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13. Aggregates for use in filter media

13.1. Introduction Filter aggregates generally consist of sand, gravel

Although the total volume of aggregate used for filters is
relatively small, filters nevertheless play important and
diverse roles in many projects. Table 13.1 shows some
of the main uses of filter aggregates and the first four
parts of this chapter discuss some of the requirements
and properties of these materials. The final three parts
of the chapter describe the functions and specification
of filter aggregates in their three main applications,
namely water filtration, effluent treatment and as drain-
age filters for earthworks and other civil engineering
structures. These will normally be subject to different
design criteria and may also call for filter materials
with distinct sets of physical and mechanical properties.
or crushed rock. Manufactured aggregates are also
occasionally used and these often include blastfurnace
slags.
Although filter materials for water and effluent treat-
ment works are often used in relatively small quantities,
the high quality of aggregate normally required is
not always readily available from commercial produc-
tion processing, which may be designed to yield a
satisfactory general purpose aggregate at least cost.
On the other hand, drainage layers in major civil
engineering works, such as embankment dams,
are usually designed to make the best use of the
available natural materials with the minimum of
processing.

TABLE13. I. Uses of filter aggregates

Principal function
Category of works Filter application
Drainage Pressure Filtration
" relief
Land drainage Surface blanket drainage
Ditch/trench fill
Drain/soakaway fill
Pipe filters
Pipe envelopes
Structure drainage Foundation drainage
Roadbed drainage
Runway drainage
Retaining structure drainage
Embankment dam drains
Slope drainage
Remedial and Uplift pressure relief
stabilization Seepage force prevention
works Saturation control
Piping prevention
Water supply Well filters
Well envelopes
Filtration and Fine & coarse filter beds
purification works Gravel underdrain envelope
Marine works Bedding layers
Transition layers
Pressure relief
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292 AGGREGATES F O R USE I N F I L T E R M E D I A
13.2. Key properties of filter aggregates
13.2.1. General
Particle size, grading, strength and durability are the
key properties, as these determine permeability, ease
of construction, stability and longevity.
Particle sizes in filter aggregates can range from fine
sands to boulder-sized material. The aggregates are
usually placed and compacted in an unbound condition.
The completed filter layer or bed will usually need
to have the following properties: structural stability
(especially if placed in an unconfined situation); dur-
ability; high permeability combined with resistance
to internal erosion of fines; low frost susceptibility;
low susceptibility to salt aggression, chemical attack
and solution loss. Physical and chemical breakdown
in service may seriously impair the design grading of
a filter, adversely affecting its performance.
The strength, shape, surface texture and composi-
tion of the individual particles will have an important
influence on the above properties as will the abrasion
resistance and crushing strength of the aggregate
since, if these are deficient, it may degrade during
placing and compaction.
13.2.2. Grading
This is fundamental to the design of a filter, detailed
consideration of which is beyond the scope of this
report. Filters in contact with natural soils or con-
trolled fill material may be designed in accordance
with criteria originally given by Terzaghi & Peck
(1964), but current practice favours the design criteria
developed by Sherard & Dunnigan (1985, 1989) and
issued as guidelines by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (1986).
Multi-layered construction will tend to be used for
the thicker filter layers. A very wide range of particle
sizes, from fine sand up to boulders, might, therefore,
be used in different parts of a filter zone. An important
requirement is freedom from silt and clay and it is
commonly specified that any material passing the
425 ~tm BS sieve shall be non-plastic when tested in
accordance with BS 1377. It would also normally
have a fines content below 10%.
13.2.3. Aggregate strength
Since in the absence of a cementitious binder, the sta-
bility and load-bearing properties of a filter depend on
the aggregate particles alone, these must be strong
enough to prevent breakdown during construction
and when in use. Fine-grained materials normally
used for filters are generally those which nature has
selected as the most durable. Thus, many sands and
gravels, and particularly the finer gravels, are com-
posed mainly of the hard and stable mineral quartz.
However, aggregate particles coarser than fine
gravel are not usually monomineralic but are com-
posed of rock fragments in which the strength is
derived from the interlocking or cementation of indi-
vidual mineral grains. Serious consideration must
then be given to the assessment of the strength and
abrasion resistance of these aggregates.
13.2.4. Particle durability
Durability can be defined as the resistance of the
aggregate under its working conditions to cyclic varia-
tions in temperature, load, moisture content, freezing
and thawing, and chemical environment. It is essential
that filter aggregates are durable in the long term and
this is particularly important where high strength is
not a characteristic of the aggregate. Any breakdown
of the constituent particles would increase the fines
content of the filter and alter its design grading and
efficiency.
13.2.5. Particle shape
This property is, after grading, as important as
strength in a filter aggregate and can be discussed
under two main headings. The first relates to
whether a particular particle is basically equidimen-
sional in shape or whether it is flaky or elongated.
In general, it is desirable for filter aggregates to be
essentially equidimensional as this aids the flow distri-
bution through the medium and also facilitates packing
of the coarser and fine constituents and improves the
effectiveness of the filter. The second important shape
characteristic is roundness and again it is better for
the filter aggregate to have rounded, as opposed to
angular, edges to most particles.
However, rather different considerations apply to
biological percolating filters, where the aggregate
acts mainly as a supporting medium to a microbial
film and its specific surface is, therefore, important.
This is discussed in w
13.2.6. Particle texture
Surface texture affects to a lesser extent both the flow
of liquid through the filter and the filtration character-
istics of the material. A smooth glassy surface is useful
from a drainage aspect but not so efficient from a
filtration or fines ingress viewpoint, where a rougher
surface texture is considered more advantageous.
13.2.7. Surface coatings
Some aggregates have a coating that may, or may not,
be easily removed during initial processing. Coatings
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AGGREGATES FOR USE IN FILTER MEDIA 293

are commonly composed of clay, silt, calcium 13.3. Testing of aggregates

carbonate, iron oxides, silica or gypsum, but other
coatings can occur. Such coatings may vary in thick-
ness and hardness and are, on the whole, undesirable
in filter aggregates. They should either be removed by
scrubbing or be as strong and durable as the particle
itself.
13.2.8. Particle porosity
The functions of drainage and filtration are not signif-
icantly affected by particle porosity which can,
however, be expected to have a negative correlation
with strength and durability. Therefore, the aggregate
porosity, or a related property such as water absorp-
tion, should be measured in order to assess its possible
effects on, for example, durability, chemical reaction,
freeze/thaw or other breakdown mechanisms.
13.2.9. Chemical reactivity
There are generally no specified requirements for
chemical inertness or solubility but these should
nevertheless be taken into account in relation to the
use of the filter media. It is important that the
aggregate is not affected by the chemical properties
of the liquid to be treated and also that constituents
are not leached from the filter medium into the filtrate.
The latter is more likely to occur with artificial
aggregates, such as slag, than with naturally occurring
aggregates. Slag may also be aggressive to concrete
and, if used, is generally required to comply with
the stability and sulphur content requirements of
BS 1047.
Tests relevant to filter aggregates are essentially those
used for general aggregate testing and are listed in
Table 13.2 which also proposes some guideline
acceptance criteria.
Additional criteria applicable to some special
purposes are considered in the following sections
which describe the main engineering applications of
filters.
13.4. Water treatment:
filtration through sand
13.4.1. General
There are basically two types of sand filter:
(i) filters characterized by slow filtration rates, using
a fine sand and requiring infrequent cleaning;
(ii) rapid filters, which are coarser, operating at
higher filtration rates and requiring frequent
cleaning.
The action of a filter bed in removing fine suspended
matter is complex and not yet fully understood, being a
combination of (i) straining, (ii) physical forces, which
determine the conveyance of particles towards and on
to the sand grains, and (iii) surface forces which hold
the suspended particles to the grains. In slow sand
filters the bed usually comprises from 0.6 m to 1.2m
of fine sand supported by layers of graded gravel
0.2m to 0.3m thick, see Figs 13.1(a) and 13.1(b).

TABLE13.2. Suggested tests for evaluation of aggregates for general filter applications

Category of test Test Proposed guideline

acceptance criteria*

Physical Grading Design test only

properties Shape [ flakiness index Not more than 30
/ elongation index
Relative density No less than 2.5
(oven dried)
Water absorption Not more than 3% by weight

Mechanical 10% fines value Not less than 100 kN

properties Aggregate crushing value Not more than 30
Aggregate impact value Not more than 30
Aggregate abrasion value Not more than 20
Los Angeles abrasion value Not more than 40

Durability Soundness (MgSO4) Not more than 12% losst

properties Deleterious substances To be assessed after
Petrographic analysis } examination

*Dependent on conditions of use and to be evaluated collectively, not in isolation.

tSee special requirement for biological filters in w
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294 AGGREGATES FOR USE IN FILTER MEDIA

(a)

(b)

FIG. 13.1. (a) Gravel filter media for water treatment (courtesy Thames Water plc). (b) Sand filter (courtesy Thames Water plc).

Rapid filters usually comprise from 0.6m to 0.8 m of
coarse sand supported on several layers of fine to
coarse gravel to give a total bed thickness of 1.0 m to
1.3m.
13.4.2. Filter bed sand
The sand should be hard, abrasion resistant and free
from contaminants. It should not lose more than
2% by weight after immersion for 24 hours in 20%
hydrochloric acid at 20~ Both rounded and
angular grains may be used, but they should not be
flaky. Filter sand is normally obtained from natural
sand deposits by sieving, although crushed fines pro-
duced from rocks composed predominantly of
quartz are sometimes used.
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A G G R E G A T E S F O R USE IN F I L T E R M E D I A
13.4.3. Filter gravel
The gravel or coarse layer in a filter system has several
functions. It supports the sand, permits the filtered
water to move freely towards the underdrain and,
in the case of a rapid filter, facilitates a uniform flow
distribution. The coarse material should be clean,
hard, durable, and free from flat, flaky or elongated
particles.
13.5. Aggregates for biological
percolating filters
The term 'filter' is a misnomer as the process involved
is not truly filtering but a biological contact process.
The filter medium is primarily required to support
colonies of organisms, including bacteria and fungi,
which exist in microbial layers on the surface of the
media and over which sewage or other pollutant
liquids are trickled so that the colonies may feed, in
an aerobic environment, upon the organic matter
present, see Fig. 13.2.
The degree of treatment attained is largely depen-
dent upon the area of microbial film to which the
FIG. 13.2. Biological percolating filter (courtesy Thames Water
plc).
295
liquid is exposed and it, therefore, follows that the
surface area per unit volume of the media should be
as large as possible, consistent with adequate aeration
and permeability.
This is best achieved with single-sized filter media.
Percolating filters of optimum surface area and void
ratio can either be manufactured, usually of plastic,
or alternatively, filter beds may be constructed from
natural aggregates which may not possess optimum
characteristics but have the advantage of low unit
cost.
Biological percolating filters formed with natural
aggregates typically consist of between 1.5m and
3.0m thickness of single-sized coarse aggregate over
which the liquid to be treated is distributed. BS 1438
recommends that the aggregate should be selected
from the range 14mm to 63mm, the actual size
specified depending on the operating conditions of a
system. Undersized material should not exceed 2% if
the filter is to operate efficiently. A layer of 100mm
size aggregate is often used to support the filter.
The aggregates may be naturally occurring or
crushed and should preferably be angular and of
rough surface texture so as to maximize the surface
area. For example, a 25mm single-size slag 2was
found to have a specific surface area of 206 m / m 3
whereas the corresponding figure for crushed gravel
was 176m2/m 3 (Bruce 1968).
The aggregates must be strong enough to sustain
their own weight and, in particular, must be durable
and resistant to cyclic wetting over periods of many
years. It is found in practice that most strong rocks
are suitable for filter media, as are certain artificial
materials such as clinker and slag. Softer or potentially
soluble aggregates, such as some types of limestone,
have to be selected with care and are frequently
found to give unacceptable results in the sodium
sulphate soundness test.
BS 1438 sets out the particular requirements for
aggregates for biological percolating media in respect
of size, shape, flakiness, cleanness and durability. Dur-
ability is tested according to this standard by 20 cycles
of the sodium (not magnesium) sulphate sotmdness
test, samples showing more than 3% loss by this
method being considered unsound.
13.6. Filtersfor civil engineering structures
13.6.1. General
Protective or pressure relief filters for civil engineering
structures usually consist of one or more layers of
free-draining sand and/or gravel material placed on
or within a less pervious soil to remove seepage
water and prevent erosion of the soil or damage to
the overlying structures from uplift pressure. The
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296 AGGREGATES FOR USE IN FILTER MEDIA

FIG. 13.3. Filter media placed behind sea-wall.

FIG. 13.4. Filter media in dam construction (courtesy P. G. Fookes).

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AGGREGATES
soil which is to be protected by the filter is commonly
referred to as the base or the base material. A given
base material can be protected by a filter layer
having a grading related to that of the base material,
according to the Terzaghi criteria for filter design
(Lambe & Whitman 1969).
Sherard & Dunnigan (1985, 1989) have modified
these design criteria using field and laboratory
studies and design guidelines based on their findings
have been issued by the U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture (1986). Current practice favours the use of the
Sherard and Dunnigan criteria.
Filters may consist either of a single layer, or of
several layers each with a different grading, in which
case they are known as zoned filters. The filter or
filter layers may be classed as uniform (i.e. having a
narrow range of major particle sizes), or well graded
(i.e. having a broad range of particle sizes). In large
structures, such as embankment dams, it is more
usual to design the filter layers to make the best use
of locally available natural materials, rather than to
process large quantities of material to suit a precon-
ceived design. Deficiencies in grading may be compen-
sated by varying the thickness of the filter.
A full account of the criteria and methods used in
the design of civil engineering filters is outside the
scope of this work but selected references are given.
Uses of filter media are illustrated in Figs 13.3 and
13.4.
13.6.2. Specification of aggregates
The specification of filters, drains, etc. and their
related aggregates is often rather loose and occasion-
ally gives rise to serious contractual or technical diffi-
culties. The following suggestions may prove useful to
those formulating specifications.
The specifications of aggregates for filters and
drains should avoid the use of general terms such as
pervious and free-draining, unless used in conjunction
with specific quantitative requirements for grading,
soundness and permeability that assure the necessary
physical properties. When grading requirements are
part of a specification, the time and place of the sam-
piing during project construction should be clearly
stated, otherwise confusion arises, and enforcement
of the designers' requirements is difficult. Aggregates
which break down and develop a greater proportion
of fines during handling, placement, and compaction
may meet a grading specification at the plant or
when they arrive at the works but could fail when
tested after compaction. The important criteria are
the grading and permeability of the material as it
will be in the finished work. Hence, additional
samples for testing should be taken after the filter
materials have been placed and compacted to deter-
mine whether there has been any degradation during
F O R USE IN F I L T E R M E D I A 297
handling and placement. However, this identifies a
potential contractual difficulty because specifications,
unfortunately, are rarely explicit as to the stage at
which the compliance criteria are deemed to apply.
In the absence of any requirement to the contrary, it
is more normal practice for compliance to be assessed
on samples prior to placement in the works, post
placement sampling and testing being for engineering
rather than contractual purposes.
With regard to the acceptance criteria which can be
applied to a potential filter aggregate, very little is pub-
lished. However, the following guidelines might prove
useful. The aggregates should be hard, durable, clean
and should not contain deleterious materials of such
a form or in sufficient quantity to affect adversely the
efficient operation or longevity of the filter. Durability
should include resistance to frost, corrosion and dis-
solution. Examples of deleterious materials are: clay,
flaky and/or elongate particles, excessively porous
and/or laminated materials, and chemically unsound
or readily soluble materials.
A typical specification might thus combine some or
all of the following particular requirements:
(i) oven dried relative density not less than 2.5;
(ii) water absorption not greater than 3 % by weight;
(iii) aggregate impact value not more than 30
or
aggregate crushing value not more than 30
or
10% fines value not less than 100 kN;
(iv) maximum flakiness and elongation indices not
greater than 30;
(v) aggregate abrasion value not greater than 20
or
Los Angeles abrasion value not greater than 40;
(vi) magnesium sulphate soundness value not more
than 12% loss.
These requirements should be regarded as the
minimum acceptable. In some situations, where the
proper functioning of the filter is critical to the safety
of a structure, more stringent acceptance criteria may
be required and a specification applicable to high-
quality concrete aggregate may be more appropriate
(see Chapter 8).
13.7. Concluding remarks
It is hoped that this short account will have made it clear
that the properties required of filter aggregates are
dominated by the highly diverse purposes for which
they may be intended. Indeed in some cases, such as
sewage treatment, their main role is not truly filtration
at all, but to support microbial colonies active in a bio-
logical process. In other cases, the shape and size of the
filter, its operating conditions (including the chemical
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298 AGGREGATES FOR USE IN FILTER MEDIA
e n v i r o n m e n t ) , a n d b o t h the c h a r a c t e r a n d q u a n t i t y o f
available n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s c a n e a c h affect design,
m a k i n g a general specification impossible. T h e over-
riding needs are for d u r a b i l i t y a n d d i m e n s i o n a l
stability, w h i c h will u s u a l l y h a v e to be assessed f r o m a
w i d e r a n g e o f physical a n d c h e m i c a l properties. This
m a y call for a c o n s i d e r a b l e degree o f j u d g e m e n t a n d
experience o n the p a r t o f the designer.
References
BRITISH STANDARDSINSTITUTION 1971. Specification for Media
for Biological Percolating Filters: BS 1438 (amended Aug.
1972, Dec 1980).
-- 1983. Specification for air-cooled blast furnace slag coarse
aggregate for concrete: BS 1047.
LAMBE, T. W. & WHITMAN, R. V. 1969. Soil Mechanics (see esp.
pp 292-4). Wiley, New York.
SHERARD, J. L. & DUNNIGAN, L. P. 1985. Filters and leakage
control in embankment dams. Seepage and leakage from
dams and impoundments. ASCE, New York, NY, 1-29.
- - & -- 1989. Critical filters for impervious soils. ASCE
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 115, 7, 927-947.
TERZAGHI, K. & PECK, R. B. 1964. Soil Mechanics in Engin-
eering Practice. Wiley, New York.
US DEPARTMENTOF"AGRICULTURE, Soil Conservation Service,
1986. Soil Mechanics Note No. 1. Guide for determining
the gradation of sand and gravel filters. Lincoln, NE, USA.
General references
AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION 1971. Water quality
and treatment. 3rd edn. New York, McGraw-Hill.
BRUCE,A. M. 1968. The significance of particle shape in relation
to percolating filter media. Journal of British Granite and
Whinstone Federation 8 (2), 1--15.
DEGREMONT COMPANY (eds). 1973. Water Treatment Hand-
book. New York, Taylor-Carlisle.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT. 1986. Specification of highway
works' 6th edn. HMSO, London.
FAIR, G. M. et al. 1968. Water and wastewater engineering.
Vol. 2: Water purification and wastewater treatment and
disposal. New York, Wiley.
HOLDEN, W. S. (ed.) 1970. Water treatment and examination.
Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh.
HUISMAN, L. & WOOD, W. E. 1974. Slow Sand Filtration.
Geneva, World Health Organisation.
IVES, K. J. 1975. Specifications for granular filter media. Effluent
and Water Treatment Journal, 15 (6), 296, 298-299, 301-
305.
TWORT, A. C., HOATHER, R. C. & LAW, F. M. 1974. Water
Supply. 2nd edn. Edward Arnold, London.
US CORPS OF ENGINEERS1952. Seepage Control, Soil Mechanics"
Design. Department of Army, Washington DC.
US DEPARTMENTOF THE INTERIOR.Earth Manual 2nd edn. 1974
(see esp. pp 305-9).
US DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY. 1971. Design Manual, NAV-
FAC DM-7. Alexandria, USA.