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Allyson Filippi
60030
November 11, 2018
Review Paper 2

Theories and Models of Information Behavior

Marcia Bates’ (2010) widely accepted definition of information behavior is “the many ways in
which human beings interact with information, in particular, the ways in which people seek and utilize
information” (p. 2381). Studying the actual information of behavior of users, though, has produced mixed
results, which have created several key theories and models in the field. A popular theory by Case (2005)
describes the Principle of Least Effort. Case coined this term based off the work of George Zipf. The
Principle of Least Effort is users’ tendency to use sources that they are familiar with over trying to figure
out how to utilize new ones. In other words, users gravitate toward the whatever will allow them to use
the least effort to get the needed information.
Another foundational model comes from Kuhlthau (2005), properly named Kuhlthau’s
Information Search Process. The model includes six stages: Initiation, Selection, Exploration,
Formulation, Collection, and Presentation. Additionally, her study recognizes the importance of affective
aspects of a person when considering information behavior. She introduces the uncertainty principle, the
cognitive state that produces anxiety and lack of confidence in users, and the zone of intervention, the
most appropriate time to offer assistance to a user. Kuhlthau’s uncertainty principle and zone of
intervention, along with the six-stage model, allow “understanding information seeking as a process of
construction from the user’s perspective” (2005, p. 233).
In regard to my chosen user group, college and university students, Kim, Sin, and Yoo-Lee
(2014) conducted research that provides insight and foundational ideas on undergraduate students and
their use of social media as an information source. Kim et. al. (2014) found that social networking sites
(SNS) are used as sources of information for undergraduates, with Wikipedia and SNS utilized by 90% of
participants (p. 452). Wikipedia’s main use was reported as “to get background and introductory
information” and SNS were reported as “to keep in touch with others” (Kim et al., 2014, p. 448). The
study indicates that it would be beneficial to offer students instruction in how to best use social media as a
source through things like copyright, fair use, and credibility because of how frequently students are using
it.

Theories and Models

The five research articles that I used for the study of college and university students’ information
behaviors were by Baro, Ontenania, and Osaheni (2010); Callinan (2005); Chow and Croxton (2012);
Khan and Bhatti (2012); and Lee (2008). Baro et. al, used the David Ellis information seeking model, as
well as Kuhlthau’s information search process model as the foundation of their study. Ellis’ model labels
six information-seeking actions: starting, chaining, browsing, differentiating, monitoring, and extracting.
Callinan’s study was conducted because of influence from T.D. Wilson and his emphasis on the
importance of context in future information behavior studies. Chow and Croxton’s results align with the
Principle of Least Effort described by Case (2005). Lee’s study also mentions the Principle of Least
Effort. Khan and Bhatti’s study emphasizes the importance of context found in information behavior
theories.

Information Behaviors

Results of information behaviors over the five selected studies varied. This outcome supports the
emphasis of context in the area of information behaviors studies. As more research is conducted, the
stronger the findings are that information behavior is heavily dependent on context. Although all of these
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studies looked at college and university students as the user group, the context these students were in
varied greatly, from different countries to different areas of study.
Baro et. al (2010) found that students use textbooks, journals, Internet and humans as sources
most often. Additionally, they use Ellis’ model of information search strategies that include starting,
chaining, browsing, differentiating, monitoring, and extracting. Results show that the highest information
need is academic, and students seek information to complete course assignments, papers, and final
research work. Callinan (2005) found that information behavior differs between students in different
years of their studies. However, they all use the library as a place to study and to go to borrow books.
Students main sources of information are textbooks and lecture handouts. Callinan (2005) discovered that
first-year students are more likely to use websites as well as ask peers over a librarian for help.
Both Chow and Croxton (2012) and Lee (2008) found support for Case’s (2005) Principle of
Least Effort, stating that students want something convenient. Chow and Croxton’s (2012) results show
that students prefer face-to-face over virtual interaction. When having to use virtual interaction, email is
preferred. Lee’s (2008) study exemplified a heavy reliance on the Internet as a source, with Google as the
most popular search engine. When searching, the students most often employed keyword search, as it was
the easiest and utilized the least effort. The library was found to be second to the Internet as a place to go
for information, and strategies used there were simple search skills. Khan and Bhatti (2012) found that
users visit the library, most often the academic library, mainly to read newspapers and books. Most
frequently, they use computers and the Internet for searching. Law students have an information need to
have relevant and up-to-date information, so these students are looking for current information in their
field regularly.

Methods and Techniques

Similar methods and techniques were used to conduct the research in the five studies used for this
paper. Baro et al. (2010) used a descriptive survey method, questionnaires, interviews and observation
methods. Their sample consisted of undergraduate students in three universities in Nigeria. Callinan
(2005) used a questionnaire that she mentions included open-ended questions. Her sample also consisted
of undergraduate students, but they were biology students at University College Dublin. Chow and
Croxton’s (2012) sample was from a university in the US and included faculty, staff, students, and
librarians. They used a mixed-method design that included an online survey, focus groups, and
interviews. Undergrads constituted 22 percent of the sample and grads accounted for 17 percent (Chow &
Croxton, 2012, p. 249). Khan and Bhatti (2012) used a survey method with a structured questionnaire,
and their sample was made up of law students at the University of Peshawar in Pakistan. Lastly, Lee
(2008) used long interview as the method. The sample size had an emphasis on a small and diverse group
of undergraduate students.

Implications

Through the five studies, I was able to identify takeaways that would help support and improve
the information behaviors of college and university students. Baro et al. (2010), Khan and Bhatti (2012),
and Callinan (2005) all suggested that information literacy, library, and/or bibliographic instruction
courses be added to the curriculum or offered to students. Callinan (2005) also suggests that greater
collaboration happens between librarians and faculty for collection development and better information
literacy. Lee (2008) suggests several specific recommendations including providing instant and
convenient availability, giving advice, having easy to use and organized information, providing access to
older materials, and providing bibliographic instruction. Overall, I think the greatest implication is
obvious: colleges and universities need to provide more opportunities for students to learn about
information literacy. This is regarded as having a great potential to improve their information behaviors to
make them better able to meet information needs.
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References

Baro Emmanuel E., Osaheni Oni, & Onyenania George O. (2010). Information seeking behaviour of

undergraduate students in the humanities in three universities in Nigeria. South African Journal

of Libraries and Information Science, (2), 109. Retrieved from

https://proxy.library.kent.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&AuthType=ip&db=edssas&AN=edssas.liasa.v76.n2.a5&site=eds-live&scope=site

Callinan, J. E. (2005). Information-seeking behaviour of undergraduate biology students : A comparative

analysis of first year and final year students in University College Dublin. Library Review, (2),

86. https://doi-org.proxy.library.kent.edu/10.1108/00242530510583039

Chow, A. S., & Croxton, R. A. (2012). Information-Seeking Behavior and Reference Medium

Preferences. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 51(3), 246–262. Retrieved from

https://proxy.library.kent.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&AuthType=ip&db=ehh&AN=73952365&site=eds-live&scope=site

Khan, G., & Bhatti, R. (2012). Information Needs and Seeking Behavior of Law Students The Survey of

Law College University of Peshawar. Pakistan Library & Information Science Journal, 43(3),

34–38. Retrieved from https://proxy.library.kent.edu/login?

url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&AuthType=ip&db=lih&AN=88047118&site=eds-live&scope=site

Lee, H.-L. (2008). Information Structures and Undergraduate Students. Journal of Academic

Librarianship, 34(3), 211–219. Retrieved from https://proxy.library.kent.edu/login?

url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&AuthType=ip&db=ehh&AN=32617772&site=eds-live&scope=site