2015 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics

Sentiment Analysis Over Social Networks: An

Overview
Khaled Ahmed Neamat El Tazi Ahmad Hany Hossny
Faculty of Computyers and Information Faculty of computers and Information Centre for Intelligent Systems Research
Cairo University Cairo University Deakin University
Cairo, Egypt Cairo, Egypt Geelong, Australia
khaled.elahmed@gmail.com n.eltazi@fci-cu.edu.eg ahmad.hossny@deakin.edu.au

Abstract—The rapid increase in data on social media creates best features for better sentiment results. Using crowdsourcing
a need for mining such data to get valuable insights. The data [7] and public crowd experience in labeling can be one of
type can be unstructured with large volumes. Sentiment analysis
addresses such need by detecting opinions or emotions on the
the techniques that are used to enhance the sentiment analysis
social media text. Sentiment analysis can be performed in various results according to the crowd labeling as well as on feedback
domains such as social, medical and industrial applications. This given on sentiment classes. Data cleaning [8] and data integra-
paper presents a survey about sentiment analysis addressing tion [9], [10] also serve as enhancement techniques towards
the different concepts in this area, problems and its solutions, better sentiment analysis results.
available APIs, tools used and presenting a list of open challenges
in this area.
Spam or fake sentiment detection in reviews or posts is an
Index Terms—Social Media, Sentiment Analysis, Feature Se- important application of the the sentiment analysis[11], [8].
lection, Recommendation, Spam Detection, Sentiment Lexicons Sentiment analysis also can be used to define trust over social
and Emotion Detection network for a brand or a service [12] or to build recommen-
dation systems [13], [4], which recommend a service, a place
I. I NTRODUCTION or a product for user.
Most of the data that exist in social networks is unstructured
[1]. Such unstructured data is approximately 80% of the data
all over the world. This makes it difficult to analyze and gain
valuable insights from such data. Sentiment analysis or opinion
mining are two important techniques, which help in detecting
emotions and opinions on social media data. This can help
in solving many problems and provide many indicators in
election, public opinion, and advertisement, health care and
public satisfaction.
Discovering hidden patterns from data by applying analysis
and data mining techniques over data can help in discovering
many indictors [2], [3], [4], [5], [29]. Sentiment analysis
helps in bioinformatics such as cancer detection, as well as in
predicting future stock market trends by analyzing and mining
social media posts. Applying mining techniques and sentiment
analysis over unstructured data is considered a big challenge
in the sentiment analysis research area.
Sentiment analysis can be applied in four levels: sentence,
aspect and document and user level. This can be performed
using machine learning (clustering or classification), lexi-
con, NLP, Ontology or hybrid techniques. There are many
enhancement methods to enhance sentiment analysis results
such as feature selection, data integration, data cleaning, and
crowdsourcing.
Fig. 1. The Different phases of sentiment mining including the steps to build
Feature selection is used for choosing suitable features from the model and the steps to use it later in medical and social applications
text that enhance sentiment analysis results. Feature selection
has multiple techniques [6], which are applied for choosing The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section II
describes sentiment analysis levels. Section III presents the

978-1-4799-8697-2/15 $31.00 © 2015 IEEE 2174

DOI 10.1109/SMC.2015.380
state of the art sentiment analysis techniques. Section IV states
sentiment analysis enhancement techniques. Section V presents
recent applications and models. Section VI presents a list of
available sentiment analysis tools, APIs and lexicons . Section
VII presents a list of accuracy measures used for evaluating
the sentiment analysis techniques. Section VIII presents open
challenges in this research area and the conclusion of this paper
is presented in Section IX.
II. S ENTIMENT ANALYSIS LEVELS
Applying sentiment analysis over big data [14] leads to a lot
of insights and business benefits. Sentiment Analysis, opinion
mining or emotion detection is the process of extracting
sentiment from text which is commonly used over online
unstructured text like micro-blogger data and social media data
streams [15].
Sentiment analysis can be applied on four different levels
[16]. Level 1 is the sentence level, which detects positive,
negative and neutral sentiment for each sentence. Level 2 is the
document level, which detects the whole document sentiment
as one unit or one entity positive or negative or neutral. Third
level is the aspect level and it is used in case of the availability
of attributes inside entity, post or input text. Each attribute can
hold a sentiment in its own. For example, a customer review on
a mobile phone has the attributes battery life, screen light and
other attributes. Each attribute can have a different sentiment
Consider the following example on a sentence level: happy
to meet you is considered a positive sentence, while My phone
is very interesting but need enhancement in some issues is
considered a positive in document level if the whole text was
considered as one entity.
The aspect level can lead to a better analysis and results if
taken into consideration. Consider the following example on
the aspect level: My phone is really nice but I have a bad
battery. It contains slow applications but I am happy with
its screen. The aspect here is the phone while the attributes
are battery, applications, and screen. Sentiment detection can
lead to the following results (battery, negative), (application,
negative), (screen, positive).
Some sentiment analysis techniques apply grouping on the
aspect level where all attributes having the same sentiment
result are grouped together. The grouping of the previous
example will lead to the following result: (battery, application,
and negative) and (screen, Positive).
The fourth level is the user level which handles the social
relationships between different users using graph theory [16].
Consider the following example: A is a user who has a friend
B connected to him. User B is always mentioned in user A
posts, always gains likes and shares from user A.. User A
might have the same opinion or sentiment as user B. This can
be the result of the influence of user B on user A and how
much such user can affect user B opinion. The user level takes
such influence into consideration.
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III. S ENTIMENT ANALYSIS METHODS
A. Sentiement analysis lexicons
Sentiment analysis is the process of defining positive or
negative or neutral feeling through text [6] . There are three
solutions for defining the text sentiment, the first is to label
text manually and this takes a lot of effort. The second is
using NLP, Lexicon or machine learning solution. The third is
hybrid, which uses human experts or crowdsourcing in giving
feedback of sentiment analysis results or in labeling training
data sets.
There are two types of lexicons [17]. The first type is corpus
lexicon, which is divided into two types (semantic oriented,
statistical oriented). Corpus lexicon, such as SenticNet [12] can
achieve more accurate sentiment results as it is context oriented
not similarity of words oriented. An example of semantic
oriented lexicons can be found in [18] where the authors dealt
with the meaning of words based on a concept net lexicon.
On the other hand, in [19] the authors presented a statistical
method in defining sentiments.
The second type of lexicons is dictionary based. In [20],
two dictionaries were presented. The first is a word dictionary,
which ripped with human emotion. The second is a topic
modeling or a topic oriented dictionary, which is helpful
in aspect sentiment analysis. Some researchers [21] tackles
dictionary based lexicons by integrating existing seeds or
dictionaries to build more valuable multi domain dictionaries.
B. Sentiment analysis and NLP
Using of NLP, natural language processing, one can achieve
accurate sentiment results by resolving context of words, the
implicit or indirect meaning of words challenges. Stanford sen-
timent Treebank [22] provides a solution for these challenges
on a sentence level. The authors in [23] proved that the using
of NLP, lemmatizes, n-grams (unigram bigram or trigram),
negations, valence shifters and stemming as a preprocessing
phase will enhance sentiment results. Hash-tags can also help
in indicting tweets or posts polarity or objective [15], it can
also be used to identify the author using his writing-print or
the stylometry of the tweets [24] .
C. Sentiment analysis and machine learning
Machine learning solutions, are supervised using labeled
trained data, unsupervised without trained labeled data and
semi-supervised with mixed of labeled and unlabeled data.
Supervised learning [6] , has a different classifiers to handle
the classification process based on the trained data. Classifiers
include but are not limited to decision tree classifier, linear
classifier (support vector machine, neural network), rule based
classifier, or probabilistic classifier (Bayesian network, maxi-
mum Entropy, nave bayes). Decision Tree classifier presents a
hierarchy division of the trained data based on a condition.
Linear classifier support vector machine (SVM) linearly
separates trained data based on the highest or maximum margin
and lowest generalization error in the classification process.
The Linear equation is:
Y = Bx + A.
where point(X, Y ) has two dimensional values X, Y
and A is constant value.
(1)
Equation 2 is used to check if a point with value X can be
classified in a certain class.
n

W = α j yj x j (2)
j=0
Linear classifier Neural network iterates over the data the
data is classified. The results of each iteration is taken as a
feedback to the next iteration to return a better classification
with the smallest error values.
Probabilistic classifier Nave Bayes calculates word distri-
bution in a document and uses it to forecast the suitable class
or label for a feature or word. This classifier is based on the
assumption of independent features as presented in Equation
3.
(P (label) ∗ P (f eatures|label))
P ((label)|f eatures) =
P (f eatures)
(3)
On the other hand, the probabilistic classifier Bayesian
network [25] is based on the assumption of dependent features
It is an acyclic graph of nodes with a set variables and
dependency edges as presented in Equation 4, where a, b, c
and are features.
a the number of data source files or documents. Pj is a global
P (a, b, c, d) = P ( ) ∗ P (b, c, d) (4)
b, c, d
The probabilistic classifier, Maximum Entropy [6] encodes
the features into vector space to calculate the weight of feature
for labeled class in feature set (fs) where d is a dot product
f eatures
P( )
labels
(5)
d(weights, encoded(f s, label))
=
d(weights, encoded(f s, label)f or all labels)
Rule based classifier [26] is based on a set of rules. Decision
trees and sequential algorithms are useful for If-then rules
using FOIL pruning (FP) or Rule pruning.
On the other hand, unsupervised learning deals with unla-
beled data for performing the clustering process using LDA
and HowNet lexicon [27]. In [28], the authors presented clus-
tering based on document similarity. While in [1], a framework
was presented, which automated detecting hotspots from online
shared data (online forums data using K-means and SVM
classifier. SVM Classifier was also used in [9] to define public
users opinion towards products. And Nave Bayes SVM was
used in [29] on several medical forums data. Meanwhile,
Semi-supervised learning deals with labeled and unlabeled
data as presented in [6]. Ensemble learning techniques were
presented in [30] to resolve language ambiguity problem and
produce more accurate polarity prediction with combination of
classifiers.
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IV. S ENTIMENT ANALYSIS ENHANCEMENT METHODS
A. Sentiment anaylsis data cleaning
Data cleaning [31], [8] is an important preprocessing phase
which enhances sentiment analysis results. Data cleaning
operations include tokenizing, stemming and filtering. Data
cleaning can be applied in two phases [31], data transformation
and data filtering.
Data transformation [31], [8] operations involve but are not
limited to removing useless spaces, handling abbreviations and
negations, stemming and removing stop words. Data filtering
[31] is related to selecting features which are suitable for
sentiment analysis.
B. Dimension Reduction
Dimension reduction [28] is the process of reducing high
dimensions using two methods either feature selection or fea-
ture extraction. Feature extraction is a transformative method
which applies a transformation on the data to project it into a
new feature space with lower dimensions.
Feature selection [28] is the process of selecting features
from the original data set based on specific selection criteria
taking into consideration that the result subset has the smallest
classification error with lossless content meaningure.
Feature selection algorithms include Chi-square, Latent
semantic indexing and Point-wise Mutual Information (PMI).
Chi-square algorithm is used to define features. Suppose F(w)
is a global fraction of a data source, w is a word and n is
fraction of data sources which contains the class labels while
pj (w) is the conditional probability for class label j, which
contains a word w and X2 represents the goodness of fit of a
set of values and the expected value to select the best suitable
feature from a set of candidate features to represent the classes.
The equation of Chi-square is presented in Equation 6.
n.F (w)2 .(pj (w) − pi )2
x2j = ( (6)
(F (w)(1 − F (w)).pj ..(1 − pj )
Point-wise Mutual Information (PMI), can help in defining
mutual information between classes and features.. As presented
in Equation 7, Mj (W ) is the mutual information between class
j and word w and Pj (W ) is the probability of a word w in
class label j.
Pj (W )
Mj (W ) = log( ) (7)
Pj
Applying Feature Frequency (FF), Feature Presence (FP)
and term frequency inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) as in
[31] lead to better feature selection. Feature frequency selects
the words or features which are most frequent in a class or a
document as presented in Equation 8 where w is a word and
j is the class. Wo is the word or feature occurrence. For all
feature of word use i.
  i,j
F F = M ax( Wo ) (8)
i,j
 Feature presence, on the other hand, concerns with the
presence or absence of a feature inside a document. Term fre-
quency inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) merges the two
concepts of term frequency and inverse document frequency.
It presents a composite weight for each feature or word within
a document as shown in Equation 9 where N is the number
of documents, DF is the document frequency, which is the
number of documents that contain the features and FF is the
Feature Frequency.
T F − IDF = F F ∗ log (N/DF ) (9)
C. Sentiment Analysis and Data Intergation.
Data is integrated, from different sentiment lexicons for
sentiment analysis classification. This integration is performed
by combining, filtering and deleting the duplicated data from
individual dictionaries. Available dictionaries include AFINN,
General Inquirer, Micro-WNOp, Opinion Lexicon, SenticNet,
SentiSense, SentiWordNet, SO-CAL, Subjectivity Lexicon and
WordNet-Affect [9].
Using data-driven or data integration lexicons builds a
high quality sentiment lexicon, which enhances the sentiment
detection results. Other approaches [10] involve integrating
user reviews with the users profile by presenting the integration
in a multi-dimensional model for opinion mining. A similar
approach EMOTube [10] integrated YouTube movie reviews
using Mashups for a better classification of reviews. Moreover,
a semantic integration [32] was performed on different data
sources from different social and medical domains as a way
to enhance prediction of diseases.
D. Sentiment Analysis and Crowdsourcing
Crowdsourcing is the science of resolving a problem or
task by the help of crowd [5]. Crowdsourcing can help in
providing more accurate sentiment analysis results. Crowd can
help in assigning labels to training data set or giving feedback
about sentiment classification results, which can enhance the
predication and the classification models.
Crowdsourcing was used extensively in enhancing senti-
ment analysis results [5], [7]. It was used in [5] to predict and
measure depression over social media through twitter tweets
using SVM classifier. In [7] authors proved that the use of
crowdsourcing resulted in more accurate sentiment detection
for topic and sentiment classification in social media data.
E. Sentiment Analysis and Ontologies
Ontology based sentiment analysis systems produces more
efficient classifiers and presents more detailed analysis about
the results. Ontologies were used in building visual ontology
system called Sentibank [33], [14] over the attached images
in posts. This helped in detecting emotions in the images.
The same model was also trained to predict emotions in new
images. Another approach [34] presented a fuzzy ontology
model for opinion mining based on HowNet. This approach
was built over a micro blogging data where the emotions were
divided into hate, surprise, anxiety, sorrow, anger, expected
joy and love. In [33], authors built a sentiment analysis
2177
ontology framework using OpenDover to define aspects that
are related to tweet topics. Ontologies [35] proved to enhance
the results as they provide the semantics rather than only
syntactic matching.
F. Sentiment Analysis And Spam Detection
Fake and spam sentiments on social media leads to inac-
curate sentiment detection results. In [36], [11] the authors
extracted geographic user characteristics and tweets content-
based features to discover spam sentiment within text. Charac-
teristics to define fake sentiment include but are not limited to
speed of publishing a tweet/post , the tweet/post location fake
writing identity, number of mentions, number of hash tags,
emotions, URLs in tweet/post and number of tweets/posts or
posts per day. Building user profiles [36] over social networks
or defining online identity can help in detecting fake spam
sentiment contents and fake spam users.
G. Sentiment Analysis And User Profiling
Online user identity and user profiling helps in making the
sentiment analysis results more accurate as it measures polarity
based on the user profile in addition to the post polarity. In
[37], the authors proved that there is a strong relationship
between online user identity and the users contribution in
blogs. They divided the online users into classes based on
their online features like (kindness, social skills, creativity).
Others presented profiling models [37], [38] to either predict
the political interests of users or data publishing interests [38].
H. Sentiment Analysis And Text Summarization
Sentiment summarization is the process of summarizing
sentiment according to a specific domain or a topic, also called
target based summarization. A hybrid system for target or
aspect oriented summarization was presented in [38] where the
authors defined features of the aspect (product or service) and
applied sentiment analysis to classify the available sentiments.
Another attempt of summarization was carried out in [17]
where a summarization of Arabic tweets was performed to
generate specific topics rather than reading all the tweets.
V. S ENTIMENT A NALYSIS A PPLICATIONS
A. Social Applications
Sentiment analysis has been used extensively in social
applications. Some existing applications include monitoring vi-
olence by detecting violence polarity in tweets [30], predicting
election results and public attention [39], determining satisfac-
tion of places and recommending those places accordingly [13]
and monitoring and tracking students opinions in education [2].
Another application for sentiment analysis is to enhance the
machine translation quality by detecting the implicit emotion
of the text that may change the meaning such as the sarcasm
[40]
B. Medical and Health applications
Applying sentiment analysis on medical data can help in
defining and predicting suicide rates, depression rates [5],
monitoring and tracking healthy and unhealthy areas according
to tweets as well as ranking doctors according to patients
satisfaction (from posts) and experience levels [41].
C. Industrial applications
In industry, sentiment analysis was used in brand monitor-
ing [42], stock market prediction [43], predicting box office
results according to users tweets [3] and measuring user
satisfaction levels [44].
VI. TOOLS, L EXICONS AND API S
A. Tools and APIs
A list of available sentiment analysis tools include but are
not limited to Weka [23], R [4], NLTK [13], QDA Miner [4],
ifeel[45] and OntoGen [33].
B. Lexicons
Common used Lexicons [9] are AFINN, General inquirer
Micro-WNOp, Opinion Lexicon, SentiNet, SentiSense, Senti-
wordnet, SO-CAL, WordNet.affect, NRC-emotion, NRC Hash
tag, Sentiment 140, Sentistrengh, Liu and OpioionFinder.
VII. SENTIMENT ANALYSIS EVALUATION
Sentiment analysis results are evaluated according to several
measures. As presented in Table 1, a correct classification of
a positive data is named A, an incorrect classification of a
negative data is named B, while an incorrect classification of
a positive data is named C and correct one is named D. Using
these notations, one can calculate the different measures that
can be used to evaluate the results using Recall, Precision,
F-measure and Accuracy as presented in Equations 10 to 13.
Positive data Negative Data
Predicted positive A B
Predicted Negative C D
TABLE I
ACCURACY M EASURES FACTORS
A
Recall =
A+B
Another measure is Correlation coefficient which is used to
measure the similarity of the predicted value to the original
one as indicated in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. Correlation coefficient degree
Moreover, Relative error and Relative error percentage
measures are used to measure error or error rate value. These
errors can exist in any of classification, clustering or prediction
process. Equations 14 and 15 calcuate both measures consid-
ering the actual correct value as A and the predicated value as
P.
|P − A|
Relativeerror = (14)
A
|P − A|
Relativeerrorpercentage = ∗e (15)
A
VIII. O PEN P ROBLEMS AND R ESEARCH G APS
Sentiment analysis is still a hot topic which contains several
open challenges and research gaps. These challenges include
building multilingual classifiers, building common user profile
by integrating the same user data from different social media
applications, and enhancing Stanford Treebank by adding the
ability to be applied at aspect level or document level instead of
sentence level. In addition to handling implicit word meaning
and indirect text, building domain independent lexicon or
classifiers, building real time sentiment analysis systems which
can dynamically capture new data and enhances results ac-
cording to feedback. Moreover, one can also investigate multi
labeling and clustering using unsupervised dynamic clustering
and multi label feature selection in enhancing the sentiment
analysis results.
(10)
IX. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS

Sentiment analysis, opinion mining or emotion detection

A
P recision = (11) is the process of defining feeling or emotion through text.
A+C
Sentiment analysis is a very important process as it pro-
vides many valuable indictors in different domains such as
2 ∗ Recall ∗ precision medical, social and industrial domains. This survey presented
F − M easure = (12) sentiment analysis levels, techniques, enhancement methods,
Recall + P recision
applications, list of APIs, lexicons, tools and existing research
gaps. Future work will consider comparing the state of the art
A+D techniques presented through this paper using the same data
Accuracy = (13) set across all the different techniques to be able to evaluate the
A+B+C +D
best techniques used.

2178
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