is sent to
the surface computer through the electrical cable and is recorded
in “real time” which means that no time delay exist between the
measurement inside the hole and the interpretation of the data
by the computer.
Since the logging equipment is lowered inside the hole by a cable,
this technique cannot be executed when the angle of hole
deviation exceed 75 °
55
 02/09/2015

Measurement/Logging While Drilling Mud Logging

(MWD- LWD)
Both of these types of measurements are carried out during
drilling, and yield information obtained via sensors placed on
the drill pipe string, above the drilling bit.
Mud logging involves measurements that are done while the drilling operation
is in progress. It is done from the beginning of the drilling (spudding) to the end
of the drilling of the last phase
It includes:

This measured information can relate to the drilling
conditions and is then called Measurement While Drilling
(MWD) or can be related to the petrophysical parameters of
the formations being drilled and is than called Logging While
Drilling (LWD).
In highly deviated wells and in horizontal wells LWD is often
the logging technique used to acquire formation parameters.
• Drilling parameters: Parameters needed to optimize the drilling operation
(weight on bit, rate of penetration, rotational speed and drilling fluid
pumping rate).
• Operational variables: Parameters that monitor the good progress of the
drilling operation (rotary table torque, mud pump, discharge pressure, drill
string depth, flow of the return mud and levels in mud tanks, mud properties
(inlet and outlet))
• Geological variables: Parameters and properties associated with the
geological formations that are drilled (cuttings composition, dissolved gas
composition)

Mud Logging Mud Logging

OBJECTIVES OF MUD LOGGING

 DRILLING
- Drilling operation follow up
- Drilling optimization

 WELL SAFETY
- Gas detection
- Formation Pressure

 GEOLOGICAL MONITORING
- Determination of rock drilled
- Analysis of HC

 ARCHIVES
- Final Report

56
 02/09/2015

Mud Logging Wireline Logging Introduction

Wireline Well Logging began in 1927 when the Schlumberger brothers
(Marcel and Conrad) carried out the first resistivity measurement in a
drilled well at the Pechelbronn field in France.
Since this first resistivity measurement the techniques of wireline
logging have continuously improved both in technology and in new
concepts.
The need for reducing risk in oil filed development has been the drive
for logging companies to develop equipment capable of precisely analyse
reservoir characteristics in order to estimate the volume of oil in place
with the best possible accuracy.
Now days the Wireline logging companies (Schlumberger, Halliburton,
Baker Atlas) are all major oil industry services providers capable of
making huge profits. The wireline logging techniques use the latest
available technology and wireline logging cost can be as high as 10% of
the cost of the whole well.

Wireline Logging Unit Wireline Logging Unit

Acquisition & Processing

Computers

Control & Power Units

Depth
Measurement
Units

Data Transmission Unit Conductor Cable

57
 02/09/2015

Wireline Logging Tools Wireline Logging Tools

SONIC BHC
Sonde
• The logging tools have a
diameter ranging from 3.5 to
Caliper
5 inches and their lengths vary
from 30 feet to 100 feet
SONIC DSI
Sonde
Centralizer Pad
• They are run inside the well Tool
either centralized (in the Back-up arm
Electronic
Cartridge middle of the borehole or
decentralized (against the wall
of the borehole)
Stand-off Pad

• Some tools which have

imperatively to be
decentralized are
incorporated inside “Pad” .

Wireline Logging Tools Wireline Logging Tools

58
 02/09/2015

DEPTH OF INVESTIGATION OF
LOGGING TOOLS

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL

(SP)

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL

The spontaneous potential (SP) log was one of
the earliest electric logs used in the petroleum
industry, and has continued to play a significant
role in well log interpretation.
By far the largest number of wells today have
this type of log included in their log suites.
Primarily the spontaneous potential log is used to
identify impermeable zones such as shale, and
permeable zones such as sand.
SP results from electric currents flowing in the
drilling mud.
There are three sources of the currents, two
electrochemical and one electrokinetic.
• Membrane potential -largest.
• Liquid -junction potential.
• Streaming potential -smallest.

59

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
• The SSP is the quantity to be
determined.
• It is the deflection seen on the
SP from the Shale Base Line
(zero point) to the Sand Line
(max. deflection)
• MAIN APPLICATIONS
–Detection of permeable
layers
–Determination of bed
boundaries
–Evaluation of Rw
–Estimation of shale
content in reservoirs.
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
• The SP deflection is measured with respect to the
shale base line. A reference line which can
generally be traced along the extreme positive side
of the SP curve.
• Usually the shale line is a straight vertical line.
• The resistivity of the fluid in the wellbore will have
a relationship to the resistivity of the fluids in the
formation. It is this relationship that causes the SP
curve to deflect.
02/09/2015
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
• The SP curve is a graph that shows the electric
potential or voltage that underground formation
generate.
• The measurement is made in uncased hole
containing water base fluid between an
electrode on the sonde in the borehole and the
reference electrode at the surface.
• It will show peaks to the left opposite permeable
zone. However, there is no definite
correspondence between the amplitudes if the
lines and how porous or permeable the rocks are.
238
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
amf and aw are the chemical activity of the mud filtrate and of the formation
water.
K is a coefficient which depends on temperature and on the nature of the
dissolved ions.
The chemical activity is roughly proportional to the salt concentration.
60
 02/09/2015

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL

• Electric currents
arising primarily from
electrochemical
factors within the
borehole create the SP
log response.

• These electrochemical
factors are brought This potential is usually very small compare to the membrane
about by differences potential.
in salinities between
mud filtrate (Rmf) and
formation water The chemical activities amf and aw are related to the resistivity of the
resistivity (Rw) within 241 mud (Rmf) and of the formation water (Rw). Resistivity is used in the
permeable beds. equation since it can be easily measured.

Static spontaneous potential (SSP) NORMAL SP AND INVERSE SP

Negative SP or Normal SP Rmf > Positive SP or Inverse SP Rmf <

• The concept of static spontaneous potential Rw Rw

(SSP) is important because SSP represents the Shale

Baseline
Interface

maximum SP that a thick, shale-free, porous Shale-

Reservoir

and permeable formation can have for a given SP log

ratio between Rmf /Rw . Borehole

• SSP is determined by formula or chart and is a Static SP

Interface
Flushed zone –
Virgin Zone
necessary element for determining accurate K = f(Temp)

values of Rw and volume of shale. E C = E M  E J = - K log

Rmfe
SSP = E C (  E K ) K = 61.133 T (F)
Rwe
K = 65 .240  T (C)

61
 02/09/2015

Static spontaneous potential (SSP) NORMAL SP AND INVERSE SP

Clean line Shale baseline

By definition the SSP is the sum of the membrane (Em)

and junction potential (E j) SHALE

SSP = Em + Ej = (Rxo + Rt + Rsh + Rm) * ISP

Permeable bed
Deposited
Where ISP is the SP current. Shale

The SP we measure is the change in potential from one point in the SSP
well bore to another. It is developed across the resistance of the
mud column (Rm) from one point to another due to the SP current
(ISP) SHALE
Static S P SHALE
SP = Rm * ISP

NORMAL SP AND INVERSE SP

The maximum SP deflection in

this example occurs at the same NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
depths as the resistivity curves
show a separation. GAMMA RAY
The minimum point on the SP
corresponds to where all the
resistivity curves overlay, no
invasion, a shale.

248

62
 02/09/2015

GR - NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY GR - NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

• The natural gamma radiation in the formation originates
from radioactive decay of Potassium, Thorium and
Uranium isotopes.
• The standard GR tool counts all incoming gamma rays,
thus measuring the total radioactivity of the formation.
• Since the gamma ray curve measures the natural
radioactivity of sediments and because this varies
with the rock type, gamma ray logs may be used to
define the lithology of a geological section.

• The measurement is made by a scintillation counter

which records the radiation intensity in API units.
• The reservoir rocks have low radiation levels whereas
shale has a high potassium content and therefore high
level of radioactivity.
• Clean sand formations usually have a very low level
of radioactivity unless contaminants such as volcanic
ash are present.

GR - NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY GR - NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

The Gamma Ray log is a measurement of the formation's natural radioactivity.
The Gamma Ray is a measurement of the
Gamma ray emission is produced by three radioactive series found in the
Earth's crust. Natural radioactivity of formations:
Shale
- Uranium
Potassium (K40) series. - Potasium
Uranium series. - Thorium
Thorium series.
Sand
The radioactive elements tend to
Gamma rays passing through rocks are slowed and absorbed at a rate which concentration clays giving a high natural
depends on the formation density. gamma ray reading in shales.
Shale
Less dense formations exhibit more radioactivity than dense formations even
though there may be the same quantities of radioactive material per unit -Detection of Clean formations
volume. -Indicator of shale content

63
 02/09/2015

GR - NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY GR - NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

APPLICATIONS
• Bed Boundaries ( In cased and non conductive holes)
• Geological correlations
• Shale content estimation
• Type of clays
• Presence of radioactive minerals
• Depth matching of subsequent logs
• Correlation with cased hole logs

Gamma Ray Logging Gamma Ray Logging

64
 02/09/2015

Gamma Ray Logging

BOREHOLE DIAMETER
MEASUREMENT
=
CALIPER

CALIPER APPLICATIONS Hole Diameter Measurement

Applications of Hole Diameter Measurements:

Caliper (Hole diameter) is
- Hole Volume  Cement Volume (cementing operations) measured by the mean of a
spring loaded arm allowed to
- Ovalisation  Orientation of least stress direction extend to fully reach the hole
wall
- Presence of caves  Normally associated with shales or Its value is compared to the
bit size (BS)
unconsolidated sand
Diameter of Bit size
- Presence of restrictions ( Swelling Shales )
- Presence of mudcake ( => hmc)  Permeable bed Hole diameter

=> Quality Control of the logs (eratic readings in large and/or • Some formations cave considerably causing enlarged holes.
• Others do not cave but may reduce in size due to mud cake deposit or some formation
irregular hole diameter) may swell.

65
 02/09/2015

Hole Diameter Measurement

Diameter

RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT

• Tool with 1 backup arm run excentered • Tool with 2 arms run centered

1 diameter measurement

RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT

The electrical resistivity of a formation is its ability to impede the flow • In an earth formation most of the rock and hydrocarbon have zero
of electrical current through the formation.
conductivity or infinite resistivity.

• It is represented by the symbol R and expressed in ohm x m (Ω.m)

• It is reciprocal C is the conductivity and is expressed in millimhos/m
(mmho/m)
• The current flow through rocks is mostly due to the presence of water
inside the pore space or associated with shales. The current flows
through the water because water contains dissolved salts. These salts are
positively charged cations (Na+, Ca++…) or anions (Cl-, S04--…). The higher

1000 the quantity of ions, the easier the current will flow, hence the lower will
C=
R be the overall resistivity.

66
 02/09/2015

RESISTIVITY Formation Resistivity

Matrix grains Oil Water Current
Flow • Well log information is required to quantify the
hydrocarbon saturation ie the fraction of the pores space
filled with hydrocarbons.

• The most common logging techniques for saturation

determination is the resistivity log.

• The resistivity of the formation is measured by passing an

electrical current through it.

• The resistivity of reservoir rock is determined by the way in

which an electric current can flow through it.

Formation Resistivity Formation Resistivity

• Formation water is the only conductive material present in • In the case of water bearing rock, it will be easier for the
the rock. It depends on: current to flow than in the presence of hydrocarbons.

• The resistivity of the formation water: This depends on

temperature and the concentration of salts dissolved in the
water (salinity).

• The amount of formation water: This depends on the

amount of the pore space and the extent to which the pore
space is filled with formation water (water saturation).

• The geometry of the formation water: The more tortuous

path followed by the current, the higher will be the
resistivity.

67
 02/09/2015

Resistivity Tools
• Various devices are available for measuring the
resistivity of the virgin formation. The two main types
used are: laterologs and induction logs.

• The true formation resistivity must be measured to be

able to evaluate the hydrocarbon saturation in the INVASION PHENOMENON, ZONES AND
reservoir.
ASSOCIATED PARAMETERS
• When the resistivity measurement is carried out by a
sonde (measuring instrument that automatically
transmits information of the surrounding) in the
borehole, the measurement will be influenced by the
mud filtrate that has invaded the formation.

INVASION OF A RESERVOIR INVASION OF RESERVOIRS BY

•During the Drilling of the well the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column is THE DRILLING FLUID
greater than the pore pressure of the permeable formation. This prevent the
well from flowing out (Blow out). Because of this pressure difference mud
enters inside the permeable formation (invasion process)
MUD

•This results in differential pressure across the formation and forces mud SEAL SEAL

filtrate inside the permeable formation. The solid particles of the mud are MUD CAKE

deposited on the borehole wall until they form a “mudcake”. This mud cake
has a very low permeability ( 10 -3 md) and once developed, considerably Mud filtrate &
FLUSHED ZONE VIRGIN ZONE

reduce the amount and rate of further mud filtrate invasion. Residual HC Mud filtrate &
Residual HC

Phyd PForm
•The zone around the wellbore which is invaded by the mud filtrate is called
the invaded zone or the flushed zone. Its diameter is called the invasion MUD
FILTRATE
MUD
FILTRATE
diameter.
Invasion Diameter Di ?
•The zone which is not affected by the invasion process is called the virgin
zone

•This Invasion affects very much the response of wireline logging tools since
their depth of investigation is often comparable with the radius of invasion

68
 02/09/2015

Resistivity Tools Resistivity Tools

• Three main parameters determine the response of a
resistivity measuring device:
CLEAN HYDROCARBON BEARING FORMATION
(Porosity Φ )
1) Rt - true formation resistivity
2) Rxo – invaded zone resistivity Fluid
3) di – invaded zone diameter Resistivity

Formation
Resistivity
Three independent resistivity measurements are required
to eliminate the effects of the invaded zone and Water Saturation

determine the true formation resistivity.

Invaded Zone Virgin Zone

They are the Deep, Shallow and Micro spherical focussed a R a R

log (MSFL).
Formation
R xo =  mfn Rt =  wn
Resistivity fm S xo fm Sw

Resistivity Tools Resistivity Tools

Logging tools are designed in such a way that

unwanted borehole influences are minimised
under normal conditions. Correction charts are
available which accounts for borehole size, mud
resistivity etc.

Non-Focused versus Focused Logging

69
 02/09/2015

The Laterolog Configuration of Resistivity Logging

• In the electrical resistivity survey method,
generated electrical currents are put into the
ground and the resulting potential differences
are measured at the surface.

• The technique exploits the fact that there is a

large contrast in resistivity of ore bodies and
their surrounding rocks and between wet and
dry sedimentary rocks.

The Laterolog The Laterolog-Tool Principle

• The technique is simple. Two electrodes are
used to supply a controlled electrical current
to the ground. The line of current flow adapt
to the subsurface resistivity pattern so that
the potential different between two points on
the ground surface can be measured using a
second pair of electrodes. Deviation from the
pattern of potential differences expected from
a homogeneous ground may provide
information on the form and electrical
properties of subsurface.

70
 02/09/2015

Applications and Limitations

• The laterolog emits a ‘measuring’ current into the
formation from one electrode and ‘focussing’
currents from a series of auxiliary electrodes
positioned symmetrically about the measuring
current electrode. This focuses the measuring current
into a sheet to obtain the best tool resolution.

• The focusing currents can be adjusted so that the tool

simultaneously measures the ‘deep’ resistivity (left)
and the ‘shallow’ resistivity (right). The shallow
resistivity is better described as an intermediate
resistivity. This gives two of the three independent
resistivity measurements. The laterolog is suited for
use in conductive borehole fluids.

The Microresistivity Log-(MSFL)

• Both the laterolog and the induction log give two of
the three independent resistivity measurements (a
deep and intermediate).

• A shallow resistivity reading can be provided by a

microresistivity device. The most commonly used
device is the Micro Spherically Focussed Log (MSFL).
• The measuring device is a rubber pad with
rectangular electrodes on it. The electrode is pressed
against the borehole wall.
• Current emitted from the electrode is focussed by
means of currents from the other electrodes.
• The resistivity of the invaded zone is obtained.
• The tool will not work in oil base mud because
current has to flow from the pad into the formation.

71
 02/09/2015

Interpretation of Logs Interpretation of Logs

• From the log, it is clear that above 833 m, there is

a clear separation between the curves.
• Going deeper into the formation the resistivity
increases. This strongly suggest the presence of
hydrocarbon.
• Below 833 m, no separation is observed between
the curves. They all read low resistivities.
• We conclude that the formation is water bearing .
The hydrocarbon-water contact is at 833 m.

First Archie Equation First Archie Equation

(Water Bearing Formation) (Water Bearing Formation)
• The resistivity of a water bearing formation will be
proportional to the resistivity of the water in the pores,
and inversely proportional to the amount of pore space Ro = ф-m Rw
available to contain the formation water.

• The formation resistivity is inversely proportional to the • Where Ro = resistivity of the water bearing
porosity raised to a power (due to the tortuosity (lengthy
& complex) of the path followed by the current). This formation
power is expressed as the cementation exponent.
ф = porosity
Ro = ф-m Rw (1) m = cementation (1.4 – 2.2)
Rw = water resistivity

72
 02/09/2015

Second Archie Equation Combining first and second Archie Equation gives

(Hydrocarbon Bearing Formation) Rt = Sw-n ф-m Rw

• When hydrocarbons are present in the pore But we know that:

system, their presence reduces the amount of

pore space occupied by conductive formation Sw + Sh = 1
water.
Hence

• The formation resistivity is inversely proportional

to the water saturation raised to a power. This
power is expressed as the saturation exponent. Sh = hydrocarbon saturation
Rt = true formation resistivity (from log)
n = saturation exponent (about 2)

Rt = Ro Sw-n (2)
Sw = water saturation
m & n = exponents (from core or lithology (physical characteristics of the rocks in an area))
Rw = water resistivity ( measured directly if water sample is available or from porosity & resistivity
logs)

RESISTIVITY OF FORMATION ROCKS

A sample of clean rock (no shale) which contains 100 %
water (Sw = 1) has a true resistivity Rt proportional to the
resistivity (Rw) of the water existing in the pore space
Formation Resistivity Factor
(Archie Formula)
Rt = F  Rw
The proportionality factor F is called the Formation
Resistivity Factor and it is therefore the Ratio of the True
Resistivity Rt to the water resistivity Rw

291

73
 02/09/2015

ARCHIE LAW - FORMATION FACTOR F FORMATION RESISTIVITY FACTOR F

Over the years experience have generated a
some generally accepted relationship: F=
The formation factor depends on the lithology (grain type and deposition) m
and the porosity of the rock :
Type of Formation Formation Resistivity Factor
a a Rw
F= m  Rt = m
Humble formula for granular or
F=
0.62

soft sandstones
 2.15
Tixier formula for soft sandstone
a = Tortuosity factor (indication of how the grain shape and deposition 0.81
formation F=
affects the current path). Can vary from 0.6 to 2. 2

m = Cementing factor depends on lithology and pore connectivity. Can Archie formula for Compacted 1
vary from 1 to 3 formation (Average to good F=
porosity) 2
These parameters can be determined by precise core analysis Shell formula for low porosity, 1
not fractured, carbonates F= 0.019

1.87 
Correlations can be established for a given field or layer which are 
characterized by a type of matrix and a depositional system

FORMATION RESISTIVITY FACTOR ARCHIE LAW – WATER SATURATION

Sandstones:
The cementing factor m is usually less than 2 in poorly cemented sandstones A rock sample containing water and hydrocarbon (Sw<1) has a true
and is more than 2 when sand grains are well cemented
resistivity Rt which depends on the amount of hydrocarbon present in the
pore spaces.
Carbonates: Rt varies proportionally with the water saturation Sw and it is inversely
m usually larger than 2 in vugs type porosity but is low (≈1.5) in highly proportional to Swn
fractured formation
n is the saturation exponent and it is usually taken as n = 2
Others formula: 1.13
Carothers (sandstone) : F=
1.73 a Rw a Rw
Rt = Sw = n
 m Sw n
1.45  m Rt
Timur (sandstone) F=
1.54 This is the Archie equation and it is only valid in clean
formation ( Vsh = 0 )

74
 02/09/2015

ARCHIE LAW : WATER SATURATION
Estimation of Sw in clean formations
Resistivity logs ( Laterolog, Induction)
Porosity logs ( Density, Neutron, Sonic, RMN)
SP, Resistivity Ratio, Rwa, Water sample
Petrophysical measurements in laboratory
m, n
• Default values: a = 1, m = 2 , n = 2
Formula only valid for clean formations
( No Shale : Vsh = 0)
ARCHIE LAW AND THE INVASION PROCESS
Resistivity measurements are essential for saturation
 Rt determinations, particularly saturation determinations in the virgin,
non-invaded portion of the reservoir.
 f
 Rw Resistivity measurements are employed, to determine formation
 a, resistivity in the non-invaded formation (called true resistivity, Rt).
Resistivity measurements are also used to determine the resistivity
close to the borehole (called flushed-zone resistivity, Rxo), where
a Rw mud filtrate has largely replaced the original pore fluids.
Sw = n
fm R t The resistivity of the virgin zone is called Rt (t for true).
The water saturation in the virgin zone is Sw.
The resistivity of the flushed zone is called Rxo.
The water saturation in the flushed zone is called Sxo

INVASION IN WATER BASED MUD VARIATIONS OF RESISTIVITY

CLEAN HYDROCARBON BEARING FORMATION
Example of Variation of Rt Example of
(Porosity Φ ) (LLD) with Porosity Variation of Rt with Sw
GR_1 LLD_1 PXND_1 SWE_1 GR_1 RT_1 PHIE_1 SWE_1
0 GAPI 100 0.2 OHMM 2000 0.45 V/V -0.15 1 V/V 0 0 GAPI 150 0.2 OHMM 2000 0.45 V/V -0.15 1 V/V 0
Fluid
Resistivity

Formation
Resistivity xxx

Water Saturation

Invaded Zone Virgin Zone Sandstone : No HC shows below depth XXX

and hydrocarbon above.
a R a R Limestone – No HC shows
Formation
R xo =  mf Rt =  w Resistivity increases due to porosity
Resistivity increases due to water
fm S xo n fm S w n
Resistivity
saturation decrease
decrease

75
 02/09/2015

VARIATIONS OF RESISTIVITY WITH VARIATIONS OF RESISTIVITY WITH

a POROSITY WATER SATURATION
F=
fm
Water Zone Sw = 100 % Training exercise on Archie Formula
Formation water resistivity : 0.05 Ω.m
a R
R t = m  wn Coefficients for Archie Formula : a: 1 m: 2 n: 2
f Sw Coefficients for Archie Formula : a: 1 m: 2 n: 2

a a Rw
F= Rt = 
Rw= 0.05 Ω.m fm f m Sw n
Φ= 5% F= Rt= Rw= 0.05 Ω.m & Φ = 10%
Sw = 80 % F= Rt=
Φ=10% F= Rt=
Sw = 50 % F= Rt=
Φ=25% F= Rt=
Sw = 4 % F= Rt=

The Induction Log – Tool Principle

76
 02/09/2015

Tool Principle Summary

• A current is induced in the formation by
electromagnetic coupling with an alternating
current.
• The induced current flowing in the formation
induces a response in a receiver coil in the tool.
• The response can be analysed in terms of
formation conductivity (the reciprocal of
resistivity).
• The measurements give a deep and intermediate
reading.
• The tool can be used with low conductivity or non
conductive formation

RADIOACTIVE LOGS
• Electric logs must be run in open hole to avoid
short circuits through the steel casing.
• This restriction does not apply to radioactivity logs
RADIOACTIVE LOGS which may be run in either cased or open holes.
• Certain elements exhibits nuclear disintegration by
emitting energy in the form of alpha, beta and
gamma particles.
• The magnitude of these emissions is highly variable
in different geological provinces but is quite
uniform over wide areas of single province.

77
 02/09/2015

Density and Neutron Logs Density Logging

Resistivity logs cannot distinguish between oil
and gas, because any hydrocarbon is a non-
conductive material and will cause the same
response on a resistivity log. The combination of
density and neutron logs over a hydrocarbon
bearing zone can distinguish between oil and
gas
• The density log is one of the family of porosity logs.
It measures the density of the formation.
• If the densities of the rock matrix and the fluids are
known, the relative amount of matrix and fluid and
hence the porosity, can be determined from the bulk
density measurement.
• The density log is the most commonly used porosity
log.

Principle of Measurement Density Log - Tool Design

• A radioactive source (Cesium 137) emits gamma rays of medium energy

(662 Kev) into the formation.

• These gamma rays interact with the electrons of the atoms in the
formation by a process known as Compton scattering. In this process an
electron is knocked out of its orbit while the gamma ray loses some of its
energy and is deflected. As the energy reaches 75 kev, it is absorbed.

• The deflected (scattered) gamma rays are picked up and counted by a

detector.

• The amount of scattered gamma rays depends on the number of

electrons present per unit volume of the formation.

• This electron is directly related to the bulk density of the formation.

78
 02/09/2015

Density Log - Tool Design Interpretation of Log

• The formation can be thought of as consisting of
two components – a rock matrix and the fluid.
The bulk density detected by the tool is made up
of the densities of these components.

ESTIMATION OF POROSITY FROM For clean formation:

DENSITY LOG
Since the absorption and scattering of gamma
ρb = фρf + (1 – ф)ρma
radiation depends largely upon the amount of Where ρb = bulk density measured by the tool
matter and consequently the electrons in its path, ρf = fluid density
the density logging device will respond according to ρma = rock matrix density
the variations of specific gravity of the rocks. ф = porosity

The higher the density of the formation, the higher

the intensity of gamma radiation measured at the
detector because denser material will deflect more If the matrix density and the fluid density are known, the
of the rays from the source of radioactivity. porosity of the formation can be determined.

79
 02/09/2015

Commonly Occurring Densities in Formation Evaluation ESTIMATION OF POROSITY FROM DENSITY LOG
Reservoir Properties Density, Vt = 1
1-
g/cm3 ρ b = 1  Φρ ma  Φρ f . 

Quartz (Sandstone) 2.65

b : Density log
Reservoir rock Calcite (Limestone 2.71 ρ ma  ρ b
Dolomite 2.87 ma : Matrix density Φ=
ρ ma  ρ f
Other Minerals Rock salt (NaCl) 2.03  : Formation Porosity
Anhydrite 2.98
Fresh water 1.00 
Pore Fluids Salt water (200g/l) 1.13 In Water zone f = mf
MF

Fresh water with 30% 0.90 – 0.94 In Hydrocarbon zone f = Sxo * 

mf + ( 1- Sxo ) * hc

residual oil
mf = 1 + 0.7 * P
Fresh water with 30% 0.73 – 0.78 Mud Filtrate Density
P = Salinity ( kppm) *10-3
HC

MF
residual gas

POROSITY FROM DENSITY LOG

Neutron Logging
fl = 1.0

Porosity
ρ ma  ρ b • The neutron log is also one of the family of
Φ=
Porosity
= 25 %
ρ ma  ρ f porosity logs.

Mud Filtrate Density

Sandstone line
mf = 1 + 0.7 * P
• It measures the amount of hydrogen present in
Porosity
= 14 % P = Salinity ( kppm) *10-3 the formation and translates this into a volume
fraction of water present in the formation.
(Schlumberger Chart )

Example 1 : Example 2 : • It is widely used in combination with the density

Limestone formation
b = 2.31 g/cm3
Sandstone formation
b = 2.42 g/cm3 log for distinguishing between oil and gas
ma = 2.71 g/cm3 ( Calcite ) ma = 2.65 g/cm3( Quartz )
f = 1.1 g/cm3 ( Salt mud) f = 1.0 g/cm3 ( Fresh mud)
Formation porosity = 25 p.u Formation porosity = 14 p.u

80

Principle of Measurement
• A neutron source emits fast neutron into the
formation.
• These neutrons loose energy in collisions with
the nuclei of the atoms in the formation.
• This process continues until the energy of the
neutrons has declined to the thermal energy. A
peak in the distribution of thermal neutron will
be created at a shorter or longer distance from
the source depending on the effectiveness of the
formation to slow the neutrons.
Neutron Log - Tool design
The neutron interacts with the formation nuclei
and slows down until captured.
Neutron mass = Hydrogen proton
Neutron population is a function of the
abundance of Hydrogen protons between the
source & detectors. More Hydrogen in the
formation means many neutrons are slowed and
captured. Count rate will be low and porosity will
be high.
(Low porosity & High Counts)
Porosity is related to the ratio of the Thermal
neutron population at the two detectors.
02/09/2015
Principle of Measurement
• The ability of the formation to slow down neutron is
determined by the amount of hydrogen present.
This is because the nucleus of a hydrogen atom (ie
proton) has the same mass as a neutron which
causes the maximum amount of energy to be lost by
the neutrons in each collision.
• Two neutron detectors locate the position of the
peak in the thermal neutron distribution. The
distance of this peak from the neutron source is
interpreted in terms of the amount of hydrogen
present in the formation. This is translated into the
amount of water present and the result is recorded
as a porosity.
• The ratio of the close detector to farther detector is
converted to porosity unit for a limestone matrix.
• The tool is calibrated to record correct porosity on
fresh water bearing limestone. In other lithologies
a correction has to be applied to take into account
the different neutron slowing down characteristics
of the rock
• In the presence of fluids other than water, the
measured porosity can be corrected by :
фN = HI x ф
фN = neutron log porosity corrected for lithology
HI = hydrogen index
Ф = true formation porosity
81

Typical Hydrogen Index for Common
Fluids
• Fresh water
• Salt water (300 g/l)
• Oil
• Gas (at 200 bar)
• Fresh water with 30% residual oil
• Fresh water with 30% residual gas
Density and Neutron Log Responses
02/09/2015
Density –Neutron Combination
• The presence of gas in a porous formation has a
strong influence on the responses of the neutron
1.0
and the density tools.
0.89 • The neutron log shows a very low porosity
1.0 because of the low hydrogen density of the gas.
0.22 • The density will measure a lighter bulk density
1.0 • This results in logs separation in the opposite
0.77 direction. This separation is useful as a gas
indicator.
UNCERTAINTIES IN FLUID CONTACTS
• In alternating thin layers of reservoir and shale,
low permeability, shaly reservoir etc, the log
and pressure data may not be able to pinpoint
the fluid contacts.
• In such cases limits on the positions of the fluid
contacts can be defined. The position of the
OWC is bounded by a “water up to”(WUT) and
an “oil down to”(ODT). The GOC position is
bounded by an “oil up to”(OUT) and a “gas
down to”(GDT).
82
 02/09/2015

UNCERTAINTIES IN FLUID CONTACTS

SONIC LOGGING

SONIC LOGGING SONIC LOGGING

MEASUREMENT:
To measure the propagation time of sound inside the formation. It is often
• The sonic log is the oldest of the porosity logs. expressed in microsecond/foot and sometimes in microsecond/meter
(μs/ft or μs/m)
An important application of the tool is to
calibrate seismic data, by providing the velocity PRIMARY OBJECTIVES
1) To rescale seismic data which are time indexed into seismic data which
profile required for time-to-depth conversion. are depth indexed

2) To measure porosity as the propagation time of sound depends on

• The tool measures the travel time of a sound
wave through the formation by transmitting
sound pulses and detecting their arrival at a
receiver some distance away on the tool.
propagation time of sound in the matrix ( 45 – 60 μs/ft) and
propagation time of sound in the fluid (189 μs/ft in water)
3) To measure the compressional and shear wave propagation time to
compute formation strength (Rock mechanical properties)
4) Well to well correlation and mineral identification

83
 02/09/2015

SONIC LOGGING SONIC LOGGING TOOLS

• A sound pulse is emitted from the transmitter T1
and is detected at R1 and R2 which are two feet
apart.
• The difference in arrival time Δt is recorded. This
is the time it took for the sound wave to travel
through two feet of formation.
• A second transmitter T2 emits a pulse which is
detected at receivers R3 and R4. the effects of an
irregularly shaped borehole are eliminated by
taking the average of the two measurements. 1 transmitter & 2 receivers 2 transmitters & 4 receivers

SONIC LOGGING TOOLS SONIC MEASUREMENT (BHC)

T2
Schematic of the BoreHole
Compensated Sonic BHC
R1
R2
2ft

R3
5ft
R4
Normal spacing sonic (BHC)
3ft

Spacing is 3 – 5 feet for hole size less than 16’’

T1

Long Spacing Sonic (LLS):

Spacing is 8 -10 feet and 10-12 feet for larger holes

84
 02/09/2015

INTERPRETATION INTERPRETATION
The measured travel time (Δt) is assumed to be made up
from the matrix and pore fluid. It is expressed as:

Δtlog = Vma Δtma + Vfl Δtfl

Where Δtlog = travel time measured by the tool

Δtma = matrix travel time
Δtfl = fluid travel time
Vma = volume fraction occupied by the matrix
Vfl = volume fraction occupied by the fluid

INTERPRETATION INTERPRETATION
But Vfl = ϕ and Vma + Vfl =1 Travel Times for Common Materials
Hence:
Δtlog = (1- ϕ) Δtma + ϕ Δtfl Material Δt (micro-sec/m) Δt (micro-sec/ft)

Sandstone 184 56
Limestone 161 49
Dolomite 144 44
Anhydrite 164 50
Rock Salt (NaCl) 220 67
The matrix and fluid travel times must be known Steel Casing 187 57
to calculate the porosity. Water / Mud filtrate 620 189

85
 02/09/2015

POROSITY FROM SONIC

Wyllie Formula Δt p = (1  Φ)  Δt ma  Φ  Δt f

Δt  Δt ma 1
Wyllie Formula Modified Φ=  Compaction
Δt f  Δt ma Bcp factor

1 < Bcp< 1.6

1
=
1  Φ   Φ
2
Raymer, Hunt & Gartner Formula
Δt Δt ma Δt f FLUID SAMPLING METHODS
( Field Observation)

Δt - Δt ma
Simplified RHG Formula Φ = K K = 0,625
Δt

Lithology Sonic Dtcma ( ms/ft) Fluid Sonic Dtfl ( ms/ft)

Limestone (CaCO3) 49 Water 189 (180-200)
Dolomite (CaCO3, MgCO3) 44 Oil 200-220
Sandstone ( SiO2) 56 Gas > 250 ( -> 500)

FLUID SAMPLING REPEAT FORMATION TESTER

• Fluid sampling and pressure testing provide • This is the quickest and cheapest way of
valuable information about the reservoir fluid measuring formation pressures and collecting fluid
samples.
properties, the fluid distribution in the • The tool is positioned opposite an interval, set in
reservoir and the pressure behaviour during the borehole with a packer and a back up shoe
production. and a probe is pushed into the formation. The
packer seals off the hydrostatic mud pressure and
the formation pressure can be measured.
• The basic types of formation fluid test are: • There is no way to isolate the production of mud
filtrate.
Drillstem Test (DST) • This method is not suitable for formation water
Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) sample due to its miscible nature with mud
filtrate.

86
 02/09/2015

Wireline Testing & Sampling FORMATION TESTER

Why We Need it?

- Pressure measurements in a wide range of

conditions.
- Determine fluid contact level.
- Representative formation fluid samples.
- Permeability.

FORMATION TESTER REPEAT FORMATION TESTER

RFT tool retracted RFT tool set

Crystal Crystal
Quartz Quartz
Gauge Gauge

Isolation valve Isolation valve

Equalizing valve Strain gauge Equalizing valve Strain gauge

Pretest Pretest

Resistivity cell Resistivity cell

Backupshoe Backupshoe
Packer
Invaded zone
Invaded zone

Probe
Virgin zone
Virgin zone

87
 02/09/2015

DRILLSTEM TEST DRILLSTEM TEST

Drill stem testing is an oil and gas exploration The testing equipment is
procedure to isolate, stimulate and flow a run into the well and the
downhole formation to determine the fluids zone of interest is isolated
present and the rate at which they can be using inflate or
produced. compression-set packers,
The main objective of a DST is to evaluate the depending on your
commercial viability of a zones economic requirements and drilling
potential by identifying productive capacity,
pressure, permeability or extent of an oil or gas conditions.
reservoir. These tests can be performed in both A major limitation is that
open and cased hole environments and provide drill string is not gas tight
exploration teams with valuable information hence gas may escape into
about the nature of the reservoir the annulus.

DRILLSTEM TEST DRILLSTEM TEST

Drill stem testing involves deploying a series of
tools known as a test bottomhole assembly (BHA).
A basic drill stem test BHA consist of a packer or
packers, which act as an expanding plug to be used
to isolate sections of the well for the testing
process, valves that may be opened or closed from
the surface during the test, and recorders used to
document pressure during the test.
In addition to packers a downhole valve is used to
open and close the formation to measure reservoir
characteristics such as pressure and temperature
which are charted on downhole recorders within
the BHA.
The common idea is to isolate the zone of interest
with temporary packers. Next, one or more valves
are opened to produce the reservoir fluids through
the drillpipe and allow the well to flow for a time.
Finally, the operator kills the well, closes the valves,
removes the packers and trips the tools out of the
hole.
Depending on the requirements and goals for the
test, it may be of short (one hour or less) or long
(several days or weeks) duration and there might be
more than one flow period and pressure buildup
period.

88
 02/09/2015

QUICKLOOK EVALUATION QUICKLOOK EVALUATION

QUICKLOOK EVALUATION QUICKLOOK EVALUATION

89
 02/09/2015

QUICKLOOK EVALUATION QUICKLOOK EVALUATION

QUICKLOOK EVALUATION QUICKLOOK EVALUATION

90
 02/09/2015

QUICKLOOK EVALUATION QUICKLOOK EVALUATION

QUICKLOOK EVALUATION

91