Automobile Engineering

Department: Mechanical Engineering

Semester: Vth semester
Batch Admitted: 2012-2013
Academic Year: 2014-2015
Title of the Course: Automobile Engineering
Name of faculty: Dr. V Joshua Jaya Prasad

Internal Marks: 30 External Marks: 70 Credits: 3

Course Objective:

After completion of the subject student should able to explain the following:

Module-1

 Automobile chassis and body, different loads acted over the body, specifications of an
automobile.
 The resistances acted over the automobile vehicle and the calculation of tractive force and
draw bar pull
 Automobile engine construction details, and details of components like piston, connecting
rod, crank shaft, cam shaft, valves etc.
 Automobile engine associated systems like cooling system, lubrication system.
 Motor vehicle act.
 Automobile braking systems

Module-2
 Automobile transmission system components such as clutch, gear box, universal joint,
propeller shaft, differential unit, rear axles and their housings.
Module-3

 Automobile control systems such as steering and suspension systems.

 Adoption of non conventional fuels on the auto mobile engines.

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  The concepts related to automobile pollutants and their reduction.

1.1 Introduction to Automobile Engineering:

Automobile engineering is the subject which deals with self propelled vehicle. The
name it self shows that Auto means it generates power by it self, Mobile means it can be move from
one place to other. All conventional automobile engines takes the heat energy by the combustion of
fuel and it is converted into mechanical energy. For non-conventional automobile engines, electrical
energy, fuel cells, solar energy, hydrogen energy and other forms of energies are used. In some of the
vehicles combination of energies are use to run the vehicle, such vehicles are known as hybrid
vehicles.

1.2 Over view of Automobile Engineering:

Automobile Engineering broadly classified as follows:

a. Automobile power plant
b. Automobile Transmission system
c. Automobile control systems
d. Automobile electrical system
e. Automobile body engineering
f. Automobile servicing and Maintenance
g. Non-conventional Automobile vehicles

1.2.a Automobile Power Plant: This portion of the automobile engineering deals with, how the
power is developed in the Engine?, and engine associated systems to run the engine safely and
comfortably. The associated systems are:
i. Fuel feed system.
ii. Lubricating system.
iii. Cooling system
iv. Ignition system
the constructional details of automobile engine, engine components and the
components related to the engine associated systems also related to Automobile power plant.

1.3.b. Automobile Transmission system: This portion of automobile engineering deals with, how
the power is transferred from the engine to road wheels?. While transfer the power clutch, gear box,
universal joints, propeller shaft, differential and rear axels are involved. Hence the constructional
details, working and different types of power transmission components are covered in the
Automobile transmission system.

1.3.c Automobile control system: Controlling of the total vehicle is desired to run the vehicle
properly. Direction control is done by the steering system, speed control is done by the braking
system and fluctuation control is done by the suspension system. Hence under this area types of
steering, braking and suspension systems, their construction details and their working are covered,

1.3.d Automobile Electrical system: Now a days heavy duty engines used in the market. If the
engine is heavy duty, obviously one can’t start the engine manually. With the help of starting motor
only one can start the engine and the starting motor run by battery. The starting motor draws very
huge amount of electric current at the time of starting. Hence the battery should be charged during
the running of the vehicle. For the other electrical bulbs and for accessories a separate electrical
system is required. In the case of SI engines one has to design the ignition system also. Hence in the
automobile electrical system one can study the staring system, charging system, ignition system,
electrical accessories and electrical lighting.
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1.3.e. Automobile Body engineering: In this area one can study the different types of automobile
bodies, their construction, stress over the body, different resistance to automobile body, body repairs
and body painting.

1.3.f Automobile servicing and maintenance: In this portion of the automobile engineering
preventive maintenance, running maintenance, Kilometer maintenance, Hourly maintenance and
Breakdown maintenance are covered. Reconditioning procedures for the engine like reboring,
honing, valve grinding, valve lapping, valve seat cutting, line boring etc. are also covered in this
area. Reconditioning of engine associated systems and transmission components also included in the
automobile servicing and maintenance.

1.3.g Non-conventional & hybrid automobile engines: In this portion one can cover the
implementation of the different alternative energy resources like solar, hydrogen, electrical etc. to
run the vehicle.

As per the BPUT syllabus, in the automobile engineering Automobile chassis

and body, different resistances on the vehicle, braking system, automobile transmission system,
automobile control system, Electrical system and Electrical vehicles are covered

1.4 Automobile Chassis and body:

The main components of automotive vehicle are

a. Chassis
b. Body
Chassis is the structural foundation of a vehicle upon all the other components
assembled. Except body everything related to the vehicle contained by the chassis i.e. the chassis
consists of Frame, Engine & associated systems, power transmission system, wheels and control
systems like steering, Braking and suspension systems. Chassis are classified into
1. Conventional Chassis: when the engine is mounted infront of the drivers cabin it
is called as conventional control chassis. In this space is not utilized fully.
2. Semi-forward chassis: from the drivers cabin, the engine 50% infront and
remaining 50% parallel to drivers cabin.
3. Full forward Chassis: in this type engine is mounted completely in the drivers
cabin and parallel to the drivers seat.

1.4.1 Components of the Chassis:

Frame:
Frame is the back bone of an automobile vehicle. It gives the support to all the
components and it has to withstand for all the static and dynamic loads. Below the frame wheels,
brakes and suspension system are connected, above the frame engine, transmission components,
steering, electrical systems and body are connected. In the frames two types are existed
1. Rigid frame
2. Integral frame

Rigid Frame: This is the frame separately prepared with low carbon alloy steel. For the heavy motor
vehicle and light motor vehicles this type of frames are preferred. Model frames are shown in the
following diagram,

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 In the rigid frames two longitudinal members and 6 to 8 cross members as per our
requirement provided. Generally the longitudinal members are in the Chanel shape, and cross
members are either I-section or channel or box type. Some of the frames are provided with the X-
member to prevent the sliding tendency of longitudinal members. All the members of frame provided
with holes to maintain the static balance as well as to reduce the unnecessary weight. The front
portion of the longitudinal members comes near when compared with rear portion to accommodate
the engine and steering system conveniently. Generally the steering system is attached to the front
wheels so that one has to give the proper clearance for the maximum steering angle, it is provided in
the front of the frame. Suspension brackets are provided at front and rear portion of the frame to
connect the suspension system. cross members gives the support to the Clutch housing , gearbox,
Universal joints and other accessories. Depending on the requirement and type of vehicle the design
of frame will vary.

Integral frame: The integral frame, Integral with the body of the vehicle. Generally this type frames
are preferred for the cars which carries low weight. In the integral frames lower panel and upper
panels are separately prepared in die forging and the connected at the bottom with welding. Hence
the structure seems like a box as shown below,

In this design the weight of the vehicle is reduced, and streaming can be done conveniently. In the
manufacturing point of view also, it is very easy to construct. To locate the engine, suspension
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steering, wheels and other accessories corresponding mounting are provided in the frame as shown in
the fig.

1.5 Engine: Engine is the power generating unit and it generally located in the front portion of the
vehicle.:
Based on the different parameters automobile engine are classified as follows:
1) According to the cycle of operations:
 2 – stroke engines
 4 – stroke engines
2) According to the cycle of combustion:
 Otto cycle
 Diesel cycle
 Dual cycle
3) According to arrangement of cylinders:
 Horizontal engine
 Vertical engine
 V – type engine
 Radial engine
4) According to their usage:
 Stationery engines
 Portable engines
 Marine engines
 Automobile engines
 Aero engines
5) According to the type of fuel employed:
 Oil engine
 Petrol engine
 Diesel engine
 Gas engine
 Kerosene engine
6) According to the method of ignition:
 Spark ignition engine
 Compression ignition engine
7) According to the method of cooling systems :
 Air cooled engine
 Water cooled engine
8) According to the valve arrangements:
 L – head engine
 I - head engine (Overhead valve engine)
 F – head engine
 T – head valve engine
9) According to the number of cylinders:
 Single cylinder engine
 Multi cylinder engine

Engine associated systems: To run the engine within the operating temperature with good
efficiency the engine is associated with different systems like lubricating system, cooling system,
ignition system, starting & charging system, fuel fed system.

Power transmission system or running Gear: Many components such as clutch, gear box,
universal joint propeller shaft, differential and axels are involved in the power transmission from
engine to road wheels. Collectively these components are known as power transmission system or
running gear.

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Steering system, Braking system, Suspension system: These three systems can be called as control
systems for an automobile vehicle. Steering system gives the direction control, braking system gives
the speed control and suspension system gives the fluctuation control.

Wheels and Tyres: For the moving of the vehicle wheels and tyres are required. These should give
the minimum rolling resistance as well as strong enough to with stand for the total weight of the
vehicle and different load acted during the travel of the vehicle.

Body: It is the super structure of the vehicle. According to the requirements one can built the body.
But it should with stand for the driving torque, braking torque, cornering forces and vertical loads
acted over it. The body shoul give the minimum resistance to the air.

1.6 Classification of automobile vehicles:

Based on the load bearing capacity:
1. Heavy Motor vehicles & Light motor vehicles
a) Passenger vehicles: These are meant for transport the passengers from one place to
another place. Hence it is generally specified with the seating capacity.
b) Goods carriers: These are meant for transport the goods from one place to another
place. Hence it is generally specified with the tonnage that can be carried.
c) Transport vehicles and Non Transport vehicles: Transport vehicle is used for the
commercial purpose, Non transport vehicle is used for own operations.
2. Two wheelers
a. With Gear
b. Without gear
3. Special purpose vehicles: Ambulances, milk vans, fire service vehicles and other
emergency vehicles.
4. Heavy earthmoving Vehicles: Dumpers, loaders, caterpillar vehicles, Road rollers, and
civil Construction vehicles, Bulldozers etc.
5. Based on drives:
a. Single wheel drives, two wheel drives, three wheel drives, four wheel drives.
b. Front drive vehicles, rear wheel drive vehicles
c. Left side steering vehicles, Right side steering vehicles.

1.7 According to the Power transmission Automobile vehicles are classified as

Front Engine-
1. Rear wheel drive
2. Front wheel drive
3. Four wheel drive
Rear Engine-
4. Rear wheel drive

1. Rear wheel drive: In the rear wheel drive vehicles the Engine is located at the front, and the
power is transferred to the rear wheels through clutch, gearbox, universal joint, propeller shaft,
differential and rear axles as shown in the fig. Steering system provided to the front wheels, due to
this separation maintenance of steering system as well as transmission system is very convenient.
Now a day’s most of the vehicles are provided with rear wheel drive.

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 Rear wheel drive provides the separation in between steering engine and live wheels.
Front axel is dead axel, Hence the steering system will be simplified and it is easy to give any
maintenance. For the other transmission components also one can give the maintenance
independently. When the vehicle is moving in forward direction, the air will moves in the opposite
direction. So that air flow over the engine and it also reduce the work required to suck the air over
the radiator by fan. The space available for luggage boot also good in this case.

2. Front wheel drive:

In the front wheel drive vehicles the Engine is located at the front, and the power is
transferred to the front wheels through clutch, gearbox, universal joint, and propeller shaft,
differential. Steering system provided to the front wheels. In this case front wheels are live wheels.
Hence one has to provide the differential for the front wheels and steering system also provided to
the front wheels. Due to this complexity, it is difficult to give the maintenance for the engine and
transmission components. For maintains and repair of transmission components a number of other
components are need to be remove. Front wheel drive fig. shown below. The total weight of the
engine and transmission components is acted over the front wheels. Hence it leads to hard steering.

3. Four-wheel drive: In the four-wheel drive power is supplied to the front wheels as well as rear
wheels. Generally these vehicles are preferred in hill areas where the roads are not good. The torque
obtained is high in these vehicles. In addition to the main gear box an additional transfer gear box is
provided. So that the vehicle is commonly runs as rear wheel drive and transfer gear box is engaged
to convert as four wheel drive

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4.Rear Engine rear wheel Drive: In this drive the engine is mounted at rear of the vehicle and rear
wheels are the live wheels. Due to less distance in between gear box output shaft to differential unit,
small propeller shaft is enough. More space is available at the driver’s cabin. For the steering system
also space is more and due to less weight over the front wheels, it is easy to steer the vehicle.
But in this case, lengthy gear selecting levers, clutch operating levers and
accelerator linkages are required. Just like in front wheel drive, here also maintenance difficulty is
existed. When the vehicle negotiating a curve, the centrifugal force acted over the vehicle at rear will
be higher and it leads to lateral slipping of the rear wheels. When the vehicle moves in forward
direction it creates a partial vacuum at the rear portion. It reduces the efficiency of the cooling
system. Due to providing of engine at rear, the inside space also reduce. Hence more luggage one
can’t carry. Commercial feasibility is not existed.

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1.8 Principal of operation of a conventional Automobile engine:
In the IC Engines air fuel mixture is kept under sufficient pressure exerted by the piston and
it is burnt in that confined space i.e in combustion chamber. The burning is caused for evolution of
heat, the heat caused for the expansion of the gaseous products, that expansion creates thrust force
over the cylinder walls and piston. Cylinder walls are the fixed boundaries and piston is movable
boundary, therefore piston will move and that motion is converted as useful mechanical energy
through connecting rod and crank shaft. It can be explained diagrammatically as follows:

To satisfy this principle, 4 strokes are designed and each stroke takes 180o crank
angle, and strokes in the case of vertical engines are expressed as movement of piston from
T.D.C to B.D.C or from B.D.C to T.D.C. To send the air, fuel mixture into the cylinder, inlet
valve is provided and to exhaust the combustion products, an exhaust valve is provided and these
valves are operated with separate operating mechanisms. The four strokes are:

1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Expansion stroke
4. Exhaust stroke (Detailed explanation is in the IC Engines subject)

1.9 Engine construction:

Any automobile engine basically consists of three structural parts. Cylinder head, cylinder
block, crank case & oil sump. To these structural components different components like piston,
crankshaft, cam shaft etc., and different systems like lubrication, fuel feed, cooling, ignition are
associated. Details are explained as follows:

1.CYLINDER BLOCK:

A cylinder block consists of ,

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  Cylinder liners in which the pistons slide up and down
 Provision for the valve mechanism
 Passages for the flow of cooling water and lubricating oil.
 Provision for mounting crank shaft, cam shaft
 On the top of the block provision for fixing the cylinder head, and at the bottom for engine oil
sump.

Piston reciprocates in the Cylinder block, so it has to has withstand for wear, it is
subjected to stresses produced during combustion, so that it has to withstand for direct and thermal
stresses. By considering these the cylinder block is usually made of gray cast iron, and some of the
cylinder blocks are alloyed with nickel and chromium. Some blocks are cast from aluminium alloy in
which cast iron or steel sleeves are used. Cast iron is a satisfactory cylinder wall material because of
its better wearing qualities. In some engines, the cylinder walls are also plated with chromium. It is
done so because chromium is a very hard material and it reduces wall wear and increases the service
life. Silicon-Aluminum alloys can also be used as a cylinder material as these alloys have high
coefficient of thermal expansion and high wear resistance.
The composition of cast iron cylinder is as follows:
Iron 95%
Carbon 2.2%
Silicon 1.2%
Manganese 0.63%
Sulphur 0.12%
Phosphorous 0.85%
At the bottom of the block is provided with Crank shaft mountings, cam shaft mountings,
provision for fixing oil pump and engine oil sump. Top of the cylinder block is provided with
threaded holes to fix the studs and cylinder head is fixed above the block after placing gasket in
between them.
At the center cylindrical barrels (cylinder liners) are
Provided for piston movement and around the cylinder
Liners water jackets are provided. Passages are provided
Inside to circulate the lubricating oil from the sump to
Crank shaft, cam shaft, valve mechanism and for other
Moving components associated with the cylinder block.

2. CYLINDER HEAD:
The cylinder head is usually made of aluminium alloy or gray cast
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iron. Aluminium has the advantages of light weight and high heat
conductivity. The cylinder head is cast separately from the
cylinder block so that it may be removed for cleaning carbon and
grinding valves very easily. To ensure gas tight joint in between
cylinder block and head a gasket is placed between them.
Depending on the valve layout, the cylinder head may carry the
camshaft, rockers and valves. Water passages are provided in the
head adjacent to the valves and plug seating lubricating oil
passages also provided in the head to lubricate valve operating
mechanism.
Advantages of aluminium alloy cylinder head over cast iron:
 Higher heat conductivity
 Light in weight
 Better cooling during running conditions
 Increased compression ratio without detonation
 Greater power output and low fuel consumption due to higher compression ratio and
better cooling effect.
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  Engine warms up quickly and requires a smaller radiator.
Disadvantages:
 Engine costs more due to usage of aluminium alloy
 Greater clearance is required between piston and cylinder due to higher thermal
expansion.
 It is liable to crusting due to low modulus of elasticity.
 Greater possibility of corrosion by cooling water.
 Due to interaction with the steel studs and aluminium alloy corrosion may
accelerated.

Engine Head Gasket:

A gasket is placed between the cylinder head and the cylinder block to prevent the leakage of charge
under compression in the cylinder, and to ensure gas tight joint.
The requirements of a gasket are:
 It should withstand for high pressure around 70 – 75 bar or high temperatures (2000oC -
2500oC).
 It should not cause any leakage of water or oil.
 It should not cause misalignment of the cylinder block and the head.
Engine gaskets are made of either copper and asbestos or steel and asbestos embossed with steel
Following other gaskets are used at cylinder head and block as per the engine design:
 Copper – asbestos gasket
 Steel – asbestos gaskets
 Steel - asbestos – steel gasket
 Single steel ridged or corrugated gasket
 Stainless steel gasket

Cylinder Head Gasket

Other gaskets used in the Engine:

 OIL PAN GASKETS:

These are made of three different materials: cork, felcoid and felcoprene. These
gaskets are used in between oil sump and cylinder head to prevent leakage of oil. Cork has good
compressibility but it is subjected to shrinkage and expansion. Felcoid has also good
compressibility but it is less subjected to shrinkage and expansion. It can also withstand
sufficient bending and twisting without breakage. Felcoprene is a synthetic rubber material. It is
highly resilient and compressible. It is not affected by oils and greases.
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 MANIFOLD GASKETS:

These are of three types: Metal encased asbestos, felbestos and metal embossed shim
gasket. Metal encased gaskets are more resistant to burn out but are more expensive. Asbestos
and felbestos gaskets are used at the inlet manifold where the operating temperature is low and
metal embossed gaskets are used at the exhaust manifold where the operating temperature is
high.

 PUMP GASKETS:

These are made of felcoid. Felcoid is a combination of fiber and cork granules that is
more compressive and resilient. These are used at the pumps to prevent the leakage.

Inlet manifold Gasket

Engine oil Sump with Gasket

3. CRANKCASE:

In most of the engines crankcase is an integral unit with the cylinder block. For heavy
engines crankcase is separate part and It is attached to the bottom face of the cylinder block. The
function of crankcase is to provide support for the main journal bearings of the crankshaft. The
bottom of the crankcase wall is flanged to strengthen the casing and to provide with machined face
for the attaching of sump. The crankcase has to be such as to provide very high rigidity, because it
must provide reactions for the heavy forces set up due to gas pressures in the cylinders. The material
used for the crankcase is gray cast iron.

4. OIL PAN OR SUMP:

Oil pan is attached at the bottom of the crankcase and it is acts as a reservoir for
lubricating oil (SAE-20W40). It is usually made of pressed steel or aluminium. The oil pan serves as
a reservoir for the lubricating oil and it provides cooling and ventilation to the lubricating oil. The oil
pump in the lubricating system draws oil from the oil pan and sends it to all working parts in the
engine.

5. CYLINDER LINER:
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 The cylinder liners are in the form of barrels made of alloy iron, containing silicon,
manganese, nickel and chromium. They are cast centrifugally. These liners are of the oil hardening
type and offer longer life for the engine. These are directly fit to the cylinder block using press fit.
The cylinder liners are of two types:
 Dry liners
 Wet liners
A dry liner is made in the shape of a barrel having a flange at the top which keeps it
into position in the cylinder block. The entire outer surface of the dry liner, in contact with the
cylinder block casting and hence has to be machine very accurately on the outside also. Thus, it is
not in direct contact with cooling water and hence is known as dry liner. Its thickness ranges from
1.5mm to 3mm.
A wet liner forms a complete cylinder barrel. It is provided with a flange at the top
which fits into the groove in the cylinder block. At the bottom either the block are the liner is
provided with grooves, in which the packing rings made of rubber are inserted. The liner is in direct
contact with the cooling water , hence it does not required high quality finishing at the outer surface
Its thickness ranges from 1.5mm to 6mm.
COMPARISION OF DRY AND WET LINERS:
 A wet liner can be replaced easily and no special tool is required for this purpose.

 A wet liner is in direct contact with circulating water and hence reduces piston
temperature effectively.

 A wet liner has to be provided with leak proof joint between the cylinder casting and
the liner.
A wet liner can’t be finished accurately before fitting; where as a dry liner has to be finished
accurately before fitting.

6. Engine Components:
1. PISTON:
It is a gas tight plug type of machine component which receives the thrust force
during the combustion of the fuel and converts it into mechanical energy. The purpose of the
piston is to provide a means of conveying the expansion of the gases to the crank shaft, via the
connecting rod, without loss of gas from the above or below.

Requirements of piston:

 It should be withstand for high pressure and temperature.

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  It should be light to reduce the weight of the reciprocating masses and to
enable higher engine speeds.
 It should have good heat conductivity to reduce the risk of detonation and
hence provides high compression ratio.
 The material used to make piston should have low expansion.

Working conditions of piston:

 High pressure and high temperature.
 It is subjected to impact loads so it must withstand for the loads applied.
 It must reciprocate freely inside the cylinder.
 The piston boss portion is subjected to wear and shear.

The material used for pistons is mainly aluminium alloy. Aluminium pistons can be
either forged or cast. Cast iron is also used as piston material. But aluminium is best suited as piston
material. It is because it has high thermal coefficient and hence, it transfers heat to surroundings
more efficiently at low expansion rate. It is also light in weight and therefore the inertial forces are
reduced. It also possesses good strength towards impact loads.
Functions of a piston:

 It has to receives the thrust force and converts it into useful mechanical
energy.
 It has to acts as pressure tight plug, so that it creates suction during suction
stroke.
 It has to compress the charge to higher compression pressures without leaks.
 It has to give guidance to the direction of movement.
 It has to push the combustion products out from the cylinder perfectly.
Importance of piston clearance:
Clearance is provided in between piston and the cylinder walls, to ensure free
movement of the piston. If the clearance is more, then the charge will escape through the piston
clearance, and caused for loss of power. It also leads to sudden tilting of the piston as it moves down
in the power stroke. If the clearance is less, there will be power loss due to excessive friction, severe
wear and possible for seizure of the piston in the cylinder.

EXPANSION CONTROL IN PISTONS:

During operation, the piston runs many degrees hotter than the cylinder, because the
cylinder is surrounded by cooling water. Hence, the piston expands more than the cylinder. This
expansion must be controlled in order to avoid loss of adequate piston clearance. This problem may
persist in aluminium pistons because aluminium expands rapidly. To avoid this, following measures
can be taken:

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  By keeping away heat from the lower part of the piston as much as
possible: this can be done by cutting horizontal slots in the piston just below the lower oil control
ring groove. These slots reduce the path for the heat traveling from the cylinder head to the skirt.

 By making heat dam: Heat dam consists of a groove cut near the top of the
piston. This reduces the size of the path the heat can travel from the piston head to the skirt. And
hence the piston skirt does not expand much.

 By cam grinding the piston: The pistons are finished so that they are slightly
oval when cold. These pistons are called cam – ground pistons. When a cam ground piston warms
up, it turns to round shape. Its area of contact with the cylinder wall therefore increases. The minor
axis of the ellipse lies in the direction of the piston pin axis. The more expansion along minor axis
being caused by the piston posses. Thus, the piston after expansion at operating temperatures
becomes circular.

 By using struts: the piston expansion may also be controlled by using the
struts, band or belts passed into the piston .these cause the outward thrust of the expanding piston
head to be carried more toward the piston pin bosses then toward the trust faces so that the effect is
similar to that of the cam ground pistons .

PISTON HEAD SHAPES:

 Hemispherical
 Crown
 Dishes crown with valve recess
HIGH PERFORMANCE PISTONS:
Aluminium pistons can be either cast or forged. The forged piston is denser
and forms a better heat path to allow the heat to get away from the piston head. It has a grain flow
also that improves its bearing ability. The forged aluminium piston is lighter in comparison with the
cast iron pistons, and thus it produces low inertia forces as it accelerates and decelerates in the
cylinder hence ,forged piston is the preferred for high performance engines .some other high
performance pistons:
 LOW EXPANSION PISTONS (INVAR STRUT PISTONS): it has negligible coefficient of
expansion. It is made up of invar metal

 AUTOTHERMIC PISTONS: These contain low expansion steel inserts at the piston pin
bosses. These inserts are so molded that their ends are anchored in the piston skirt. In this case,
a bi-metallic distortion due to the different coefficients of expansion of the insert and the parent
mental, transfers some of the generous initial clearance provided on the gudgeon pin axis to the

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 thrust axis as the piston warms up. This action enables small clearances to be maintained on the
thrust axis in both the cold and hot conditions, giving quieter running.

 SPECIALLOID PISTON: The modern special alloyed diesel piston ribs on the internal
surface skirt and the solid piers which take the load directly from the crown to the gudgeon pin
bearing area. The crown, ring-belt, and skirt sections are proportioned to the thermal
characteristics, which results in a substantial reduction in operating temperatures, thereby
reducing the tendency for ring sticking and distortion of thermal cracking in the region of the
valve pockets on the rim of the combustion bowl.

7. PISTON RINGS:

Piston rings are fitted into the grooves of the piston to maintain good seal between the
piston and the cylinder wall. There are three functions of the piston rings as follows:
 To provide a pressure seal to prevent blow-by of burnt gases. Blow-by is the name that
describes the escape of burnt gases from the combustion chamber, past the piston, and into
the crankcase.

 To form the main path for conduction of heat from the piston crown to the cylinder walls.

 To control the flow of oil to the skirt and rings themselves in adequate quantity while
preventing an excessive amount reaching the combustion chamber with consequent waste and
carbonization.

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TYPES OF RINGS:
There are two types of piston rings:
 Compression rings
 Oil control rings
Compression rings: These rings tend to increase the compression ratio and arrests the leakage of
charge.

PISTON RING GAP:

Piston rings have gap so that they may be installed into the piston grooves and
removed when worn out by expanding them. The gap ensures that radial pressure
against the cylinder wall thus having effective seal to prevent leakage of heavy
combustion pressure. This gap must be checked because if this is too great due to
cylinder bore wear, the radial pressure will be reduced. The piston gap may be in the
range 0.178 mm to 0.5 mm.
8.PISTON PIN:
Piston pin connects the piston and the small end of the connecting rod. It is
generally hollow and is made of case hardened steel heat treated to produce a hard,
wear resisting surface. There are three methods to connect the piston pin:
 The pin is fastened to the piston by set screws through the piston boss
and has a bearing in the connecting rod.

 The pin is fastened to the connecting rod with a clamp screw. In this
case the piston bosses form the bearing.

 The pin floats in both the piston bosses and the small end of the
connecting rod. It is prevented from coming in contact with the
cylinder wall by two lock rings fitted in the outer end of the piston
bosses. These rings are called circlips. In this case, a bushing of
phosphor bronze is used in the small end of the connecting rod. The
bush develops very little wear and requires renewal only at long
intervals.

9. Different types of cylinder wears:

a. Taper wear
b. Elliptical wear
Inspection of Ovality and taper in the cylinder:
Ovality and taper tests indicates the geometric imperfections of the
cylinder. Total volume of the cylinder is divided into two parts, i.e.
clearance volume and swept volume. In the swept volume piston
reciprocates and wear takes place at swept volume due to reciprocating
motion of the piston. In the compression stroke entire charge is
compressed to clearance volume and the piston is at top dead center. At
end of the compression stroke air fuel mixer is ignited. Due to
spontaneous burning the air fuel mixer, pressure and temperature in the
clearance volume increased suddenly. Pressure exerted on cylinder walls
and piston, piston pushes down wards to bottom dead center, but due to
the pressure cylinder walls are tends to expand. Due continuous operation
of the engine clearance volume slightly expands. At the same time lower
portion of the cylinder is at less temperature than the top portion. As a
result of above effect cylinder gets tapered.

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 The elliptical wear of the cylinder is known as ovality and it occurs due to active and reactive
forces of the connecting rod. When the piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. the position of the
connecting rod and its orientation is as shown in fig and direction of active forces is in the upward
direction. When piston moves down wards in the power stroke connecting rod orientation is as
shown in fig. and it opposes the down word motion of the piston due to inertia as a result reactive
force will be acts in opposite direction. Due to these active and reactive forces of connecting rod,
diametrical opposite sides of the cylinder tends to enlarge. After long usage shape of the cylinder
will be forms into elliptical.

Geometrical imperfection of cylinder is measured with dial gauge in conjunction with

extension rod and master- piece. Let the standard cylinder bore diameter is 92mm. First choose slip
gauge of 92 mm. and it acts as a master- piece. Extension rod is connected to the dial gauge and dial
gauge reading set to zero at 92 mm. by using master piece.
Initially place the cylinder block on a perfectly true surface and make sure that
cylinder block is perfectly horizontal. Insert the dial gauge extension rod exactly right angles to the
horizontal surface and measure the dimensions of the cylinder in x - x' and y - y' directions, at an
interval of 10 mm lengthwise. Note the readings at each position and imagine the shape of cylinder.
Depends on the shape decision is taken for whether it requires honing (or) reboring

10. CONNECTING ROD:

The connecting rod is the connection between the piston rod and the crankshaft. The
small end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston pin and big end to the crank pin. The
function of the connecting rod is to convert the linear motion of the piston into rotary motion of the
crankshaft. A combination of axial and bending stresses act on the rod in operation. The axial
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stresses are produced due to cylinder gas pressure and the inertia force arising on account of
reciprocating motion. A hole is drilled between the two ends for carrying lubricating oil from the big
end to the small end for lubrication of the piston pin and the piston. The connecting rods are
generally made by drop forging of steel or duralumin. Bearings are used in the big and small ends to
reduce wear. The bearing shells in the big end are lined with alloys like copper-tin, copper-lead,
lead-bronze etc. the small end is usually a solid eye fitted with phosphor bronze bush.

11. PISTON PIN OFFSET:

The piston face that receives more against the cylinder wall during the power stroke is called
the major thrust face. The face diametrically opposite and at right angles to the major thrust face
known as minor thrust face. When piston is just shifts from compression stroke to power stroke,
piston tilt from minor thrust face to major thrust face. Due to the sudden tilt, piston boss portion will
hit the cylinder wall, which is known as piston slap. To reduce sudden tilt and reduce noise the
piston pin is offset from the centre line of the piston towards the thrust face.

12. CRANKSHAFT:

Crankshaft is the part in the power transmission system on to which the reciprocating
motion of the piston is converted into the rotating motion with the help of connecting rod. A
crankshaft consists of crankpins, webs (crank arms or cheeks), balancing weights, oil holes, and the
main journals. Oil holes are drilled from main journals to the crankpins through crankwebs to
provide lubrication of big end bearings. Main bearings are lubricated from the oil galleries in the
cylinder block. When the engine is in running condition, the centrifugal forces acting at each
crankpin due to rotation of both the crankshaft as well as the big end of the connecting rod tend to
bend and distort the crankshaft. To counter this tendency, the counterweights are either formed as
integral part of the crank web or attached separately on the opposite side to crankpin. On one of the
main bearing journals usually near the flywheel end, thrust bearing is located so as to support the
loads in the direction of the shaft axis. Such loads may arise due to clutch release forces in the helical
gear valve timing gear train when accelerating or deceleration, forces in the gear train when driving
various auxiliary components, e.g., the oil pump, water pump, supercharger etc.
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13. FLYWHEEL:

A flywheel is a heavy wheel attached to the rear end of the crankshaft. The functions of a flywheel
are:
 The flywheel does the additional leveling off of the power impulses.
 It acts as a reservoir of energy. It absorbs energy as the engine tries to speed up and gives
back the energy as the engine slows down. Thus, the flywheel keeps the engine speed almost
constant.
14. CAMSHAFT:
A camshaft is a shaft on which the cams are mounted. The camshaft is mounted in the
bearings in the lower part of the cylinder block in most in-line engines. A cam is a device that
changes rotary motion of the cam into linear motion of the follower. A camshaft is
responsible for opening of valves. It has a number of cams along the length, two for each
cylinder, one to operate the inlet valve and the other to operate the exhaust valve. In addition
to this, it also has an eccentric to operate the fuel pump and a gear to drive the ignition
distributor and oil pump.

A camshaft is driven by the crankshaft either by a pair of timing gears or by a pair of timing
sprockets. The camshaft gear or sprocket has twice as many teeth as the gear or sprocket on the
crankshaft. Thus, every two revolutions of the crankshaft produce one revolution of the camshaft and
one opening and closing of the valves

15.VALVES:

Valve is a device to open or close a passage. Fuel enters the cylinder through the inlet valve and the
burned gases produced after the combustion of fuel escape from the outlet valve. The valves are
generally made of silchrome steel which is an alloy of silicon and chromium. The valves are
operated by the cams mounted on the camshaft, which gets motion from the crankshaft. According to
the location of valves, the valve mechanisms are of two types:

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  Valve mechanism for operating the valve in engine block (straight poppet
valve)
 Valve mechanism for operating the valve in cylinder head (overhead poppet
valve)

STRAIGHT POPPET VALVE MECHANISM:

The valve stem slides up and down in the valve stem guide which acts as a slipper
bearing. It also prevents the gases from the valve port to the valve port to the valve port to the valve
chamber of the engine block. Valve spring is fitted between the engine block and spring retainer,
which keeps the valve closed tightly on the valve seat, until lifted by the valve tappet by the rotation
of the cam. The tappet or lifter is held between guides which are generally a part of the engine block.
Adjusting screw is provided on the tappet to adjust the clearance between the upper end of the tappet
and the bottom of the valve stem. As the cam rotates, it lifts the tappet which lifts the valve to the
open position thus connecting the valve part to the combustion chamber. Valve seat inserts are fitted
on the valve seats. These inserts are in the form of rings tapered grounded to suit the valve faces, and
made of special alloy steels. Usually they are used only on exhaust valve seats. They reduce wear
and can be replaced when worn out.

OVERHEAD POPPET VALVE MECHANISM:

This type of mechanism requires two additional moving parts – the push rod and the rocker
arm. As the cam rotates, it lifts the valve tappet or the lifter which actuates the push rod. The push
rod rotates the rocker arm about a shaft – the rocker arm shaft to cause one end to push down on the
valve stem to open the valve, thus connecting the valve port with the combustion chamber. In this
mechanism, the valve tappet clearance is between the rocker arm and the valve stem. It is adjusted by
means of an adjusting screw on the rocker arm end that contacts the push rod.

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 Engine lubrication, Types of lubrication systems

The primary objectives of lubrication are:

 To reduce friction between the moving parts
 To reduce wear of the moving parts
 To act as a cooling medium for removing heat
 To absorb shocks between the engine bearings and other engine parts thus reducing
noise and extending engine life
 To absorb and carry away harmful substances resulting from incomplete combustion
 To form a good seal between the piston rings and the cylinder walls.
The main functions of lubricating oil are:
 To minimize frictional wear and tear
 To cool by carrying away heat
 To seal the piston and thus preventing the escape of gases from the cylinder resulting
in power loss
 To cushion the parts against vibration and impact
 To clean the parts as it lubricates them, carrying away the impurities

PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS:

An engine lubricating oil must have the following properties:

 Viscosity: It is the measure of the resistance to flow or the internal friction of oil.
The viscosity of the engine lubricating oil must be just sufficient to ensure
hydrodynamic lubrication. If it exceeds this value, then higher power losses may
occur.

 Flash point: It is defined as the lowest temperature at which the lubricating oil will
flash when a small flame is passed across it. The flash point of the oil should be
sufficiently high so as to avoid flashing of oil vapours at the temperature occurring in
common use.
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  Fire point: It is defined as the temperature at which the oil will burn continuously
after the flash point is reached. The fire point must also be very high for any
lubricating oil.

 Cloud point: Sometimes when the oil changes its state from liquid to solid, it starts
appearing cloudy. The temperature at which this occurs is termed as cloud point.

 Pour point: it is the lowest temperature at which the oil will pour. This property
must be considered because of its effect on the starting of an engine in cold conditions
and on free circulation of oil through exterior feed pipes when pressure is not applied.

 Oiliness: It is the characteristic property of oil. This property is highly desirable in

helping the lubricant to adhere to the cylinder walls.

 Corrosion: A lubricant should not corrode the working parts and it must retain its
properties even in the presence of foreign matter and additives.

 Physical stability: Lubricating oil must be physically stable at the lower and the
highest temperatures between which the oil is to be used. There should not be any
separation of solids at lowest temperature or vaporization beyond certain limits.

Chemical stability: Lubricating oil must be chemically stable. There should not be any tendency for
oxide formation. The oil should also not decompose at higher temperatures to form carbon, which
makes the spark plug and valves faulty to function.
TYPES OF LUBRICATING SYSTEMS:
The different systems for lubricating the automobile system are:
 PETRO-OIL SYSTEM: This system of lubrication is generally adopted in two-stroke petrol engine
like scooter and motor cycles. It is the simplest form of lubricating system. It does not consist of
any separate part, like oil pump, for the purpose of lubrication. But the lubricating oil is mixed into
the petrol itself while filling in the petrol tank of the vehicle, in a specified ratio. When the fuel
goes into the combustion chamber during the engine operation, the oil particles will not burn along
with the fuel due to its high flash and fire points. It causes for lubrication of the piston rings,
cylinder walls, piston pin,etc.If the engine is allowed unused for a considerable time, the
lubricating oil separates from petrol and leads to clogging of passages in the carburettor, resulting
in the engine starting trouble. This is the main disadvantage of this system. Production of
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide also high in this system.

The other disadvantages are

1. Even though the engine oil and fuel simultaneously poured into the fuel tank, when the
vehicle is kept ideal for long time (generally in nights) the separation of engine oil and
Fuel will takes place due to density difference. The engine oil is settled at the bottom and
when the engine is started the engine oil will flow first and it caused for choking of the
carburetor jets and leads to generation of high percentage of hydrocarbons.

2. As per the design the engine oil should not burn in the combustion chamber. But due to
direct exposure of engine oil to combustion, some portion of the engine oil will burn. It
leads to heavier carbon deposits on the cylinder head.

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 3. Carbon is partial conductor of the electricity. Hence if any carbon particle in the red heat
condition inserted in between positive and negative terminals of the spark plug, leads to
electrical short circuit and further it leads to failure of the spark plug.

4. After the circulation the engine oil comes out from the exhaust pipe and deposited on the
inner surface of the exhaust pipe. The exhaust pipe also at higher temperature, hence it is
caused for generation of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide.

 SPLASH SYSTEM: In this system of lubrication, the lubricating oil is stored in an oil trough or
sump. A scoop or dipper is made in the lowest part of the connecting rod. When the engine runs,
the dipper dips in the oil once, in every revolution of the crankshaft and causes the oil to splash
on the cylinder walls. This action affects the lubrication of the engine walls, piston ring,
crankshaft bearings and big end bearings.

PRESSURE SYSTEM:
In the petro-oil and splash lubrication systems only cylinder walls and piston gets
lubricated . Hence these are suitable for two stroke engines only. But for four stroke multi cylinder
engines lubrication is required for the valve operating mechanism, timing gears and other
miscellaneous components. In the pressure system of lubrication, the engine parts are lubricated
under pressure feed. The lubricating oil is stored in a separate tank or the sump, from where an oil
pump takes the oil through a strainer and delivers it through a filter to the main oil gallery at a
pressure of 2 – 4kg/cm2. The oil from the main gallery goes to the main bearings, from where some
of it after lubricating the main bearing, falls back to the sump, some oil is splashed to lubricate the
cylinder walls and the remaining goes through a hole to the crankpin. From the crankpin it goes to
the piston pin through a hole in the connecting rod web, where it lubricates the piston rings. For
lubricating camshaft and timing gears, the oil is led through a separate oil line from the oil gallery.
The valve tappets are lubricating the main oil to the tappet guide surfaces through drilled holes. To
lubricate the timing gears and the sprocket chain, sometimes a directed oil jet is employed. The valve
tappets are lubricated by connecting the main oil gallery to the tappet guide surfaces through drilled
holes. In case of overhead valve mechanism, the rocker arms are sometimes mounted on hollow
shafts which carry oil under pressure from the oil gallery. These hollow shafts feed oil for the
lubrication of rocker arms. In some other designs, the push rods are made hollow and the oil under
pressure is made to flow up to provide lubrication of various parts of the valve train. The oil that
seeps from the valve train as above is returned to the oil pan through drain holes, which are
sometimes so placed that the oil drains on the camshaft and the timing gears to lubricate them.

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 SEMI-PRESSURE SYSTEM: it is the combination of splash system and pressure system.
Some parts are lubricated by splash system and some parts by pressure system. Almost all the
four stroke engines are lubricated by this system.

 DRY SUMP SYSTEM: In this system lubricating oil is stored in the oil sump is called wet
sump system, like the pressure system. Another sump also provided in this system and it is
always dry, that’s why it is known as dry sump system. In this system, the oil is carried in a
separate tank from where it is fed to the engine. The oil which falls into the oil sump after
lubrication is sent back to the oil tank by a separate delivery pump. Thus, the system consists of
two pumps, one to feed the oil and the other to deliver it back to the oil pump. This system is
used in situations where the vehicle has to change its position continuously, like in aircrafts. The
main advantage of this system is that there is no chance of breakdown the oil supply during up
and down movement of the vehicle.

Pre-lubrication System:
When the vehicle is kept ideal for long period then the lubricating oil from the all the
engine components slowly reached the engine oil sump and the parts are dry. I that condition if
anybody starts the vehicle it leads to damage of the components. Hence first one has to supply the oil
to the components after that they can start the vehicle. In the pre-lubrication system a separate oil
pump is provided which is run by battery. It is connected to the main lubrication line with a bypass.
So that this pump will operate at intial stage and caused for lubrication of components. Once the
25 | P a g e
engine started automatically the battery operated engine oil pump will stop and main engine oil
pump will caused for lubrication.

PARTS OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM:

The lubricating system in a four-stroke engine consists of the following parts:
OIL SUMP:
Oil sump is the lowest part of the crank case. It provides a covering for the crankshaft
and contains oil in it. In wet sump lubricating system, the oil is taken out from the sump and after
lubricating different parts it drops in the sump. The oil sump is known as oil pan. It is usually made
of steel pressings. Sometimes it is made of aluminium or cast iron. It contains a magnetic drain plug
at its lowest part to drain out the oil and to attract iron particles. It contains oil strainer and a barrel
for dipstick.
OIL PUMP: Oil pump is generally located inside the crankcase and suction end dipped in the oil.
The function of the oil pump is to supply oil under pressure to the various engine parts. oil pump is
driven by camshaft worm.

The oil pump is generally located inside the crank case below the oil level. The pump is usually
driven from the end of the distributor shaft. which gets its drive from the camshaft through a skew
gear with 1 : 1 gear ratio. The oil pressure in the engine increases with the increase in engine speed
which would increase the pump speed. The maximum pressure is limited by means of a pressure
relief valve and this valve is so Selected that the pump will deliver sufficient lubricating oil to all the
engine parts. Minimum oil pressure required is almost 100 kPa. Usually 15 to 30 litres per minute oil
circulation is enough for engine lubrication.

The different types of pumps used for engine lubrication are:

1. Gear pump 2. Crescent type gear pump
3. Rotor pump 4. Plunger pump
5. Vane pump.

1.Gear pump:

This is the type once almost universally used in the automotive engines. Its construction is very
simple in that it consists of two spur, or for quieter running, helical gears only which are in mesh
with each other. One gear is mounted on a stub shaft and is driven only whereas the other gear is the
driving gear, itself being driven directly by the cam shaft through the same gear which drives the
distributor shaft. The oil is transported from the inlet to the outlet side in gear spaces between the

26 | P a g e
gear teeth as shown in the figure and is discharged through the outlet port. Continuous delivery of the
oil from the outlet post exceeds the volume of the lubrication system passages, with the result that
excess discharged oil then causes the oil pressure in the system and rate of circulation of oil to be
increased. The pump is always submerged in oil in the crankcase and, therefore no priming is
necessary. The pump delivers oil at about 300-400 kPa. As explained above, the oil pressure would
depend upon the rate of oil delivered by the pump, which is further dependent upon the pump speed
as well as the bearing clearances in the lubrication system. For instance, lesser bearing clearance
would mean higher oil pressure. Likewise any restriction in the lubrication passages would also
increase the oil pressure. Therefore, a pressure relief valve is often provided in many oil pumps to
relieve the pressure when the same becomes excessive due to high engine speeds or the clogged oil
lines. When the pressure exceeds the prescribed value, the spring is compressed; ball is lifted off its
seat and the oil passes back to the inlet side through the bypass provided. The pressure at which
valve opens may be adjusted by means of the screw provided.

2.Crescent type Gear Pump

In this an internal ring gear is in mesh with a driving external gear which is mounted
eccentrically with respect to the ring gear. Due to this eccentricity there is a space in between the two
gears where a crescent shaped spacer is placed. Due to rotation of the gears, suction is produced at
the inlet end of the crescent, which draws in oil. This oil is then trapped in tooth spaces between the
crescent and the driving gear and the crescent and the tooth spaces of the internal driven gear and is
thus carried towards the outlet side of the crescent where it is discharged into the outlet port. With
continuous running the spaces between the gear teeth will be filled with oil after which the extra oil
will cause the oil pressure to increase. The oil pressure will subsequently depend upon the oil
supplied by the pump and the oil escaping from the engine bearings. This type of pump is very
suitable for small compact engines where camshaft is mounted high.

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3. Rotor pump:

This type of oil pump is now widely used in automobiles. It is similar to the gear pump except that in
this two gears mesh internally. A is the external rotor having the number of lobes one more than on
the internal rotor B. The axes of rotation of the two rotors are different which causes the size of the
spaces between them to vary. Rotor B gets its drive from the engine and causes rotor A to rotate
along with it. The oil enters the pump through inlet port. as the rotor lobes are moving out of mesh.
The oil is then transported from inlet to the outlet of the pump in the spaces between rotor lobes. The
rotation reduces the clearance between the lobes and the oil is discharged under pressure as the lobes
of the rotors move into mesh at the outlet port. This type of pump is about 25% more efficient and
compact than the gear type pump. This is also quieter running since there are comparatively lesser
teeth in mesh for each revolution. Because of these advantages, its use is on increase in the
automobile engines.

Rotor pump

4. Plunger pump:
This is reciprocating type of pump in which the oil gets communicated from the inlet to the outlet by
alternate suction and pressure created by a reciprocating plunger. This was once used in engines
using splash lubrication for filling the oil troughs, but is obsolete now.

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5. Vane pump.
This type consists of a cylindrical housing, within which is eccentrically mounted a driven
rotor. The rotor contains a number of vanes in the rotor slots equally spaced around its periphery.
These vanes can slide back and forth into these slots. The movement of sliding vanes is guided by
means of a control ring as shown. When the pump is operating, the vanes are pressed outwards
against the housing by their centrifugal force. The oil enters the inlet port and is swept by the vanes
to the outlet port. This type of pump has an advantage of a continuous oil flow compared to the
pulsating oil flow in case of gear pump.

OIL FILTERS
Lubricating oil is contaminated by various by-products of combustion of fuel, viz, water, acids and
unburnt fuel. In addition to these the fine particles of metal due to wear, especially during the
running in period and particles of rust formed in the engine are the other impurities presents in the
oil. It is, therefore. Absolutely necessary to remove these impurities to avoid permanent damage to
any or more running parts of the engine. It has been found from experience that impurity particles of
5 to 15 microns diameter are most damaging, because the oil film size is bigger than this due to
which smaller particles never come into contact with the mating surfaces separated by oil. The
particles bigger than this size would be filtered out and will not be able to cause any damage.
Two different types of oil filter systems are there viz., the by-pass system and the full flow
system . In the by-pass system the whole of the oil does not pass through the filter at the same time.
Most of the oil without being filtered goes to the bearings whereas the rest (about 10%) passing
through the filter is cleaned out and is

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 OIL FILTER: It is used in the engine lubricating system to filter out the dirt or grit particles
from the oil. The oil filter systems are of the two types:

1. By-pass system

2. Full flow system

In by-pass system, the whole of the oil does not pass through the filter at the same time, but some of
the oil without being filtered goes to the bearings. Remaining oil passes through the filter and then
goes to bearings.
In full flow system, the whole oil passes first through the filter and then goes to the bearings. If the
filter is clogged due to any reason, the system fails completely and bearings would be starved.

Cartridge type oil filter

 OIL COOLER:

The purpose of an oil cooler is to cool the lubricating oil in heavy duty engines where the oil
temperatures becomes quite high. Because the viscosity of the oil decreases with the temperature rise
and also the oil film may break at high temperatures, the oil must be kept cold in the lubricating
system.

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 Cooling System
Necessity of the cooling system:

All the heat produced by the combustion of fuel in the engine cylinders is not
converted into useful power at the crankshaft. A typical distribution for the heat energy generated
during the combustion is given below:
Useful work at the crank shaft =25%-30%
Heat carried away by the Cooling system =30% -35%
Loss of heat in exhaust gases =35 %-40%
Loss of heat due to radiation & friction =5% -10 %

Unless until the cooling system is not provided to the engine, that heat is transferred
to the cylinder walls and it is caused for overheating of the engine. As per the second law of
thermodynamics “it is impossible to construct an engine which converts total heat energy into useful
work.”Hence the heat rejection is always present. If heat rejection is higher and if it is retained in the
cylinder walls, It leads to pre-ignition and seizing of the piston to move. However cooling beyond
optimum limit is not desirable, because it decreases the overall efficiency due to the following
reasons:
1. Thermal efficiency is decreased.
2. The vaporization of the fuel is poor. This leads to fall of combustion efficiency.

Hence the engine is not required operate at high temperatures and too low temperatures. The
designed cooling system should operat the engine with in the operating temperature i.e 800C-850C.

Types of cooling systems:

1. Air Cooling
2. Water cooling
a. Thrmo-syphon system
b. Pump based water cooling system.

1. Air Cooling
In the air cooling system, a continous flow of air over the engine is caused for cooling
the engine. The Heat transfer rate is depending on following factors:

(a) Surface area of metal which is in contact with air.

(b) Mass flow rate of air.
(c) Temperature difference between the heated surface and air.
(d) Conductivity of metal

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 From the combustion chamber heat is transferred to the walls of the cylinder in radiation and
convection mode. From the inner wall to outer wall of the cylinder in the conduction mode heat is
transferred. The governing equation for the conduction heat transfer

Q= K.A.(dT/dx)

Where the K is conduction heat transfer co-efficient, Hence the material has good conduction
coefficient heat transfer rate will be high. To satisfy that most of the cylinder heads are manufactured
with aluminium alloy. The cross sectional area and thickness depends on the strength based design.
At a particular load the heat generated and outside wall temperature carries constant values. The heat
transfer rate at full load conditions is higher than the no load conditions due to the variation of
temperature difference.

From the outside of the cylinder liner to air heat is transferred in the convection mode. The
governing equation for the convection heat transfer is,
Q= h.A.(dT)
Where the h is convection heat transfer coefficient. When the vehicle is stationary condition
and engine is in running condition the heat is transferred in natural convection mode, and when the
vehicle is moving in forward direction, then air also moves with same velocity of vehicle, but in
opposite direction. Hence the heat is transferred in the forced convection. So that, the heat transfer
rate is higher when the vehicle is moving in forward direction.
Where the A is surface area, when the surface area is more and more heat transfer rate will
increase. Hence fins are provided over the cylinder head to increase the surface area. While
designing of the fins one has to take care about direction of flow and retention time of the air over
the fin. The temperature difference if it is more in between fin surface and ambient heat transfer rate
is high. Hence in the cold atmosphere heat transfer rate is high.

Advantages.
1. Air cooled engines are lighter because of the absence of the radiator, cooling jackets and the
coolant.
2. They can be operated in low temperature regions, where the water may freeze.
3. In certain areas where there is scarcity of cooling water, the air cooled engine is an advantage.
4. Maintenance is easier because the problem of leakage is not there.
5. Air cooled engines get warmed up earlier than the water cooled engines.

Disadvantages.
1. It is not easy to maintain even cooling all around the cylinder,
2. As the coefficient of heat transfer for air is less than that for water, Hence the volumetric
efficiency will decrease
3. Some engine components may become inaccessible easily due to the guiding baffles and cooling,
which makes the maintenance difficult.

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4. The cooling fins around the cylinders may vibrate under certain conditions due to which noise
level will be high.

WATER COOLING

In water cooling system, the cooling medium used is water. In this, the engine
cylinders are surrounded by water jackets through which the cooling water flows. Heat flows from
the cylinder walls to water further it transferred to air in the radiator.

Water cooling systems are of two types:

1.Thermosyphon system
2. Pump circulation system

1.Thermosyphon system:
It is very simple system, which was used in many early automobiles. It consists of a
radiator connected to the engine through flexible hoses. In this system, circulation of water is
obtained due to the difference in densities of the hot and the cold regions of cooling water. The
circulating water receives heat from the engine cylinders, thereby engine will cool. The hot water has
less density and it move in upwards direction and also caused for raise of the water level. Hence
from the upper hose pipe it will transfer to the radiator in the radiator heat is transferred to the
outside atmosphere. The cooled water reaches the bottom of the radiator and further it reaches the
engine water jackets from the lower hose. It is caused for lifting of the water in the water jackets.
Simultaneously the water receives the heat from the engine and water level increases and circulated
to radiator. Thus a continuous circulation of the water will be present.

The advantages of this system are simplicity and low initial cost. However this system accompanied
by many disadvantages also:
1. As the circulation of coolant is maintained by natural convention only, the cooling is rather slow.
Therefore, to have adequate cooling, the capacity of the system has to be large.
2. Due to the quantity of coolant being large, it takes, more time for the engine to reach the operating
temperature, hence thermal efficiency is less upto the operating temperature.
3. Radiator header tank must be located higher than the top of the cylinder coolant jackets, which is
difficult with the modern vehicles.
4. Certain minimum level of coolant water must be maintained in the system. If the coolant falls
below that level, continuity of flow would break and the system would consequently fail.

2. Pump circulation system. This system is similar to thermo-syphon system, but only difference is
water is circulated with the help of pump. The pump is driven by means of a belt from the engine
crankshaft. At front of the water pump a fan is fixed to suck the air from outside to inside through the
radiator. The fan is attached to the impeller. Hence whenever the pump runs fan will run
automatically. Water cooling system is shown below.
This system has the following advantages over the thermo-syphon system:
1. Circulation of coolant is proportional to both load and speed.

33 | P a g e
 2. Circulation of coolant is positive and hence more efficient due to which the smaller water
jackets can be used resulting in overall decrease of engine size.
3. Unlike in thermo-syphon system, it is not necessary to place the radiator header (upper)
tank at above the engine level.

The components of the water cooling system:

1. Radiator
2. Pressure cap
3. Thermostat
4. Water jackets

1. Radiator
The function of the radiator is to store the cooling water and water is circulated from the
upper tank to lower tank through the small diameter pipes. These pipes are provided with the fins. So
that heat energy is transferred from the hot water to ambient air.
The radiator consists of an upper (or header) tank, core and the lower (or collector) tank.
An overflow pipe is connected to the header tank and drain pipe is connected to the lower tank.
When the engine is in running, hot coolant from the engine enters the radiator at the top and. is
cooled by the cross-flow of air, while flowing down the radiator. The coolant collects in the lower
tank from where it is pumped to the engine for cooling.

There are two basic types of radiator cores, viz., tubular type and cellular type. In the tubular
type, the coolant flows through tubes and air passes around them, while in the cellular type the air
passes through the tubes and coolant flows in the spaces in between them. Out of these, tubular type
cores are the most commonly used which are further classified depending upon the shape of the fins
around the tubes, which are meant to increase the area for heat transfer from coolant to the cooling
air. Both the core tubes as well as the fins are made from either with copper or aluminium. Tubes are
made from 0.1 mm to 0.3 mm sheet, whereas fins are made from about 0.1 mm thick material. The
materials used for radiators should be resistant to corrosion, possess higher thermal conductivity and
form easily, apart from having adequate strength. Copper and yellow brass is the widely used
materials for radiators. Aluminium is also used from weight and cost considerations.

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2. Pressure cap
Radiator cap is pressure regulating valve. When the engine is in operating condition, the hot
water reaches the radiator upper tank. Hence the pressure will increase. If it is not released it leads to
breakage of radiator pipes. Due to increase of pressure a spring loaded valve in the cap opens and
caused for release of pressure. When the water is cooled to normal temperature a negative pressure is
created in the radiator. The air vent in the radiator caused for compensating the negative pressure.

Thermostat
Thermostat valve is connected in between outlet pipe and the radiator and another exit also
connected at middle to the water pump casing. The main function of the thermostat is it cut down the
flow of coolant from engine to radiator when the engine is below operating temperature and it allows
the flow of coolent from the engine to radiator after the engine reaching the operating temperature.
Hence the thermal efficiency will improve.
Two types of thermostats are used in automobiles:
1. Bellow or aneroid type.
2. Wax or hydrostatic type.

1. Bellow type thermostat:

It consists of metallic bellow and it is filled with volatile liquid like acetone, alcohol
or ether which boils between 70-85°C. A valve is attached to the lower end of the bellow, while the
other end is attached a valve which fits into the cooling passage. The thermostat is fitted in the
coolant hose pipe at the engine outlet.

35 | P a g e
 When the engine is started from rest (particularly in the early morning) the
surroundings of the engine are at low temperature. After starting if the engine further cooled due to
circulation of the coolant , it leads to decreasing of the thermal efficiency. Hence it is required to stop
the circulation of coolant upto the engine reaches its operating temperature. For this purpose
thermostat valve close the out let passage of the coolant when the temperature below the engine
operating temperature, because the volatile matter in the thermostat evaporated at the nearer
temperature to engine operating temperature. In this position the coolant is not circulated to radiator
but the exit coolant again it is circulated to water pump casing. Hence the coolant will reaches the
operating temperature quickly. When the engine temperature crosses the operating temperature the
volatile matter in the bellow will expand and caused for opening of outlet passage of cooling system.
Hence the coolant will circulated to the radiator and heat is dissipated to air.

Coolant circulation when thermostat valve closed Coolant circulation when thermostat valve open

Wax Thermostat:
A wax-element thermostat manufactured by the Dole valve Co, U.S.A. As the coolant
is heated, it transmits its' heat to the copper-loaded wax having high coefficient of volumetric
thermal expansion (0.28% per °c) which expands so that the rubber plug contracts against the
plunger and exerts a force on it upwards so that it moves vertically. This movement of the plunger
opens a valve in the thermostat to allow coolant to flow through the radiator.

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Two-stage thermostat
The construction of a two stage thermostat is similar to ordinary single stage thermostats described
above, except that in this there is an additional sub-valve, which starts opening at lower temperature
(say 79°C), thereby allowing limited circulation of the coolant during warm-up period, thus
preventing peak temperature hot spots. The main valve starts opening at some higher temperature,
say 88°C and both valves are fully open at engine operating temperature. Both the valves are fully
closed below 79°C, providing quicker warm-up of the engine. Thus a two-stage thermostat provides
more precise control of engine temperature by reducing peak temperature in critical areas.

Pump for coolant circulation:

A coolant pump is required for a pump circulation system to circulate the coolant forcibly.
The pump is mounted at the front end of the engine and is driven by the crankshaft pulley by means
of a V-belt. Centrifugal type pump is used for this purpose. The coolant from the radiator enters the
pump from the lower hose pipe and reaches the water pump casing. The water pump directly
mounted over the cylinder block water jackets inlet . Hence the water will enters into the cylinder
block further it is circulated to the cylinder head. From the cylinder head coolant which is high
temperature exited through the outlet pipe. Then it is entered in to the thermostat and reaches the
radiator as explained above.

The main parts of the pump are

1. casing
2. shaft-mounted impeller
3. Sealing to prevent the leakages.
After pouring the coolant in the radiator, the coolant will occupie the space of pump
casing and water jackets of the engine. Hence the impeller is totally dipped in the coolant, no
separate priming is required. When the impeller rotates, the coolant between the vanes is thrown
outward due to the centrifugal force. The centrifugal force depending upon the speed of rotation of
the pump spindle, which is proportional to the engine speed. This coolant leaving the periphery of
37 | P a g e
the impeller tangentially and having maximum kinetic energy then enters the volute casing. In the
volute casing kinetic energy of coolant converts into pressure energy. Under that pressure the coolant
is circulated in the system.

Thermo-responsive Coolant Pump:

In this pump the circulation of coolant is directly controlled by means of metallic
vanes on the impeller .This arrangement replaces the thermostat valve. At the temperature nearer to
engine operating temperature the pump will operate. If the temperature of the engine less than
operating temperature automatically it will cut down the power supply to pump. To operate this
pump a separate electrical circuit is required and it is connected to the battery. Hence by using this
system one can save the shaft power at low temperatures and th purpose of thermostat valve also
satisfied

Draw backs of the water as coolant:

The water is cheaply and abundantly available. Hence most of the cooling systems are
designed with water as coolant in olden days. But now all the vehicles are designed by considering
separate coolant instead of water. The draw backs of the water as follows:
1. Normal water consists of so much of dust particle. It may blocks the passage of water.
2. Water contains dissolved salts. These sats are separated from the water when heat received
from the engine and caused for formation of scales over the water jackets. Once the scales
formed heat transfer efficiency will reduce.
3. Water also contains dissolved oxygen. Hence when it is heated the dissolved oxygen comes
out and in the presence of water caused for corrosion.
4. Water will solidify at low temperatures and its volume will increase. It is caused for breaking
of radiator pipes. For this reason glycol is mixed with water.

The requirements of a good coolant:

1. It should miscible with water.
2. It should not freeze at normal cooling temperatures.
3. It should not caused for corrosion
4. It should posses good flow ability
5. It should not cause for scale formation.
6. The boiling point should be high at normal pressure.

The Resistances on the vehicle

When the vehicle is in moving condition, the following resistances are acted on the
vehicle.
1.Rolling resistance (Rr)
2. air resistance (Ra)

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3.gradient Resistance(Rg)

While the power is transferred from the engine to live wheels, always frictional loss
exisisted in the transmission components. The speed of the vehicle also changed according to the
gear ratio, available in the gear box and differential unit. After considering the frictional loss and
gear ratios, the resultant power is available at the road wheels.

Rolling resistance: The resistive force which acted on the wheels of the vehicle against its rolling is
known as Rolling resistance. It is basically depending on following factors

1. Weight of the vehicle

2. Frictional coefficient of road
3. Type of tread provided on the wheel
4. Inflation of the tyre
If the weight of the vehicle is more the rolling resistance also increased. The frictional
coefficient of road if it is high the rolling resistance increased. Depending on the type of material
used for the preparation of the tyre trede and reinforce materials of the tyre also influences the rolling
resistance. If the tyre is under inflated then rolling resistance increases.

For a particular condition of vehicle run, the condition of the road, tyre tread material and the
tyre inflating pressure near to a constant value. The load of the vehicle is variable. Hence one can
calculate the rolling resistance as:

Rr= Krx W

Where Kr= Constant of the rolling resistance.

W = Weight of the vehicle in kg.

Air resistance: when the vehicle is moving the forward direction in still air, then air will move in the
opposite direction with same speed of the vehicle. Hence it gives resistance to the motion of the
vehicle. The air resistance is not depending on the weight of the vehicle. It depends on the frontal
area of the vehicle. If the the vehicle has streamlined body, then the air resistance is minimum, and
the vehicle has blunt faces like buses the air resistance will be high. The air resistance depending on
the following factors:
1. Frontal surface area
2. Direction of wind
3. Velocity of the wind

The air resistance can be calculated by using the formula

Ra = Kax AxV2
Where Ka= air resistance coefficient
A = frontal surface area in m2
V= Valocity of the vehicle in kmph.

Gradient resistance: when the vehicle is moving over the slope in upward direction the gradient
resistance will act on the vehicle. The gradient resistance depends on the weight of the vehicle and
inclination of the road.

39 | P a g e
 The gradient resistance Rg= W Sinθ
Where W is the weight of the vehicle in kg.

The total Resistive force to the vehicle Fr = Rr+ Ra+Rg

If the vehicle travels at a speed of V m/s
Then the resistive power at the wheels Pw = Frx V

Let the power delivered by the engine = Pe

The power available at the wheel = P e x ȵt
Where ȵt is the transmission efficiency
The tractive force available at wheel Ft = (Pexȵt) / V

The Excess tractive force available at the wheel = Ft- Fr

Draw bar pull: The excess tractive force available at the wheel which is responsible for the pulling
of additional weight is known as draw bar pull (Ft- Fr).

Problems:

To solve the problems and to identify the given data easily the following diagram is useful:

40 | P a g e
Let W= Weight of the vehicle in Kg

V= Velocity of the wheel in the respective gear

Gr= Gear ratio in the respective Gears
Fr = Resistive force at the wheel
Ft = Tractive force at the wheel.
Fr = Rolling resistance +Air resistance +gradient Resistance
= WKr+ Ka AV2+ Wsinθ
When the vehicle is travelling on Plane roads
Fr= W
KRr+ Ka AV2
(All the below problems are completed in the class)
Prob.1: The coefficient of rolling resistance for a truck weighing 6350kg is 0.018 and the coefficient
of air resistance is 0.00281, in the formula R= WKr+ Ka AV2 kg , where A is in m2 of the frontal area
and V speed of the vehicle in kmph. The transmission efficiency in top gear at gear ratio 6.2:1 is
90% and in 2nd gear at gear ratio 15:1 is 80%. The frontal area 5.574m2. If the truck has to have a
maximum speed of 80kmph in the top gear, Calculate
1. The engine power
2. The engine speed, if the driving wheel have an effective diameter of 81.25cm.
3. The max. gradient the truck can negotiate at the above engine speed in the 2nd gear.
4. The max. drawbar pull available on the level road at the above engine speed in second gear.

Prob.2:
A truck weighs 100111N and the engine developes 97kW of B.P at 2400rpm. The
transmission efficiency is 90% in the top gear at the gear ratio3.4:1 and 85% in the third gear of
8.4:1. The performance of the vehicle is such that it will just reach a speed of 86.8 kmph at 2400rpm
at wide open throttle, when running on the level road in the still air and at the same engine speed in
3rd gear it will just climb a grade of 1in 14.If the total resistance is given by the formula WK r+ Ka
AV2+ Wsinθ, where A is frontal area in m2, V is in kmph and W is in newtons. Calculate Kr, and Ka
and hence the engine power required for climbing a grade of 1 in 40 at 48kmph in top gear. How
much more weight can be added to the vehicle to use the engine power fully under the above
conditions. Take frontal area of the truck 5.575m2.

Prob.3:
A car weighing 1ton and occupied by 6 persons each weighing65 kg and 250 kg luggage. The frontal
area is 3m2 and it can attain a max.speed of 120kmph. On level road. Determine the maximum
inclination it can riseat 40kmph in top gear. Take co-efficient of rollingresistance as 0.03 and
aerodynamic coefficient as0.031.

Pob.4:A Vehicle is standing on a gradient of 1in 10 with nass of 810kg. How much distance the
vehicle would travel in 30sec. when hand brake is released. The rollin resistance is 1% of its mass.
What is its speed at yhe end of 30sec.

Motor Vehicle act:

This act gives the awareness of rules and regulations framed by the government for the
purpose of safe, secure movement of the vehicle. This act is very lengthy, contains 14 chapters.
Below briefly these chapters are shown;
41 | P a g e
CHAPTER – I, PRELIMINARY, Gives the basic definitions.

• A Working Group was, therefore, constituted in January, 1984 to review all the provisions of the
Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 and to submit draft proposals for a comprehensive legislation to replace the
existing Act.
• This Working Group took into account the suggestions and recommendations earlier made by
various bodies and institutions like Central Institute of Road Transport (CIRT), Automotive Research
Association of India (ARAI), and other transport organisations including, the manufacturers and the
general public, Besides, obtaining comments of State Governments on the recommendations of the
Working Group, these were discussed in a specially convened meeting of Transport Ministers of all
States and Union territories.
1. Short title, extent and commencement. –
(1) It extends to the whole of India.
(2) It shall come into force on such date* as the Central Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette,
2. Definitions.
• “area”,
axle weight: means in relation to an axle of a vehicle the
total weight transmitted by the several wheels attached to that axle to the surface on which the vehicle
rests;
“certificate of registration” means the certificate issued by a competent authority to the effect that a
motor vehicle has been duly registered in accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV

CHAPTER II
LICENSING OF DRIVERS OF MOTOR VEHICLES

• Necessity for driving license. - (1) No person shall drive a motor vehicle in any public place
unless he holds an effective driving licence issued to him authorising him to drive the vehicle
• Age limit in connection with driving of motor vehicles. – No person under the age of eighteen
years shall drive a motor vehicle in any public place
• Responsibility of owners of motor vehicles for contravention of sections 3 and 4.
• Restrictions on the holding of driving license
• Restrictions on the granting of learner’s licences for certain vehicles
• Grant of learner’s license
• Grant of driving license.
• Form and contents of licences to drive.
• Form and contents of licences to drive.
• Licensing and regulation of schools or establishments for imparting instruction in driving of
motor vehicles
• Extent of effectiveness of licences to drive motor vehicles
• Driving licences to drive motor vehicles, belonging to the Central Government
• Power of licensing authority to disqualify from holding a driving licence or revoke such licence
• Power of State Government to make rules.
CHAPTER III
LICENSING OF CONDUCTORS OF STAGE CARRIAGES
• Necessity for conductor’s licence. - (1) No person shall act as a conductor of a stage carriage
unless he holds an effective conductor’s licence issued to him
• Revocation of a conductor’s licence on grounds of disease or disability.
42 | P a g e
 Orders refusing, etc. conductor’s licences and appeals there from
CHAPTER IV
REGISTRAION OF MOTOR VEHICLES
• Necessity for registration
• Registration, where to be made
• Registration, how to be made
• Special provision for registration of motor vehicles of diplomatic officers, etc
• Temporary registration
Production of vehicle at the time of registration
• Refusal of registration or renewal of the certificate of registration
• Assignment of new registration mark on removal to another State.
• Special provisions in regard to transport vehicles
• Refusal of registration or renewal of the certificate of registration
• Assignment of new registration mark on removal to another State.
• Special provisions in regard to transport vehicles

CHAPTER V
CONTROL OF TRANSPORT VEHICLES
• Necessity for permits.
• General provision as to applications for permits
• Application for stage carriage permit
• Application for private service vehicle permit
• Procedure in applying for and granting permits

CHAPTER – VI
Special Provisions Relating To State Transport Undertakings.

• Preparation and publication of proposal regarding road transport service of a State transport
undertaking
• Objection to the proposal
• Operation of additional services by a State transport undertaking in certain circumstances

CHAPTER VII
CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCE
OF MOTOR VEHICLES
• General provision regarding construction and maintenance of vehicles
• Power of Central Government to make rules
• Power of State Government to make rules

CHAPTER VIII
CONTROL OF TRAFFIC
• Limits of speed
• Limits of weight and limitations on use
• Power to have vehicle weighed
• Parking places and halting stations
• Duty to obey traffic signs
• Vehicles with left hand control
• Signals and signalling devices
• Leaving vehicle in dangerous position
• Duty to produce licence and certificate of registration

CHAPTER IX
43 | P a g e
MOTOR VEHICLES TEMPORARILY LEAVING OR VISITING INDIA
Power of Central Government to make rules

CHAPTER X
LIABILITY WITHOUT FAULT IN CERTAIN CASES

• Liability to pay compensation in certain cases on the principle of no fault

• Provisions as to other right to claim compensation for death or permanent disablement
Permanent disablement

CHAPTER XI
INSURANCE OF MOTOR VEHICLES AGAINST THIRD PARTY RISKS

• Requirement of policies and limits of liability

• Validity of polices of insurance issued in reciprocating countries.
• Duty of insurers to satisfy judgments and awards against persons insured in respect of third party
risks
• Effect of death on certain causes of action

CHAPTER XII
CLAIMS TRIBUNALS

• Award of the Claims Tribunal

• Award of compensatory costs in certain cases

CHAPTER XIII
OFFENCES, PENALTIES AND PROCEDURE
• General provision for punishment of offences
• Disobedience of orders, obstruction and refusal of information.
• Driving at excessive speed
• Driving by a drunken person or by a person under the influence of drugs

44 | P a g e
 Braking System

Brakes are required to stop the vehicle within the smallest possible distance and this is
done by converting the kinetic energy of the vehicle into the heat energy. The heat energy generated
is dissipated into the atmosphere.

Requirements of braking system:

1. The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle within a minimum distance in an emergency.
But this should also be consistent with safety. The driver must have proper control over the vehicle
during braking.
2. The brakes must have good anti-fade characteristics i.e. their effectiveness should not decrease
with constant prolonged application e.g., while descending hills. Hence brakes should provide with
proper ventilation.

Classification of brakes:
The brakes are classified according the following considerations:
1. Purpose 2. Location 3. Construction
4. Method of actuation

1. Purpose:
As per the purpose brakes are classified as
1. Service or the primary
2. Parking or the secondary brakes.

The service brakes are the main brakes used for stopping the vehicle while in motion,
whereas the parking brakes are meant to hold the vehicle on a slope.

2. Location:
The brakes may be located either at the transmission output shaft or at the wheels. The brakes
which are located at the wheels have good ventilation and heat dissipation is good. Generally the
service brakes are located at the wheels and parking brakes are provided at the gear box output shaft.

3. Construction
a. drum brakes : In this brake drum are fixed on the axel and expansion of the brake shoes
caused for braking.
b. disc brakes: In this brake disc fixed on the axel and movement of the pistons caused for the
application of brakes.

4. Method of Actuation
Based on operating mechanism brakes are classified as follows:

(a) Mechanical brakes (b) Hydraulic brakes (d) Vacuum brakes (e) air brakes

(f) Servo brakes. (g) Power brakes

Drum Brakes:
In the drum brakes, a brake drum is attached concentric to the axle hub whereas on the axle
casing back plate is fixed. In case of front axle, the back plate is bolted to the steering knuckle.
45 | P a g e
Hence when the front wheels are rotated with steering. Back plate also moved along with the steering
knuckle. The back plate is made of pressed steel sheet. On the back plate brake shoes and
corresponding operating mechanism also mounted. The brake shoes are positioned on the back plate
with the help of fulcrum pins and shoes are pressed against the operating mechanism with the help of
a retaining spring. To avoid the raising of brake shoes locks are provided. In addition to this to adjust
the distance in between the brake shoes and brake drum cams are provided on the back plate as
shown in the fig. Brake shoes are provided with the frictional material. Hence if the brake shoes are
expands it will hold the brake drum firmly with the frictional material.

To operate the brake shoes different mechanisms are provided depending on the weight of vehicle
and braking effort required. Based on the operating mechanisms drum brakes are classified into

a. Mechanical Brakes
b. Hydraulic brakes
c. Air brakes
d. Ari assisted hydraulic brakes

a. Mechanical Brakes: In the mechanical brakes cam or toggle lever is provided in between the
brake shoes. From the operating pedal or lever mechanical leverage is provided. Hence the applied
force is multiplied with the mechanical leverage and caused for rotation of the cam or toggle lever.
When the force is applied over the brake pedal , it is caused for the rotation of the cam and further it
is caused for the expansion of the brake shoes. Hence braking effort is applied over the brake drum.
When the force is released over the pedal due to the retention spring the brake shoes regains its
original position.

46 | P a g e
Leading shoe:

As shown in the fig. direction of rotation of the drum is counter clockwise and
fulcrum pin at the bottom and force is applied at the top of the brake shoe then the direction of
rotation tends to drag the shoe along with it. Hence it is caused for increasing of the braking effort.
Hence that brake shoe called as leading shoe.

Trailing Shoe:

47 | P a g e
 As shown in the fig. direction of rotation of the drum is clockwise and fulcrum pin at
the bottom and force is applied at the top of the brake shoe then the direction of rotation tends to
force against to the applied force. Hence it is caused for decreasing of the braking effort. Hence that
brake shoe called as trailing shoe.

If two shoes are leading shoes, then resultant braking effort is more. In such cases the
fulcrum pins are placed oppositely and two cam or toggle levers are used.

Hydraulic brakes:
Hydraulic brakes are works on the principle of Pascal’s law, i.e the intensity of the pressure
applied at one point on the incompressible fluid, it will distributed equally in all directions. To
saticify this principle one has to required two cylinders i.e first cylinder should have the smaller
diameter and second cylinder has the larger diameter. Both the cylinders should provided with
respective pistons the volume in between the pistons shoul filled with a incompressible liquid. Hence
when the pressure is applied over the fluid in the small diameter cylinder its intensity is equally
distributed in all directions in the large diameter cylinder hence the pressure will multiply and large
quatity of force is applied over the brake shoes as shown in the fig.

In the hydraulic braking system smaller diameter cylinder is called as master cylinder, and
larger diameter cylinder is wheel cylinder. Wheel cylinders are provided at the back plate of each
wheel i.e when the vehicle is provided with four wheels at four wheels four wheel cylinders are
provided. And all the four wheel cylinders are connected to a master cylinder which have smaller
diameter compression chamber. In between the master cylinder plunger and wheel cylinder pistons
incompressible brake fluid is filled. The pressure applied by the driver over the brake pedal transfer
to the plunger of the master cylinder though the mechanical linkages. According to Pascal’s law, that
pressure is multiplied and acted over the wheel cylinder pistons. The movement of the wheel
cylinder pistons caused for application of braking effort by the brake shoes. Lay out of the Hydraulic
braking system is shown in the diagram.

48 | P a g e
 Layout of Hydraulic Brakes

Construction details of Master cylinder:

Basically the master cylinder have two chambers, one is reservoir and the other is
compression chamber. The reservoir top portion consists of opening for filling brake fluid, the
opening is provided with the cap with a vent hole. Hence the atmospheric pressure will act over the
brake fluid and it is caused for maintaining of atmospheric pressure over the brake fluid. The lower
portion of the reservoir is provided with compression chamber as shown in the fig. compression
chamber is connected to the upper reservoir through the intake and by pass ports. The compression
chamber is provided with a plunger the front of the plunger is provided with a primary cup and rear
portion is provided with secondary cup. The middle of the plunger is provided with annular space .
Hence that space is filled with the brake fluid. The primary cup closes the small holes which are
provided in the front flage of the plunger, when it is moving in forward direction. When the plunger
is moving in backward direction the primary cup will bent and it aloows the flow of brake fluid from
rear portion of the plunger to front portion. Infront of the primary cup, a piston returning spring is
connected. The other end of the piston return spring connected with the check valve. The check valve
is two way valve. Under the predetermined pressure the chck valve allows the flow of fluid in the

49 | P a g e
forward direction and due to negative pressure it allows the flow of fluid in the opposite direction i.e
wheel cylinder to master cylinder. A dust prevention cap is provided at the end.

Construction details of wheel cylinder:

Wheel cylinder Exploded view of wheel cylider

The wheel cylinder is located on the back plate which at the wheel. The shape of the wheel
cylinder is in the form of sleeve that’s why it is also called as sleeve cylinder. It is working under the
master cylinder. Hence it is also called as slave cylinder. As shown in the fig. wheel cylinder is
having a cylindrical sleeve and ends are provided with the external slots to hold the dust prevention
caps. Two pistons are placed inside back to back a retention spring in between the pistons. Hence
these pistons are very close to each other in normal conditions. The wheel cylinder provided with the
inlet passage to allow the brake fluid and another jet also provided at the wheel cylinder it is brale
bleeding jet, to remove the air from the brake linings.

Linkages:
From brake pedal to Master cylinder:
From the brake pedal, Mechanical linkages are provided to the push rod of the master
cylinder. In the mechanical linkages some of force multiplication will takes place. The resultant force
will act over the plunger of the master cylinder
50 | P a g e
From the master cylinders to wheel cylinders:

As shown in the fig. High pressure pipes are connected from the master cylinder
output to the wheel cylinder. While joining no leakage should present in the lines. Otherwise air will
entrapped in to the flow lines. Brake fluid is filled in the reservoir and it occupies the compression
chamber spaces. The fluid filled in the all flow line without air bubbles. Hence from the master
cylinder to the space in between the pistons of wheel cylinder brake fluid is present.

Working:
When the driver applies the force over the brake pedal, it is transferred to the push rod of the
master cylinder through the mechanical linkages. In the mechanical linkages some of force
multiplication will takes place. The resultant force will act over the plunger of the master cylinder.
As a result the plunger of the master cylinder will move forward and caused for the compressing the
brake fluid in the compression chamber. The pressure of the brake fluid will increase and after
reaching predetermined pressure the check valve will open and caused for flow of brake fluid under
pressure. Hence the pistons of the wheel cylinder will move away from each other. The movement is
caused for expansion of the brake shoes and braking force is applied over the brake drum.
When the driver removes the force over the brake pedal due to retaining spring in the master
cylinder plunger will move quickly to initial position and at wheel cylinders due to retaining sprin of
the brake shoes wheel cylinder pistons regains its original position. But the fluid in between the
master cylinder plunger and wheel cylinder piston will not move that much fast. Hence a partial
vacume is created Infront of the master cylinder plunger. Immediately this partial vacuum should be
compensated by the brake fluid otherwise, further braking is not possible. Hence the partial vacuum
is compensated by collapsing of the primary cup. When it is collapsed due to backward movement of
the piston the brake fluid which is at the rear portion of the plunger will come fron through the hole
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provided in the flange of master cylinder. Now further braking is possible. When the brakes are not
applied , then the excess brake fluid again reach the reservoir through the bypass port. From the
primary port from the reservoir brake oil reaches the circumferential space of the plunger.

Brake Bleeding:

Removing of air from the brake fluid flow lines is known as brake bleeding. Air is
compressible fluid. Hence if a single bubble of air present in the system the hydraulic brake system
will ineffective. To remove the air following procedure need to adopt:
1. Pump the brake pedal continually, until the pedal tight to pump. Hence the air in the flow
lines will compress. Hold the pedal in that position.
2. By placing bottle at the brake bleed nipple as shown in the fig. losen the nipple. The air along
with some brake fluid it will come out. The brake pedal will go down to the foot board. Inthat
position hold the pedal and tighten the nipple.
3. Again start pumping the brake pedal and repeat the above steps, until the air removed from
the lines.
4. Repeat the same procedure for all the wheel cylinders.

Tandem Master Cylinder:

The basic disadvantage with the master cylinder is a single cylinder connected to rear
and front brakes. Hence whenever the air entrapped at any place it caused for failure of both front
and rear brakes. Then vehicle is dangerous condition. To avoid that situation. Tandem master
cylinder is introduced. In the tandem master cylinder front and rear braking systems are separated.
Hence front brakes are failed rear will work and vice versa. As observed in the master cylinder in the
tandem master cylinder also same components but number is more. Two plungers, two check valves
two retaining springs, two intake and by pass ports ar existed as shown in the fig. The arrangement of
the plunger and remaining valves is also similar to the master cylinder. But the total compression
chamber is connected to the single reservoir.

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Working:
When the driver applies the force over the brake pedal, it is transferred to the push rod
of the master cylinder through the mechanical linkages. In the mechanical linkages some of force
multiplication will takes place. The resultant force will act over the first plunger of the master
cylinder. As a result the plunger of the master cylinder will move forward and caused for the
compressing the brake fluid in the compression chamber. The pressure of the brake fluid will
increase and after reaching predetermined pressure the check valve of the rear wheels will open and
caused for flow of brake fluid under pressure to rear wheel cylinders. Hence the pistons of the wheel
cylinder will move away from each other. The movement is caused for expansion of the brake shoes
and braking force is applied over the rear brake drums. The further movement of the plunger 1
caused for moving pushing of the plunger2. Due to that movement pressure of the brake fluid in the
front brake lines will increase and caused for opening of front check valve and brake fluid is flow to
the front wheel cylinder and caused for stopping of front wheels. In any case rear brakes are failed.
Then the plunger 1 is directly push the plunger 2 and caused for application of front brakes. If rear
brakes are failed, then the movement of plunger1 caused for the stopping of front wheels. The
compensation of the partial vacuum when the driver releases the force over brake pedal is done
similar to the master cylinder explained above.

Air Brakes:
The responsive time of the air brakes is less than the hydraulic brakes. Hence air brakes are
very quickly operated . generally air brakes are preferred for the heavy motor vehicles.
Construction details:
The main components of the air brakes are
1. Air compressor
2. Unloader vale
3. Reservoir
4. Brake valve.
The arrangement of these components is shown in the fig. At the back plate of the
wheels construction is similar to the drum brakes, i.e. brake shoes, fulcrum, adjusting pins are
similar. To operate the brake shoes S-cam is used. The S-cam is operated with help of diaphragm
valve, placed at the brake drum. The compressor is run by the crank shaft pulley. The suction end of
the compressor connected with the air filter and delivery end is connected with unloader valve.
Further it is connected to the reservoir. The reservoir is designed to operate at certain maximum
pressure. It the air pressure crosses the limit the unloader valve will bypass the air flow hence air is
entered into the outside atmosphere. The delivery of the reservoir connected to the brake valve. At
the wheel each wheel carries the diaphragm valve. The diaphragm valve is connected to the brake
valve
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Working: the Brake valve is provided at the foot of the driver. Hence driver can operate the brake
valve conveniently. Whenever the vehicle is fitted with the air brakes, in the reservoir min pressure is
required to operate the brakes. Hence driver has to check the air pressure after stating of the vehicle
immediately. After ensuring min pressure in the reservoir, he can drive the vehicle. To operate the air
brake driver has to operate the brake valve with pedal . the opening of the brake valve is caused for
flow of the compressed air from the reservoir to the diaphragm. Hence diaphragm will move in
forward direction and caused for the application of brakes. When the effort is released over the brake
pedal .the diaphragm is connected to the atmosphere and pressure released. The deficiency of the air
in the reservoir is compensated by compressor again.

Air assisted hydraulic brakes (Servo brakes):

In addition to the primary operating mechanism, if any additional per is added
then it is called as servo mechanism. Here air gives the extra effort to operate the hydraulic brakes.
This type of braking system is fitted for TATA vehicles.

Construction :
As shown in the fig. a small compressor connected by the side of the engine and it is run by the
eccentricity provided in the cam shaft. Suction end of the compressor is connected with the air filter
and delivery end connected with reservoir through the unloader valve. Hence when the compressor is
operated then air is filled in the reservoir upto predetermined value. if it is exceeds the unloader

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valve releases the air in to outside atmosphere. The delivery of the reservoir is connected with the
diaphragm of the booster. The booster output shaft is connected with the plunger of the master
cylinder. Remaining hydraulic circuit is similar to the hydraulic braking system.

Working;
For this braking system also driver has ensure enough pressure in the reservoir. After that the
driver applies the brake it opens the valve in between reservoir and booster. Hence air under pressure
go to the booster. Hence the diaphragm of the booster move forwarded and caused for pushing the
operating lever of the master cylinder. Hence the hydraulic braking system is activated.

ELECTRIC BRAKES
This type of brakes, though not very popular, as service brakes, have been commonly
used on trailers. The current from the battery is utilized to energize an electromagnet within the
brake drum, which in turn actuates the mechanism (usually a cam) to expand the brake shoes. When
current stops, the cam and brake shoes are returned to the release position by retractor springs. The
severity of braking is controlled by means of a rheostat, which is operated by the driver through the
foot pedal. As an alternative to the foot-operated rheostat, hydraulic pressure has also been used to
apply electric brakes. As pedal is pressed more, hydraulic pressure actuates the rheostat to increase
current to the electromagnet.

Advantage of electric brakes

1.The operating linkage is much simplified in electric brakes. Instead of comp1icated linkage as in
mechanical brakes or pipe lines as in hydraulic brakes, these require only one cable for each drum.
2. Being electrically operated there is much less time lag between the pressing of the brake pedal and
application of brakes at the wheels, as compared to other systems.
3. For trailer brakes, this type offers much simplified connections; simply one cable has to be carried
to the trailer side.

Disc Brake:

Construction:
As shown in Fig. a disc brake consists of a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a
stationary housing called caliper. The caliper is connected to some stationary part of the vehicle, like
the axle casing or the stub axle and is cast in two parts, each part containing a piston. In between
each piston and the disc, there is a friction pad held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc.
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Passages are designed in the caliper for the fluid to enter or leave each housing. These passages are
also connected to another
one for bleeding. Each cylinder contains a rubber sealing ring between the cylinder and the piston.
When the brakes are applied, hydraulically actuated pistons move the friction pads into contact with
the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on the later. On releasing the brakes, the rubber sealing
rings act
as return springs and retract the pistons and the friction pads away from the disc.
For a brake of this type,

Constructional features
1. The discs of the brakes have been conventionally made of pearlitic gray cast iron. The material is
cheap and has good anti wear properties. Cast steel discs have also been employed in certain
cases, which wear still less and provide higher coefficient of friction; yet the big drawback in
their case is the less uniform frictional behavior. Recently materials like ceramics and carbon
fiber have also found their way into automotive brakes

2. Two types of discs have been employed in various makes of disc brakes, i.e., the solid or the
ventilated type. The ventilated type, no doubt, provides better cooling. It is seen that using a
ventilated
disc results in reduction of about 30% in the pad temperatures, as compared to solid discs. This
results in longer pad life. However, the ventilated discs also have certain disadvantages. They are
usually thicker and even sometimes heavier than the solid discs. In case of severe braking conditions,
they are liable to wrap and moreover, the dirt accumulates in the vents, which, apart from affecting
cooling, results in wheel imbalance.
3. Some disc brakes use such friction pads as contain metallic contact inside. The contact is exposed
when the pad wears down to the specified thickness and thereby completes an electrical circuit which
lights up a warning lamp on the instrument panel, indicating to the driver that the pads need
replacement.

4. Some large pistons for disc brakes are made of hard plastic whereas in some other cases, these are
precision ground and plated with nickel chrome which provides them with a hard surface which is
durable.

Comparison of Disc and Drum types of brakes

1. In case of disc brakes friction surfaces are directly exposed to the cooling air, whereas in the drum
type, the friction occurs on the internal surfaces, from which heat can be dissipated only after it has
passed by conduction through the drum.

2. The friction pads in case of disc brakes are flat as compared to curved friction linings in case of
drum
brakes. This means that in disc brakes, there is uniform wear of friction pads. Moreover, the friction
pad material is not subjected to any bending, thereby increasing the range of materials from which to
choose the suitable one. Generally asbestos fiber with metal oxide fillers bonded with organic
compounds as the material used for friction pads.
3. Unlike the conventional drum brake, the design of disc brake is such that there is no loss
efficiency due to expansion. As the system becomes hot, expansion of a drum of internally-
expanding shoe type of brake tends to move the friction surfaces apart, causing a loss of effective
pedal travel. On the other hand, disc expansion merely changes the relative.

4. Disc brakes weigh less than their conventional drum type counterpart a saving of approximately
20 per cent being possible.

Hand Brake (Secondary Brakes):

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 Hand brakes or the parking brakes operate independently. These are used for parking on
slopes and during emergency. Hence these are also called secondary brakes. Generally these brakes
use the same brake shoes as are for the main foot brakes, but they have to be actuated by a
completely separate mechanism than for the main i.e., the primary brakes. Most cars use mechanical
cable to actuate these.
Some cars with four-wheel disc brakes have a separate drum brake integrated into the hub of the rear
wheels. This drum brake is only for the secondary brake system and is actuated only by the cable; it
has no hydraulics. Hand brake is generally located on the side of the driver's seat. On most of the
vehicles hand brake applies only the rear brakes. A ratchet release handle to which the catch rod is
attached, is hinged on the handbrake lever. To the other end of the catch rod, pawl is attached, which
slides in the guide fixed on the brake lever. The brake lever itself is hinged on a bracket, which is
bolted to the chassis frame on the inside. On this bracket is also mounted a ratchet as shown in the
figure. The operating cable is attached to the lower end of the brake lever. To apply the brakes,
ratchet has to be released first. This is done by pressing the ratchet release handle, which causes the
pawl to move up, disengaging the ratchet. Then the brake lever is pulled up, which further pulls the
cable which operates the rear brakes mechanically through a linkage operating on the piston of the
rear wheel cylinder. which
is in two halves. The ratchet release handle, which had been pressed so far, is released now, so that
the pawl moves down with the spring action and engages with the ratchet thus keeping the brakes
applied.

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