INTRODUCTION, APPROACHES

AND METHODOLOGY
TIM PENYUSUN
Direktorat Pengelolaan Kekayaan Intelektual Kemenristek Dikti

Penyaji:
Prof. Dr. Ir. DIAN FIANTIS, M.Sc
Jurusan Tanah Faperta Unand
dianfiantis@yahoo.com

Materi Klinik Penulisan Artikel Ilmiah Internasional Tahun 2017

SOLO, 27-29 September 2017
Steps to organizing your manuscript
1.Prepare the figures and tables.
2.Write the Methods.
3.Write up the Results.
4.Write the Discussion. Finalize the Results and Discussion before writing the
introduction. This is because, if the discussion is insufficient, how can you objectively
demonstrate the scientific significance of your work in the introduction?
5.Write a clear Conclusion.
6.Write a compelling introduction.
7.Write the Abstract.
8.Compose a concise and descriptive Title.
9.Select Keywords for indexing.
10.Write the Acknowledgements.
11.Write up the References.
The Introduction
presents the background knowledge that readers need, readers
can appreciate, how the findings of the paper are an
advance on current knowledge in the field.

Excutive Summary
WHAT did you/others do ? WHY did you do it ?

 1,5 to 2 pages, double spaced

Writing Introductions
There are 6 elements in INTRODUCTION, author should write
1. The theme or topic of the study
2. The importance of the topics
3. Cites or summarizes the state of the art of the previous studies
4. The gap or inconsistencies exist with current study try to
address
5. Research problems to be addressed
6. Research objectives
?
=
 Write a compelling Introductions
A good INTRODUCTION should answer the following questions:

1. What is the problem to be solved?

2. Are there any existing solutions?
3. Which is the best?
4. What is the main limitation?
5. What do you hope to achieve ?

A good INTRODUCTION must be organized from the

global to particular point of view, guiding your readers to
your objectives. for How to prepare a manuscript for international journal
Elsevier Publishing Campus
What key skills are needed when writing an Introduction?

A key skill is to be able to say the same things that have been said many
times before but in a different, interesting, intriguing way.

 You have to give the reader the tools for understanding the meaning and
motivation of your experiments.
 Tell your readers how you plan to develop your topic. Give them a roadmap
to follow
 Show them what your line of argument is.

You need to have a deep knowledge about everything that has been
previously written on the topic and decide what is important for the reader to
know.
Wallwork. 2011. English for Writing Research Papers
How should I structure the Introduction?

An Introduction generally answers the following questions. You can

use the answers to these questions to structure your Introduction.

• What is the problem?

• Are there any existing solutions (i.e. in the literature)?
• Which solution is the best?
• What is its main limitation? (i.e. What gap am I hoping to fill?)
• What do I hope to achieve?
• Have I achieved what I set out to do?
Wallwork. 2011. English for Writing Research Papers
How to write research objectives

Wallwork. 2011. English for Writing Research Papers

How can I assess the quality of my Introduction?
To make a self-assessment of your Introduction, you can ask yourself the
following questions.
 Is my research question clear?
 Does my Introduction act as a clear road map for understanding my paper?
 Is it sufficiently different from the Abstract, without any cut and pastes?
(some overlap is fine)
 Have I mentioned only what my readers specifically need to know and what
I will subsequently refer to in the Discussion?
 Have I been as concise as possible?
 Have I used tenses correctly? present simple (general background context,
description of what will be done in the paper), present perfect (past to
present solutions), past simple (my contribution, though this may also be
expressed using the present simple or future simple)
Wallwork. 2011. English for Writing Research Papers
RESEARCH APPROACH
 Quantitative research
 Qualitative research
Characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research

Source: Quoted from : Maginn, P.J. (2006) Urban Policy Analysis Through a Qualitative Lens: Overview to Special Issue, Urban Policy and Research, Vol 24(1) pp. 1-15.
Franklin, A. (1986) Ethnography and housing studies, Housing Studies, 5(2), pp. 92–111.
Punch, K. (1998) Introduction to Social Research (London: Sage).
Spencer, L., Ritchie, J., Lewis, J.& Dillon, L. (2003) Quality in Qualitative Evaluation: A Framework for Assessing Research Evidence,
Occasional Papers Series No. 2 (London: Government Chief Social Researcher’s Office).
Winchester, H. P. M. (2000) Qualitative research and its place in human geography, in: I. Hay (Ed.) Qualitative Research Methods
in Human Geography, pp. 1–22 (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Measurement
Measurement in quantitative research should fulfill
• Validity - Are you measuring what you think you are measuring?
• Objectivity - researchers stand outside the phenomena they study.
Data collected are free from bias.
• Reliability - if something was measured again using the same
instrument, would it produce the same or nearly the same results?
• Accuracy – Are the methods adequate to answer your questions?;
reveal credible information?; convey important information?
• Precision – How much trustable, how confident is the result.
 How to write the METHODS?
 Responds to the question of how the problem was
studied

 Very important section, incomplete or incorrect methods

description ==== REJECTION

 Critical in the process of reproducing your investigation

 List the methods in the same order they will appear in the
Results section
 Contents of Methods?

 Description of the site

 Description of the surveys or experiments done

 Description of the laboratory methods, start from the simplest

to the more complex ones

 Description of the statistical methods used

 How should I structure the Methods?
The Methods section should answer most of the following questions, obviously
depending on your discipline:
• What / Who did I study? What hypotheses was I testing?
• Where did I carry out this study and what characteristics did this location have?
• How did I design my experiment / sampling and what assumptions did I make?
• What variable was I measuring and why?
• How did I handle / house / treat my materials / subjects? What kind of care / precautions were
taken?
• What equipment did I use (plus modifications) and where did this equipment come from
(vendor source)?
• What protocol did I use for collecting my data?
• How did I analyze the data? Statistical procedures? Mathematical equations? Software?
• What probability did I use to decide significance?
• What references to the literature could I give to save me having to describe something in detail?

Wallwork. 2011. English for Writing Research Papers

Wajib punya
 Pendahuluan berisi perkembangan penelitian terdahulu (state of the art) dengan
penelitian yang dilaporkan saat ini, terlihat adanya kesenjangan antara teori atau
hasil penelitian terdahulu dengan keadaan saat ini atau yang diharapkan.
 Mulailah dengan mengkaji pustaka terkini dan menyintesis permasalahanny
 Terlihat jelas kontribusi dari penelitian yang dihasilkan.
 Ada ‘delta’ yang menunjukkan kontribusi hasil penelitian pada iptek.
 Jadi, rumuskan dengan jelas masalah penelitian yang akan diselesaikan.
 Bagian pendahuluan dapat diakhiri dengan satu atau sejumlah pertanyaan
penelitian dan diakhiri dengan pernyataan tujuan penelitian.
 Pengakuan atas penelitian terdahulu sangat penting untuk mendukung gagasan dan
argumentasi penulis.
 Jangan mengutip pustaka sebagai kalimat pertama, ungkapkan pikiran atau gagasan
Anda sebagai kalimat topik, yakni kalimat pertama dalam paragraf.
INTRODUCTION, APPROACH,
and METHOD
alisaukah@yahoo.com
Universitas Negeri Malang
 PREFACE
• Novelty is required in articles published in reputable
journals because journals are published to contribute to
the body of knowledge or science.
• Knowledge or science is expected to contribute to the
improvement of the quality of life. It can do so if it can help
human beings predict or control events.
• Events can be predicted or controlled if research can lead to
the establishment of theory defined as statements of
relationship between or among factors or variables.
• Theories can be generated and then verified by research
through different research methods.
• Articles can contribute to the body of knowledge or science
if it contains novelty in the field being investigated through
theory generation or theory verification.
• Novelty can be claimed by the researcher if the present
progress in the field as a result of reviewing previous
research findings published in reputable journals is
described in the background of the study.
What is “Introduction”? What does it contain?
• Context of the study, state of the arts, frontier of
knowledge
• Showing gaps/discrepancies between
• Practices/experience/empirical evidence and theories
• Different research findings
• Promising to fill in the gaps/discrepancies
• Promised contribution to the body of knowledge;
showing significance of the study
• Showing what to be done by the researcher/writer
• May end with statements of research questions or
purposes.
Why reviewing previous research
studies? Why Citing?
• To show the frontiers of the respective
knowledge as a result of accumulative
research findings (state of the arts)
•To show any possible gaps or discrepancies
between/among different research findings
about the same topic so that it is clear how
the present study contributes to the body of
knowledge
Why reviewing previous research
studies? Why Citing? (2)
•Recognizing the existence of research studies
which can be compared with the present
study.
•To support ideas and arguments of the author.
• Citations should not be put in the first sentence
of a paragraph because the writer’s main idea is
usually put as a topic sentence in the first
sentence.
•To avoid unintentional plagiarism. How?
HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM?
GIVE CREDIT WHENEVER YOU USE
• another person’s idea, opinion, or theory;
• any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings—any pieces of
information—that are not common knowledge;
• quotations of another person’s actual spoken or
written words; or
• paraphrase of another person’s spoken or written
words. (Indiana University, 2004)
What is “Method”? What is “Methodology”
What does it contain?
• Presenting/describing what the researcher has really
done to answer the research questions.
• The basic principle of describing the method is:
“Follow my recipe, you will get the same results”.
• Verifiable
• Replicable
• Don’t quote definitions of concepts of research
methodology, especially if the method is already
common knowledge.
• Mention/cite only if the research design is still very
specific, not common knowledge
“QUANTITATIVE vs QUALITATIVE
METHODS/APPROACHES”
 What methods or approaches would be appropriate for the
following fields?:
1. Natural sciences
2. Humanities and social
sciences
(It depends on the purpose of the study)

• Quantitative Methods: the final goal is theory verification,

believing in a single truth
• Qualitative Methods: the final goal is theory generating,
believing in multiple truths
• Don’t get confused with quantitative data vs qualitative data:
they can be used for either quantitative or qualitative methods
• You can mix the two: mixed/combined methods or
“Quantilative Methods”.
Other classifications:
• Inductive (=qualitative)
• Deductive-inductive (=quantitative)
• Deductive (e.g in mathematics, philosophy?)

Not all research methods can be categorized into the

above classification (e.g action research)
Examples of expressions of the purpose of the study
(1) To determine if significant changes in lipid concentrations are also
observed in routine clinical practice in patients using combination
glucose-lowering therapy, we performed a multi-center observational
study. The specific aim of this study was to assess the effect of
pioglitazone and rosiglitazone therapy on glycemic control and plasma
lipids when these agents were used as adjunctive therapy in patients
with type 2 diabetes. (Harmel et al., 2004: hlm 216)
(2) The present study was designed to compare the analgesic efficacy,
safety and adverse effects of TTS-fentanyl with those of paracetamol
plus codein in combination with external radiotherapy for painful bony
metastases. (Pistevou-Gompaki et al., 2004: hlm 160)
(3) The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relation between
plasma tHcy levels and CAD in a population of Northern Greece with
angiographically confirmed CAD. (Boufidou et al., 2004: hlm 175)

29
Examples of expressions of the purpose of the study
(4) The study was designed to determine the PIFR and forced
inspiratory vital capacity (FIVC) through the Aerolizer inhaler
in patients (adults and children) with varying degrees of
asthma in an attempt to assess the influence of disease
severity on PIFR and FIVC. (Bronsky et al., 2004: hlm 132)
(5) The purpose of this study was to examine the potential
benefit of perioperative and short-term postoperative LLL
therapy on objective and subjective neurosensory recovery
after BSSO surgery. (Miloro and Repasky, 2000: hlm 13)
(6) Therefore we chose to study the influence of intravenous
infusion of cerulein and secretin on salivary flow rate and
the biochemical composition of whole saliva in humans.
(Marcinkiewicz et al., 2000: hlm 51)

30
Examples of expressions of the purpose of the study
(7) The purpose of this study is to analyse gender-uniform
differential item functioning (DIF) in a second language (L2)
vocabulary test with the tools of item response theory (the
separate calibration t-method) and to study potential gender
impact on the test performance measured by different item
composites. (Takala & Kaftandjieva, 2000: hlm 323)
(8) The present study investigated how schemata activated by
culturally familiar words might have influenced students’
cloze test-taking processes. (Sasaki, 2000: hlm. 85)
(9) The present study sought to evaluate the effects of
maximizing time spent in learning and minimizing time
needed for learning on the degree of learning for two groups
of children. (Gettinger, 1989: hlm 76)

31
Examples of expressions of the purpose of the study
(10) This study examines the instructional actions and
decisions of pre-service English as a second language
teachers during their initial teaching experiences.
(Johnson, 1992: hlm. 507)
(11) The present study attempted to enhance what is known
about the influence of prior knowledge on L2 listening
comprehension and to extend this by examining the effect
of prior knowledge, speech modification, and listening
comprehension proficiency on how well EFL listeners
understood lectures. (Chiang & Dunkel, 1992: hlm.351-352)

32
Examples of expressions of the purpose of the study
(12) The syntheses of the 4- and 5-methoxy isomers of 4-N-(6-
methoxy-2-methyl-8-quinoly)-4-methylbenzenesulfonamide
and of N-(2-methoxy-8-quinoly)-4-methylbenzenesulfon-
amide are described. (Kimber et al., 2003:39)
(13) We report the preparation, isolation and
characterization of oxide, sulfide, selenide, and borane
derivatives of a series of indenylphosphines. (Adams et al.,
2003:1153)

33
Remarks
• Commonly used phrases to mean “article”: ‘this paper’
and ‘this article’,
• Commonly used word to mean “research”: ‘study’.
• Common expressions of “purpose”: ‘examine’,
‘attempt to enhance’, ‘the purpose of’, ‘the aim of’,
‘investigated’, and ‘sought to evaluate’
• The tenses used: ‘simple present tense’ or ‘simple
past tense’.
• First person pronoun is commonly used: ‘We report…’,
‘we chose to study…’

34
Examples of How to write METHOD
(1) Patients with type 2 diabetes receiving metformin and/or
sulfonylurea (n=829) were evaluated in this national
multicenter, retrospective study. Medical records from 318
endocrinology practices in the USA were randomly selected
and screened for study inclusion. Data related to patient
demographics and laboratory data were extracted from
medical records and analyzed for primary and secondary
outcomes. (Harmel et al, 2004:hlm 215)
(2) In a prospective study, 26 patients with radiologically
confirmed bony metastases received radiotherapy (R/T). They
were randomized to receive either 500 mg paracetamol and 30
mg codeine four times per day (P/C group), or transdermal
fentanyl patches delivering 25ug fentanyl/h (TTS-fentanyl
group). Pain was assessed using visual analogue pain ratings
(VAS) and the Greek Brief Pain Inventory (G-BPI)
questionnaire administered before R/T and after 3 months.
(Pistevou-Gompaki et al, 2004: hlm 159) 35
 Examples of How to write METHOD
(3) Plasma fasting tHcy levels were measured in 42 patients with
angiographically documented CAD and compared to 42 age-,
sex-, BMI- and smoking habit-matched control subjects. We
also determined the plasma vitamin B-folic acid and
lipoprotein levels in all patients and controls. Conventional
risk factors for CAD were also estimated. (Boufidou et al,
2004: hlm 175)
(4) PIFR and FIVC were assessed in 33 adults and 32 children
using a spirometer alone (baseline), a spirometer with an
adaptor, and a spirometer with an adaptor and the Aerolizer
inhaler (placebo loaded). (Bronsky et al, 2004: 131)
(5) Patients were randomized to either rigid or wire
osteosynthesis. Cephalometric radiographs were obtained
and digitized at multiple time periods before and after
surgery. Data were analyzed through use of 2-sample t-test
and stepwise regression analyses. (Sickles et al, 2000: hlm
19) 36
 Examples of How to write METHOD
(6) One-hundred and twenty healthy, adult male volunteers had
a standard 12-lead electrocardiography (ECG), a 12-lead ECG
with the precordial leads displaced 2 cm cranially and
another with the precordial leads displaced 2 cm caudally
from the standard positions. All three ECGs were visually
compared and changes noted. (Lateef and Nimbkar, 2003: hlm
15)
(7) Doses of 30 mg/kg body weight of Cy were administered to 12
experimental rats at 10 and 13 days of age. A corresponding
amount of 0.9% sodium chloride was given to 6 control rats at
the same ages. At 31 days, the median maxillary suture was
studied histologically in the experimental and control rats.
(Nasman et al, 2000: hlm 77)

37
Examples of How to write METHOD
(8) The information on curriculum participation used in this
paper was extracted from records held by the Tasmanian
Secondary School Assessment Board (TASSAB). The
TASSAB database contains information on the subject
enrolments and subject results for all Tasmanian Certificate
of Education (Years 9, 10, 11 and 12) students. It also
contains information on the levels of study for each subject,
student characteristics, and school. (Lamb, Hogan, &
Johnson, 2001: hlm 155-156)
(9) The present research consisted of a longitudinal study of 4
Inuit children and their families. The study of these 4 children
is based on the tradition of the developmental
psycholinguistic studies that focused on a few children over
a length of time and in which recordings (in this, videotapes)
were made from which detailed verbal and nonverbal
information was transcribed. (Crago, 1992: hlm. 490)
38
Examples of How to write METHOD
(10) Tests are administered to all pupils of grade 8. During
every assessment several school subjects are assessed at
the same time. Therefore, the pupils are assigned to several
school subjects. For this reason, the sample of pupils doing
the English tests is representative, but smaller than the total
sample. (Edelenbos & Vonje, 2000: hlm147-148)
(11) The research design employed to study learning to teach
within the program included sequential sampling techniques
in which a limited number of pre-service teachers were
selected from the full program complement. Learning from
the program was documented by selecting major concepts
from a particular subject area. (Hollingsworth, 1989: hlm. 164)

39
 Examples of How to write METHOD
(12) The standardized multiple-choice tests of achievement
were administered to students by their classroom teachers
in the middle of the school year (all within a period of one
month) as part of an experimental testing program in
schools. Tests were returned to a central research agency
for scoring; students’ scores were available at the agency
for the analyses described in this paper. The examination is
normally taken in a student’s own school but is
administered and scored under the direction of the Irish
Department of Education. Information on the performance
of the students was obtained from the schools attended by
students. (Bolger & Kellaghan, 1990: hlm. 169)

40
 Examples of How to write METHOD
(13) Although I learned a great deal about these programs
through interviews during the selection process, the major
data collection was carried out through site visits and
reviews of program documentation. Site visits included
observations of classes, workshops, presentations at
professional conferences, planning sessions, meetings
with advisory committees, and interviews with the program
personnel, students, teachers, school administrators and
other persons involved in or serviced by the programs.
(Merryfield, 1992: hlm. 21)

41
Remarks
• The writer may not need to give a technical label, like
“longitudinal/qualitative/quantitative” to the research
method/design/approach adopted;
• Describing the procedure in detail is more important, even
without putting a technical label as above.
• The language for the presentation of the procedure may be
based on first persons: I or we, not in a passive voice.
• “Past tenses” tend to be used in describing the procedure
referring to the past activities when the data were collected
and analyzed.
• “Present tenses” tend to be used in describing what is
relevant in the present time.
• Some journals use “present tenses” regardless of the
situations.

42
THANK YOU!