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Book Traum Kepa
Book Traum Kepa
Head Trauma
Authors
Affiliations
1 St Mary Mercy Hospital
2 Lincoln Medical Center / SGU
Introduction
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common presentation in emergency departments, which accounts for more than one
million visits annually. It is a common cause of death and disability among children and adults.[1]
Moderate = GCS 9 to 13
Severe = GCS 3 to 8
Etiology
The leading causes of head trauma are (1) motor vehicle-related injuries, (2) falls, and (3) assaults.[2][3]
Based on the mechanism, head trauma is classified as (1) blunt (the most common mechanism), (2) penetrating (most
fatal injuries), (3) blast.
Most severe TBIs result from motor vehicle collisions and falls.
Epidemiology
Head trauma is more common in children, adults up to 24 years, and those older than 75 years.[4][5][6]
Although only 10% of TBI occurs in the elderly population, it accounts for up to 50% of TBI-related deaths.
Pathophysiology
The following concepts are involved in the regulation of blood flow and should be considered.
1) Monroe-Kellie Doctrine
Any individual component of the intracranial vault may undergo alterations, but the total volume of intracranial
contents remains constant since the space within the skull is fixed. In other words, the brain has a compensatory
mechanism to maintain an equilibrium thereby maintaining normal intracranial pressure.
According to this, the displacement of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or blood occurs to maintain normal ICP. A rise
in ICP will occur when the compensatory mechanisms are exhausted.
Autoregulation adjusts Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) from 50 to 150 mm Hg. Beyond this range,
autoregulation is lost, and blood flow is only dependent on blood pressure.
The difference between the mean arterial pressure (MAP) and the ICP (CPP = MAP – ICP)
Target CPP is 55 mm Hg to 60 mm Hg
A minimum CPP should be maintained to avoid cerebral insult. It is age-dependent and is as follows: Infants -
50 mm Hg, Children - 60 mm Hg, and Adults - 70 mm Hg.
Hypoxia causes vasodilation and therefore increases CBF and may worsen ICP.
Hypercarbia also results in vasodilation and can alter ICP via effects on CSF pH and increases CBF.
Maintain = 80 mm Hg
Cushing reflex (hypertension, bradycardia, and respiratory irregularity) due to an increase in ICP
Normal ICP is age-dependent (adult younger than ten years old, child 3-7 years old, infant 1.5-6 years old)
> 20 mm Hg= increased morbidity and mortality and should be treated. It is perhaps more important to maintain
an adequate CPP.
Primary Injury
Primary injury includes injury upon the initial impact that causes displacement of the brain due to direct impact, rapid
acceleration-deceleration, or penetration. These injuries may cause contusions, hematomas, or axonal injuries.
Secondary injury consists of the changes that occur after the initial insult. It can be due to:
Systemic hypotension
Hypoxia
Increase in ICP
After a primary brain injury, a cascade of cellular and biochemical events occurs which include the release of
glutamate into the presynaptic space resulting in activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate, a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-
isoxazole propionic acid, and other receptors. This ionic shift may activate cytoplasmic and nuclear enzymes,
resulting in mitochondrial damage, and cell death and necrosis.
Brain Herniation
Herniation occurs due to increased ICP. Following are the types of herniations.
1) Uncal transtentorial
The uncus is the most medial portion of the hemisphere, and the first structure to shift below the tentorium.
2) Central transtentorial
Bilateral pinpoint pupils, bilateral Babinski signs, and increased muscle tone. Fixed midpoint pupils follow
along with prolonged hyperventilation and decorticate posturing
3) Cerebellar tonsillar
Conjugate downward gaze with an absence of vertical eye movements and pinpoint pupils
Clouding of consciousness where there is a mild deficit in processing by the brain. It may persist for many months
and the patient may have a loss of recent memory, but long term memory remains intact.
Lethargy is a state of depressed alertness and can result in an inability to perform tasks that are usually done without
any effort. The patient may be aroused by stimuli but then settles back into a state of inactivity. Awareness of the
environment is present.
Obtundation is a state of decreased alertness and awareness. The patient will briefly respond to stimuli and only
follow simple commands; but will not be aware of the surroundings.
Stupor is when the patient cannot communicate lucidly and requires panful stimuli to be aroussed. Once the
stimulation is wihdrawn, the patient returns to the inactive state.
Coma is when the patient is not able to respond to any type of stimuli
Evaluation
CT scan is required in patients with head trauma
For patients who are at low risk for intracranial injuries, there are two externally validated rules for when to obtain a
head CT scan after TBI.[7][8]
It is important to understand that no individual history and physical examination finding can eliminate the possibility
of intracranial injury in head trauma patients.
Skull x-rays are only used to assess for foreign bodies, gunshots or stab wounds
Headache
Vomiting (any)
Seizure
Level A Recommendation
With the loss of consciousness or posttraumatic amnesia only if one or more of the following symptoms are present:
Headache
Vomiting
Posttraumatic seizure
Coagulopathy
Level B Recommendation
Without loss of consciousness or posttraumatic amnesia if one of the following specific symptoms presents:
Vomiting
Severe headache
Coagulopathy
Ejection from a motor vehicle (such as Pedestrian struck or a fall from a height > three feet or five stairs)
The risk of intracranial injury when clinical decision rule results are negative is less than 1%.
For children, Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network (PECARN) decision rules exist to rule out the
presence of clinically important traumatic brain injuries. However, this rule applies only to children with GCS > 14.
Treatment / Management
The most important goal is to prevent secondary brain injuries. This can be achieved by the following:
Identify and treat other life-threatening injuries or conditions (if they exist)
Priorities remain the same: the ABC also applies to TBI. The purpose is to optimize perfusion and oxygenation.[1][9]
[10]
For sedation, consider using short-acting agents having minimal effect on blood pressure or ICP:
Agitated patient
Nasotracheal intubation should be avoided in patients with facial trauma or basilar skull fracture.
Targets:
PaO2 > 60
PCO at 35 - 45
Circulation
Avoid hypotension. A normal blood pressure may not be adequate to maintain adequate flow and CPP if ICP is
elevated.
Target
MAP > 80 mm Hg
Isolated head trauma usually does not cause hypotension. Look for another cause if the patient is in shock.
Increased ICP
Increased ICP can occur in head trauma patients resulting in the mass occupying lesion. Utilize a team approach to
manage impending herniation.
Irregular pupils
CT scan findings:
General Measures
Head Position: Raise the head of the bed and maintain the head in midline position at 30 degrees: potential to improve
cerebral blood flow by improving cerebral venous drainage.
Temperature Control: Fever should be avoided as it increases cerebral metabolic demand and affects ICP.
Seizure prophylaxis: Seizures should be avoided as they can also worsen CNS injury by increasing the metabolic
requirement and may potentially increase ICP. Consider administering fosphenytoin at a loading dose of 20mg/kg.
Fluid management: The goal is to achieve euvolemia. This will help to maintain adequate cerebral perfusion.
Hypovolemia in head trauma patients is harmful. Isotonic fluid such as normal saline or Ringer Lactate should be
used. Also, avoid hypotonic fluid.
Sedation: Consider sedation as agitation and muscular activity may increase ICP.
Propofol: A short-acting agent with good sedative properties, potential to lower ICP, possible risk of
hypotension and fatal acidosis
Muscle relaxants: Vecuronium or Rocuronium are best options for intubation; Succinylcholine should not be
used as ICP may rise with fasciculations.
ICP monitoring:
Moderate head injury with increased risk factors such as abnormal CT scan finding
Hyperventilation:
Normocarbia is desired in most head trauma patients. The goal is to maintain PaCO between 35-45 mmHg. Judicious
hyperventilation helps to reduce PaCO2 and causes cerebral vasoconstriction. Beware that, if extreme, it may reduce
CPP to the point that exacerbation of secondary brain injury may occur. Avoid hypercarbia: PaCO > 45 may cause
vasodilatation and increases ICP.
Mannitol:
Reduces ICP and improves cerebral blood flow, CPP, and brain metabolism
Hypertonic saline:
May be used in hypotensive patients or patients who are not adequately resuscitated.
Hypothermia may be used to lower cerebral metabolism but it is important to be aware that hypothermia also makes
the patient susceptible to infections and hypotension.
The majority of head trauma is mild. These patients can be discharged following a normal neurological examination
as there is minimal risk of developing an intracranial lesion.
Bleeding disorder
Prognosis
The outcomes after head trauma depend on many factors. The initial GCS score does provide some information on the
outcome; the motor score is most predictive of outcome. Patients with a GCS of less than 8 at presentation have high
mortality. Advanced age, comorbidity, respiratory distress, and a comatosed state are also associated with poor
outcomes.
Complications
DVT rates are higher in head trauma patients
Neurological deficits
CSF leak
Hydrocephalus
Infections
Seizures
Cerebral edema
Most patients require admission and monitoring in an ICU setting. The outcome of these patients depends on the
severity of the head trauma, initial GCS score, and any other organ injury. Data indicate that those patients with an
initial GCS of 8 or less have a mortality rate of 30% within 2 weeks of the injury. Other negative prognostic factors
include advanced age, elevated intracranial pressure, and the presence of a gross neurologic deficit on presentation.
ICU nurses play a vital role in the managing of these patients; from providing basic medical care, monitoring, DVT
and ulcer prophylaxis and monitoring the patient for complications and reporting concerns to the team. The dietitian
manages the nutrition and physical therapists provide bedside exercises to prevent muscle wasting.
Patients with a GCS less than 9 often require mechanical ventilation, tracheostomy, and a feeding tube. With
prolonged hospital stay, there are prone to pressure ulcers, aspiration, sepsis, failure to thrive and deep vein thrombus.
Patients deemed to be brain dead are assessed by the entire team that includes specialists from end of life care.
Recovery in most patients can take months or even years. Even those who are discharged often have residual deficits
in executive function or neurological deficits. Some require speech, occupational and physical therapy for months. In
addition, the social worker should assess the home environment to make sure it is safe and offers amenities for the
disabled person. Only through such a team approach can the morbidity of head trauma be lowered.
Outcomes
Unfortunately, despite education of the public, many young people still lead a lifestyle that predisposes them to head
injury. Young people still drink and drive, text while driving, abuse alcohol and illicit drugs, and are often involved in
high-risk sporting activities, which makes them susceptible to head trauma.[11][12]
Questions
To access free multiple choice questions on this topic, click here.
References
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