Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Administration
March 2016
FOREWORD
Walden University
DBA Doctoral Study Rubric and Research Handbook1
February 2019
This document consists of two components: the Doctoral Study Rubric2 and the Research
Handbook. Thus, the purpose of this document is two-fold. First, the purpose of the rubric is to
guide DBA students and DBA Doctoral Study supervisory committees as they work together to
develop high-quality proposals and Doctoral Study research. The committee will use the rubric
to provide on-going and flexible evaluation and reevaluation of the proposal and DBA Doctoral
Study drafts. The University Research Reviewer (URR), who reviews the proposal/DBA
Doctoral Study on behalf of the University, will also use this rubric to communicate feedback
and any required revisions.
Second, the Research Handbook is an accompanying guide to the rubric that provides detailed
instructions and knowledge pertaining to corresponding rubric components. The doctoral student
is still responsible for utilizing self-identified resources to aid in the understanding and
presentation of the rubric requirements. Elements in the Doctoral Study rubric correspond to
elements in the Research Handbook. For example, one will find more detailed information on the
Problem Statement (Heading # 1.3 in the DBA Rubric) in Heading # 1.3 (Problem Statement) of
the Research Handbook. Using the Doctoral Study Rubric in conjunction with the Research
Handbook when writing the proposal/Doctoral Study is highly recommended.
In the writing process, use the DBA Template and Rubric as a suggested outline for the DBA
Proposal and Doctoral Study and as a basis for feedback on early drafts.
Before the Proposal Oral Conference or DBA Doctoral Study Oral Conference, the
committee and URR will complete the rubric in MyDR and upload the proposal per the process
checklist. Find the MyDR Process Checklist at
http://academicguides.waldenu.edu/researchcenter/osra/dba.The guidance on orals is located at
http://academicguides.waldenu.edu/researchcenter/osra/oraldefense.
After the Proposal Oral Conference or DBA Doctoral Study Oral Conference, and once the
student completes any committee or methodologist revision requests for the proposal/Doctoral
Study, the committee will review the proposal/Doctoral Study and make any needed
modifications. When the committee members agree that the student met all of the rubric
requirements for the proposal and passed the oral defense, the chair then notes in MyDR that the
student passed the oral defense.
1
The DBA Rubric and Research Handbook video tutorial can be viewed at: http://youtu.be/KiiDGmLbRN0.
2
The guidance in the rubric supersedes any guidance you might see depicted elsewhere. For example, the Problem
Statement video tutorial on YouTube depicts a maximum word count of 250 for the Problem Statement. The
Problem Statement is recommended not to be too lengthy (recommended not to exceed 150 words). It is
recommended to support claims and decisions with multiple scholarly peer-reviewed or seminal sources (as
appropriate).
ii
About consensus: For the final copy of the proposal or DBA Doctoral Study, there must be
unanimous agreement by the DBA Doctoral Study supervisory committee before the student
proceeds to the next step in the process checklist.
For research courses (i.e., KAMs, dissertations, and doctoral studies), the guideline for review
and return of student research drafts is generally within 2 weeks; or, alternatively, provide a
substantive overview of issues and concerns and an estimate of when of the full review will be
complete. The 2-week time frame is a guideline and representative of what the university
believes to be best practices. It is a desired practice for faculty members to respond to students
upon receipt of research drafts and indicate when the draft will be returned. The faculty mentor
or committee chair should provide students guidance on activities to work on that support
student progress in the meantime. If a review of student research work requires significantly
more time, for example, due to the length or complexity of the submission from one or more
students, then faculty members are expected to notify the student of the additional time
estimated to review their work.
Committee chairs or faculty mentors should set expectations early in the term for deadlines
relating to submission and return of specified research documents that provide evidence of
substantial academic progress. This is part of the term plan and should include deadlines for
submission of designated documents and the final term report. Please note: Faculty members
are not expected to review research drafts between terms, outside of what is required for end-
of-term grading. Any research draft submitted within 5 days of the final day of the term may
not receive detailed feedback until approximately 10 days into the subsequent term.
If the review takes place during any of the official Walden holidays (New Year’s Day; Martin
Luther King, Jr. Day; Memorial Day; Independence Day; Labor Day; Thanksgiving Day; day
after Thanksgiving; or Christmas Day), the holiday will not count in the review cycle. It is
important to note that MyDR, which includes a general 14-day review timeline, does not adjust
for holidays and end-of-terms, so any late notices received from the workflow as a result of a
holiday are not an accurate reflection of the review time frame.
Note: As you consider your references, it is recommended that in business 85% should be
within the past 5 years. Other than data collected from the study site, students cannot use
magazines, trade publications, summary textbooks, websites, and blogs as references.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
iv
FOREWORD................................................................................................................................ II
DBA DOCTORAL STUDY RUBRIC......................................................................................... 1
DBA RESEARCH HANDBOOK...............................................................................................26
SECTION 1: FOUNDATION OF THE STUDY................................................................ 27
1.1 - Abstract..................................................................................................................... 28
1.2 - Background of the Problem.......................................................................................28
Applied DBA Versus a Speculative/Theoretical PhD...........................................28
Preparing the Background of the Problem.............................................................29
1.3 - Problem Statement.................................................................................................... 30
Avoiding Rubric Creep..........................................................................................31
Strategy for Mapping to the Rubric.......................................................................31
Specific Business Problem.....................................................................................31
Aligning the Specific Business Problem With the Purpose Statement and RQ ...
33 1.4 - Purpose Statement................................................................................................35
Six Elements of the Purpose Statement.................................................................35
1.5 - Nature of the Study....................................................................................................37
Hypothetical Quantitative Example.......................................................................38
Hypothetical Qualitative Example.........................................................................38
1.6 - Research Question (Quantitative Only).....................................................................39
1.7 - Hypotheses (Quantitative/Mixed-Method Only).......................................................40
Hypotheses.............................................................................................................40
Correlation.............................................................................................................40
Quasi-experimental................................................................................................40
1.8 - Research Question (Qualitative Only).......................................................................40
1.9 - Interview Questions (Qualitative Only).................................................................... 42
Example Research Question..................................................................................43
Example Applied DBA Interview Questions........................................................ 43
1.10 - Theoretical/Conceptual Framework........................................................................43
1.11 - Operational Definitions...........................................................................................46
1.12 - Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations.........................................................46
1.13 - Significance of the Study........................................................................................ 47
v
1.14 - Review of the Professional and Academic Literature............................................. 47
1.15 – Transition................................................................................................................49
SECTION 2: THE PROJECT..............................................................................................50
2.1 - Purpose Statement.....................................................................................................51
2.2 - Role of the Researcher...............................................................................................51
2.3 - Participants................................................................................................................52
2.4 - Research Method.......................................................................................................53
2.5 - Research Design........................................................................................................53
Data Saturation in Qualitative Study Designs....................................................... 53
How to Use Multiple Sources to Support Claims and Decisions..........................54
2.6 - Population and Sampling (Quantitative Only)..........................................................54
Population..............................................................................................................54
Sampling................................................................................................................55
2.7 - Population and Sampling (Qualitative Only)............................................................55
Defining the Population.........................................................................................55
Sampling................................................................................................................55
Data Saturation and Sampling............................................................................... 56
2.8 - Ethical Research........................................................................................................56
2.9 - Data Collection—Instruments (Quantitative)............................................................57
2.10 - Data Collection – Instruments (Qualitative)............................................................57
2.11 - Data Collection Technique......................................................................................60
Quantitative Studies...............................................................................................60
Qualitative Studies.................................................................................................60
2.12 - Data Organization Technique (Qualitative Only)................................................... 60
2.13 - Data Analysis (Quantitative Only)..........................................................................60
2.14 - Data Analysis (Qualitative Only)............................................................................61
2.15 - Study Validity (Quantitative Only).........................................................................63
Internal Validity.....................................................................................................63
External Validity....................................................................................................65
2.16 - Reliability and Validity (Qualitative Only).............................................................65
Reliability.............................................................................................................. 65
vi
Validity.................................................................................................................. 65
2.17 - Transition and Summary......................................................................................... 66
SECTION 3: APPLICATION TO PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE AND
IMPLICATIONS FOR CHANGE...........................................................................67
3.1 - Introduction............................................................................................................... 68
Quantitative Example............................................................................................ 68
Qualitative Example.............................................................................................. 68
3.2 - Presentation of Findings (Quantitative).....................................................................68
Quantitative Example............................................................................................ 68
Tests of Assumptions.............................................................................................69
Descriptive Statistics............................................................................................. 71
Inferential Results..................................................................................................71
3.3 - Presentation of Findings (Qualitative).......................................................................74
3.4 - Application to Professional Practice......................................................................... 74
3.5 - Implications for Social Change.................................................................................74
3.6 - Recommendations for Action....................................................................................75
3.7 - Recommendations for Further Research................................................................... 75
3.8 - Reflections.................................................................................................................75
3.9 - Conclusion.................................................................................................................75
3.10 - Appendices/Table of Contents................................................................................ 75
APPENDIX A: WALDEN UNIVERSITY DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
PROGRAM VIDEO TITLES AND URL ADDRESSES.............................................76
APPENDIX B: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PRIMER: PROBLEM STATEMENT,
PURPOSE STATEMENT, RESEARCH QUESTION(S), AND HYPOTHESES.....77
APPENDIX C: MAJOR QUANTITATIVE DESIGNS...........................................................83
APPENDIX D: SAMPLING TYPOLOGIES...........................................................................84
APPENDIX E: SAMPLE POWER ANALYSIS.......................................................................85
APPENDIX F: SAMPLE QUANTITATIVE LITERATURE REVIEW OUTLINE...........86
APPENDIX G: SAMPLE APA TABLES..................................................................................89
APPENDIX H: SAMPLE INTERVIEW PROTOCOL...........................................................95
BIBLIOGRAPHY: SUGGESTED READINGS LISTS...........................................................97
vii
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations................................................................... 98
Assumptions.......................................................................................................... 98
Limitations...........................................................................................................100
Delimitations........................................................................................................103
Case Study Sources..........................................................................................................105
Case Study Seminal Books..............................................................................................110
Data Saturation and Data Collection Sources..................................................................111
Ethical Considerations/IRB............................................................................................. 117
Ethnography Sources.......................................................................................................129
Focus Groups...................................................................................................................137
Interview Protocol Sources..............................................................................................142
Interviews Sources...........................................................................................................144
Journaling Sources...........................................................................................................155
Member Checking Sources..............................................................................................158
Mixed Methods Research................................................................................................ 160
Notetaking and Fieldwork............................................................................................... 166
Phenomenological Sources..............................................................................................168
Pilot Studies.....................................................................................................................174
Qualitative Research Foundation.....................................................................................175
Qualitative and Quantitative Sources.............................................................................. 180
Reliability, Validity, Transferability, and Generalizability Sources............................... 189
Sampling and Incentives..................................................................................................196
Sensemaking....................................................................................................................202
Qualitative Software Analysis Sources........................................................................... 205
Triangulation Sources......................................................................................................210
viii
DBA DOCTORAL STUDY RUBRIC
1
Student and Committee Information3
Chairperson:
3
Chair will complete the yellow highlighted fields in this section before submitting the rubric. Be sure to include the
names of all members of the committee.
2
Evaluation4
5
Date/Stage of the Rubric:
Date of Review
Before Proposal Oral Defense
Before Proposal Oral (Revised)6
Before Doctoral Study Oral Defense
Before Doctoral Study Oral (Revised)7
Note: Place an “X” in column (yellow highlight) associated with the appropriate stage.
Member Information:
Name of member providing this review
Role of the member providing this review
Note: Enter the information in the yellow highlighted column.
4
Each member of the committee completes the evaluation.
5
Be sure to follow the Process Checklist (located at http://academicguides.waldenu.edu/researchcenter/osra) naming
convention when sending the document through the review process. Following the naming convention is vital for
tracking student progress throughout the doctoral study process.
6
Check when second and subsequent rubrics are needed if previous proposal defense was not passed.
7
Check when second and subsequent rubrics are needed if previous Doctoral Study defense was not passed.
3
Section 1 Type Met,
Foundation of the Study Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
f. Describes the data analysis process (e.g., modified van Kaam method) to
identify themes; in qualitative studies (e.g., t test, ANOVA, or multiple
regression), to report statistical data in a quantitative study.) Omit SW Titles.
i. Identifies two or three themes that morphed from the study (qualitative).
j. Presents the statistical results for each research question (quantitative studies).
k. Describes how these data may contribute to social change (use the word social
change and be specific on who specifically may benefit).8
n. Use plural verbs with data (e.g., the data were - the word data is the plural of
datum).
8
Begin this section as follows: The implications for positive social change include the potential to…”.
4
Section 1 Type Met,
Foundation of the Study Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
o. Ensures all numbers are expressed in digits (i.e., 1, 2, 10, 20, etc.) and not
spelled out unless beginning a sentence; Ensures Abstract does not include
seriation (i.e., (a), (b), (c), etc.).
c. States the general business problem Note: This element should start as follows:
The general business problem is…
d. States the specific business problem. Be sure to state who has the
specific problem (i.e., small business leaders, project managers, supply
chain managers, etc.) Note: This element should start as follows: The
specific business problem is that some (identify who has the problem)…
9
Include an introductory paragraph before the Background of the Problem component. However, do not label this
introductory paragraph with a L1 APA heading. The purpose of the background is to introduce the topic and
problem you will address. Briefly indicate why the problem deserves new research. More important, the Doctoral
Study must address applied research, so you will want to identify the need to solve an applied business problem. The
goal of this section is to encourage readers to continue reading, to generate interest in the study, and provide an
initial frame of reference for understanding the entire research framework
10
The hook should be a succinct WOW statement to catch the reader’s attention.
11
An anchor comprises a number, percentage, dollar value, ratio, index, etc.
5
Section 1 Type Met,
Foundation of the Study Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
e. Ensures the specific business problem aligns with the research question and
purpose statement.
Check with Ulrich’s Periodical Directory http://library.waldenu.edu/728.htm to
ensure citations are peer reviewed.12
See Problem Statement Video Tutorial at: http://youtu.be/IYWzCYyrgpo.
12
Ulrich’s is not 100% correct; the student must verify peer review status via the journal home page.
13
The first sentence of the purpose statement must align with the research question and specific business problem in
the problem statement.
14
Visit the Center for Research Quality qualitative methodology tutorial at:
http://academicguides.waldenu.edu/researchcenter/resources/Design
15
See the quantitative Research Primer located at Appendix B; Visit the Center for Research Quality quantitative
methodology tutorial at: http://academicguides.waldenu.edu/researchcenter/resources/Design
16
See Appendix C for a depiction of basic quantitative designs and their characteristics.
17
Covariates, mediator, and moderator variables are types of independent/predictor variables; be sure to clearly
identify these types of variables as applicable.
18
The terms “independent” and “predictor variables are often used interchangeably in correlation studies. Please be
consistent with the chosen terminology.
19
See Heading 1.6, Research Questions (Quantitative Only), in the Research Handbook.
6
Section 1 Type Met,
Foundation of the Study Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
Note: A single paragraph is sufficient for each component: one for the method and one for t he
design.
a. Identifies the selection of one method (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
method) and why other methods would not work (cite a minimum of one
source).
b. Identifies the selection of the design21 (within the method) and why it was
selected over other designs (cite a minimum of one source).
20
A single paragraph can be used for each component: one for the method and one for the design.
21
See Appendix C for a brief depiction of the major research designs.
7
b. Ensures research question(s)22 align(s) with the specific business problem and
first line of the Purpose Statement.
b. Ensures research question aligns with the specific Business Problem and
Purpose Statement.
22
The research question(s) must contain the independent/predictor and dependent/criterion variables identified in the
Purpose Statement.
23
Hypotheses must include the variables identified in the research question.
8
(1.10) Theoretical/Conceptual Framework24
Clearly and concisely identify the theoretical/conceptual framework. In quantitative studies, the
theoretical framework is the appropriate term and in qualitative studies, the conceptual framework is
the appropriate term. The student will articulate the theoretical/conceptual framework with concepts
from the literature to ground and complement the applied business study.
This component should not exceed one page. It will be expanded upon in the literature review.
See Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Video Tutorial at: http://youtu.be/P-01xVTIVC8
24
The theoretical/conceptual framework informs the research (quantitative) and interview (qualitative) questions. Be
sure to review the Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Video Tutorial at: http://youtu.be/P-01xVTIVC8
25
Some literature identifies the specific date the theorist introduced the theory; provide this date if this is the case. If
date is missing, then requirement (c) is not applicable.
26
Ensures the independent variables appropriately align with the theoretical framework(s) identified in component
1.10, Theoretical/Conceptual Framework.
9
a. Presents technical terms, jargon, or special word used in the study.
d. Does not include terms found in a basic academic dictionary (i.e., Webster’s).
a. Defines the term Assumptions and provides citation; lists facts that the student
assumes to be true but cannot actually be verified.
b. Defines the term Limitations and provides citation; lists potential weaknesses
of the study that are not within the control of the researcher.
c. Defines the term Delimitations and provides citation; identifies the bounds of
the study.
(1.13) Significance of the Study27
27
This area is important in determining Doc Study of the Year Award-justify well.
10
Section 1 Type Met,
Foundation of the Study Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
28
The average length of substantive literature review is between 30 to 40 pages (25 pages minimum). However, the
need for depth and breadth is required. See quantitative example at Appendix F and visit the Writing Center at:
http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/50.htm for more information on writing the literature review.
29
A key portion of the Review of the Literature must focus on the specific theoretical/conceptual framework you
are using in your study. This is a “ key requirement for you to be able to adequately address items 3.2g,
Presentation of Findings (quantitative studies) and 3.3c, Presentation of Findings (qualitative studies).
11
iv. Contains a critical analysis and synthesis of literature pertaining to
the independent variables (quantitative/mixed-method studies) the
student identified in item # 4c (Purpose Statement).
v. Contains a critical analysis and synthesis of literature pertaining to the
dependent variable(s) (quantitative/mixed-method studies) the student
identified in item # 4c (Purpose Statement).
vi. Discusses measurement of variables (quantitative/mixed-method studies) the
student identified in item # 4c (Purpose Statement).
vii. Contains a critical analysis and synthesis of literature pertaining to potential
themes and phenomena (qualitative studies) the student identified in the
Purpose Statement.
viii. Compares and contrasts different points of view, and the relationship of the
study to previous research and findings (sample size/geographical location
variance, etc.).
ix. Provides a comprehensive critical analysis and synthesis of the literature.
C. Relevancy of the Literature
The literature review is well organized. Introduce the purpose of the study.
Include hypotheses (if a quantitative/mixed method study) in the opening
narrative.
D. Literature Review Organization
i. Presented in a well-organized manner.
ii. Adheres to APA formatting standards.
(1.15) Transition
a. Ends with a Transition Heading that contains a concise summary30 of key
points of Section 1.
30
A concise summary recaps the major elements of the review of the literature and does not introduce new
information.
12
Section 2 Type Met,
The Project Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
31
See Belmont Report at: http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/belmont.html.
32
Select “N/A” and explain why if participants are not used in the study.
13
Section 2 Type Met,
The Project Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
14
Section 2 Type Met,
The Project Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
d. Justifies sample size via power analysis (see example in Appendix E). Provides
justification for the proposed effect size, alpha, and power levels.
e. Cites the source for calculating or the tool used to calculate the sample size.
15
Section 2 Type Met,
The Project Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
d. Clarifies measures that the student will use to assure that the ethical protection
of participants is adequate.
e. Refers to agreement documents in the (a) appendices, and (b) Table of
Contents.
f. Includes statement that the student will store the data securely for 5 years to
protect confidentiality of participants.
33
The DBA policy for phenomenological studies is a minimum of 20 participants.
16
Section 2 Type Met,
The Project Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
34
Published reliability and validity properties might be found in the test review and in other studies where
the instrument was used to collect data.
17
Section 2 Type Met,
The Project Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
c. As applicable, describes the process for conducting a pilot study after IRB
approval.
d. For qualitative studies, identifies how the student will use member checking of
the data interpretation or transcript review (if applicable).
e. It is recommended to support claims and decisions with multiple scholarly peer-
reviewed or seminal sources (as appropriate).
18
Section 2 Type Met,
The Project Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
a. Describes the systems for keeping track of data, emerging understandings such
as research logs, reflective journals, and cataloging/labeling systems.
b. Reminds readers all raw data will be stored securely for 5 years.
c. It is recommended to support claims and decisions with multiple scholarly
peer-reviewed or seminal sources (as appropriate).
(2.13) Data Analysis (Quantitative Only)
b. Describes and defends, in detail, the statistical analyses that the student will
conduct (e.g., multiple regression, two-way ANOVA, etc.).
c. Describes and defends, in detail, why other statistical analyses are not
appropriate.
d. Provides explanation of data cleaning and screening procedures as appropriate
to the study.
i. Describes how the student will interpret inferential results (i.e. key parameter
estimates, effect sizes, confidence intervals, probability values, odds ratios,
etc.).
j. Identifies statistical software and version that the student will use in the data
analysis process (e.g., SPSS, Excel, R, etc.).
k. It is recommended to support claims and decisions with multiple scholarly
peer-reviewed or seminal sources (as appropriate).
35
Bootstrapping can be used as an effective method for addressing violations of assumptions.
19
Section 2 Type Met,
The Project Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
a. Identifies the appropriate data analysis process for the research design (e.g., one
of the four types of triangulation for case study; modified van Kaam, van
Maanen, etc. for phenomenology).
36
Items “a” and “b” pertain to experimental and quasi-experimental designs only. Item “c” pertains to all quantitative
designs. Discuss validity as it pertains to the study outcomes. This component is not to address the reliability and
validity of the study instruments. The reliability and validity of the study instruments is addressed in item 2.9
(quantitative) and 2.10 (qualitative). Item “d”, external validity, pertains to all quantitative designs.
37
The three factors to be discussed are (a) reliability of the instrument, (b) data assumptions, and (c) sample size.
20
Section 2 Type Met,
The Project Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
(2.16) Reliability and Validity (Qualitative Only): A key difference from quantitative research is
the reliability and validity headings. The analogous criteria for qualitative studies are credibility,
transferability, dependability, and confirmability. These criteria are not measurable and need to be
established using qualitative methods such as member checking--Marshall and Rossman (2016) have
a good definition, and triangulation (data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theoretical
triangulation, and methodological triangulation). See Norman Denzin’s (1978, 2009) works on
triangulation). Please review more detailed information on qualitative validity at:
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualval.php
Reliability
a. Identifies how the student will address dependability. (i.e., member checking of
data interpretation, transcript review, pilot test, etc.).
b. It is recommended to support claims and decisions with multiple scholarly peer-
reviewed or seminal sources (as appropriate).
Validity
c. Identifies how the student will ensure credibility (i.e., member checking of the
data interpretation, participant transcript review, triangulation, etc.).
d. Identifies how the student will address transferability in relation to the reader
and future research.
e. Identifies how the student will address confirmability.
f. Identifies how the student will ensure data saturation.
g. It is recommended to support claims and decisions with multiple scholarly peer-
reviewed or seminal sources (as appropriate).
(2.17) Transition and Summary
a. Ends with a Transition Statement that contains a summary of key points.
b. Includes an overview of what the student will cover in Section 3.
Proposal Stage. Before IRB approval, the paper is written in future tense and after
IRB approval, the paper is changed to past tense.
Writing Style. The paper is written in predominantly active voice without slang,
euphemisms, or anthropomorphisms.
21
Section 2 Type Met,
The Project Not Met, or
(FOR PROPOSAL & DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
Follows APA 6th edition in the text and in the reference list
References: Of the total sources cited, a minimum of 85% should be peer reviewed
(it is recommended that in business 85% should be within the past 5 years of
anticipated completion date). Each source on the References page should match an
in-text citation and vice versa
Congratulations! This ends the Proposal section. See the Process Checklist located
at the Center for Research Quality website (see URL below).
http://researchcenter.waldenu.edu/Documents/DBA_Process_Checklist.pdf
22
Section 3
Application for Professional Practice and Implications for Social Change (FOR Type Met,
DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) Not Met, or
N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
(3.1) Introduction
a. Begins with the purpose of the study. Do not repeat the entire purpose
statement. Typically, the first sentence of the purpose statement will suffice.
b. Provides a brief summary of the findings (do not exceed one page).
a. Describes the statistical test(s), the variables, and the purpose of the test(s) and
how they relate to the hypotheses.
b. Presents relevant descriptive statistics38 (i.e. mean, standard deviation for scale
variables; frequencies and percentages for nominal variables).
c. Provides evaluation of statistical assumptions from Heading 2.13e.
d. Reports inferential statistical analyses results, organized by research question,
in proper APA statistical notation/format. Includes the alpha level chosen for
the test, test value, p (significance level) values, effect size, degrees of
freedom, confidence intervals (when appropriate), etc.
e. Includes appropriate tables39 and figures to illustrate results, as per the current
edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.
f. Summarizes answers to research questions.
38
See the following link for further information on descriptive statistics:
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statdesc.php
39
See Appendix E for basic formatted descriptive and inferential statistic tables.
23
Section 3
Application for Professional Practice and Implications for Social Change (FOR Type Met,
DBA DOCTORAL STUDY DOCUMENTS) Not Met, or
N/A in Each
Quality Indicators Cell
40
g. Describes in what ways findings confirm, disconfirm, or extend knowledge
of the theoretical framework and relationship(s) among variables by
comparing the findings with other peer- reviewed studies from the literature
review that includes studies addressed during the proposal stage and new
studies since writing the proposal. Ties findings or disputes findings to the
existing literature on effective business practice.
h. Analyzes and interprets the findings in the context of the theoretical
framework, as appropriate.
i. Ensures interpretations do not exceed the data, findings, and scope.
(3.3) Presentation of Findings (Qualitative Only)
a. Lists the overarching research question.
b. Identifies each theme. Analyzes and discusses findings in relation to the
themes.
41
c. Describes in what ways findings confirm, disconfirm, or extend knowledge
in the discipline by comparing the findings with other peer-reviewed studies
from the literature review that includes new studies since writing the proposal.
d. Ties findings to the conceptual framework
e. Ties findings or disputes findings to the existing literature on effective
business practice.
(3.4) Application to Professional Practice42
Provides a detailed discussion on the applicability of the findings with respect to the
professional practice of business. This major subsection provides a rich academic
argument for why and how the findings are relevant to improved business practice.
40
It is important to ensure the review of the literature is a critical analysis and synthesis of the theory and variables
identified in the study.
41
It is important the student includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the new literature (studies) published since
the proposal and correlates the literature with the findings in the study.
42
This is an important area for Doctoral Study of the Year Award.
24
(3.5) Implications for Social Change43
43
This is an important area for Doctoral Study of the Year Award.
44
Limitations identified in section 1.12b, as a minimum, are ideal sources for future studies.
25
DBA RESEARCH HANDBOOK
Doctor of Business
Administration
Research Handbook
26
SECTION 1: FOUNDATION OF THE
Section 1 – Foundation of
the Study
27
Note: This handbook is not in the DBA Doctoral Study Template. Make certain that the proposal
and study conform to DBA Doctoral Study Template heading sequencing, and formatting with
the correct margins and line spacing.
1.1 - Abstract
The abstract must not exceed one page. The abstract text must be double-spaced with no
paragraph breaks. The first line must not be indented. Describe the overall research problem
being addressed in the first couple of sentences and indicate why it is important (e.g., who would
care if the problem were solved). You can include a general introduction of the issue in the first
sentence, but you need to move to a clear statement of the research problem. Identify the purpose
and theoretical foundations, summarize the key research question(s), and briefly describe the
overall research design and data analytic procedures. Identify the key results, themes, one or two
conclusions, and recommendations that capture the heart of the research. Conclude with a
statement on the implications for positive social change. Here are some form and style tips: (a)
limit the abstract to one page; (b) maintain the scholarly language used throughout the doctoral
study; (c) keep the abstract concise, accurate, and readable; (d) use correct English; one may use
passive voice in the abstract; (e) ensure each sentence adds value to the reader’s understanding of
the research; (f) use the full name of any term and if the acronym is used more than once in the
abstract include the acronym in parentheses. Do not include references or citations in the
abstract. Per APA style, unless at the beginning of a sentence, use numerals in the abstract, and
don’t identify the titles of any software. Do not include seriation (i.e., (a), (b), (c), etc.)
28
Quantitative studies. A quantitative study that includes one or more variables in which
the leader or manager cannot change to solve a business problem is a hypothetical/theoretical
PhD study. Whereas, a quantitative study that includes only variables which business leaders or
business managers can manipulate or change to solve a business problem is an applied DBA
study.
The Background of the Problem can be effectively accomplished in no more than one
page; brevity and clarity are essential. The Review of the Literature will provide a more detailed
discussion on the literature pertaining to the topic/problem. Immersing yourself in the literature
on your topic/problem is crucial to uncovering a viable business problem. Do not underestimate
the importance of the literature in helping identifying a viable business problem.
The research topic is broad in nature; do not narrow the focus too quickly. You want to
provide the reader, especially those not familiar with the topic, time to become familiar with the
topic. Transition the reader to a more a concise presentation of the specific business
topic/problem under study. This component focuses on identifying why the study is important,
how the study relates to previous research on the topic/problem, and gives the reader a firm sense
of what your study is going to address and why. The Background of the Problem contains
information supporting the business problem. Do not describe, explain, justify, etc., the need for
the study in the Problem Statement. Provide these critical elements (description, explanation,
justification, etc.) in the Background of the Problem component. As such, the Problem Statement
can be written effectively in as little as four sentences: (a) hook, (b) anchor (c) general business
problem, and (d) specific business problem. Transfer the supporting references in the
Background of the Problem to the Problem Statement, but submit in a concise manner. For
example, the hook and anchor reference provided in the Background of the Problem should be
used in the Problem Statement.
29
Include a transition statement that leads to problem statement that will provide more
specificity regarding the problem identified in the Background or the Problem component. A
well-written transition signals a change in content. It tells your reader that they have finished one
main unit and are moving to the next, or it tells them that they are moving from a general
explanation to a specific example or application. A transition form the background to the
Problem Statement is often as brief as one sentence, as follows: The background to the problem
has been provided; the focus will now shift to the Problem Statement. Tip: Many potential
business topics/problems can be found in the Area for Future Research heading of most peer-
reviewed journal articles.
45
Rubric creep occurs when the problem statement does not reflect an applied business problem.
30
DBA students are seeking a degree in business and must ensure the problem statement is
business focused. The problem statement must not represent a problem that has a social,
psychological, educational, or other discipline specific emphasis. A business problem is
something that is a problem for a business from the perspective of the business managers or the
industry’s leaders. Therefore, it is important to adopt a management perspective, and not that of
social advocates. The perspective must be from the position of the managers and leaders of
business who can address the problem.
Conduct a final check of the problem statement by putting the hook, anchor, general business
problem, and specific business problem in bullet form and check for alignment among the four
bullets. When you can ensure that the problem statement aligns throughout, write in scholarly
narrative form (no bullets).
The specific business problem is the genesis of one’s study. It is vital that one has a clear
and precise specific business problem. One will align the contents of the Research Question and
Purpose Statement with the specific business problem.
The qualitative specific business problem. The qualitative specific business problem
must be well defined and not contain multiple issues (variables in quantitative studies). The
31
following graphic depicts how to include the elements needed in a qualitative specific business
problem.
The quantitative specific business problem. The quantitative specific business problem
must be well defined and contain the key variables. The following graphic depicts how to
include the elements needed in a qualitative specific business problem.
32
Aligning the Specific Business Problem With the Purpose Statement and RQ
Make certain that the specific business problem, Purpose Statement, and Research
Question (RQ) align. A good technique to use to enhance the alignment is to put the specific
business problem, RQ, and first sentence of the Purpose Statement together on a blank document
to ensure that you are using the same words. Notice the suggested order differs from the order
the headings appear in the study.
Some business leaders lack understanding… To ascertain what one understands will
require a quantitative design.
Some business leaders lack knowledge… To ascertain a business leader’s knowledge
will require a quantitative design.
Some business leaders lack strategies (or have limited plans, processes, procedures)… To
ascertain a business leader’s strategies may involve interviews, focus groups, company
archival records and documents, company policies and procedures, company
intranet/Internet site, and direct/participant observation (in some cases) to collect data.
Usually interviews or focus groups are the primary data collection method.
Some business leaders lack skills… To ascertain a business leader’s skills will involve
direct/participant observation as the primary data collection method.
33
Quantitative alignment example. Notice how the Specific Business Problem, Research
Question, and first sentence of the Purpose Statement use the same key words with the exception
that the research question and subsequent first sentence in the purpose statement do not address
the business leader—this is a difference between qualitative and quantitative studies. The
following is an example of alignment for a quantitative correlational study.
34
1.4 - Purpose Statement
There is a difference in the rubric requirements for a quantitative versus a qualitative
study. The Purpose Statement must include the following components: (a) methodology, (b)
design, (c) independent and dependent variables (for quantitative studies only), (d) specific
population and justification for using the chosen population, (e) geographical location, and (f)
the study’s potential for effecting social change. It is recommended that the Purpose Statement
be approximately 200 words. The Purpose Statement is to be a concise statement and must not
include detailed design information (sample size, data collection, etc.). Please be sure to map to
the rubric. Please review the purpose statement video at: http://youtu.be/pLP4r0mfT9A. This
video tutorial will be helpful to you in preparing your Purpose Statement.
As mentioned above, the Purpose Statement consists of six elements. These six elements,
and their contents, are:
Methodology. The first element to be presented in the Purpose Statement is the research
methodology. The methodology is the overall philosophical assumption the researcher uses for
designing and developing the study. In other words, the methodology is a worldview of how
knowledge is acquired. The qualitative method is a means for exploring and understanding the
meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a business problem. The qualitative method involves
researchers using open-ended questions to learn what a business leader is doing or has done to
solve a business problem. The quantitative method involves researchers using closed-ended
questions to test hypotheses. Mixed-method studies contain a qualitative study methodology and
a quantitative study methodology and must meet the requirements of both methodologies.
Mixed-method studies are rarely conducted in the DBA program. You simply need to identify
the methodology for or your study in a single sentence. There is no other information
required other than this single statement.
Design. The second element to be presented in the Purpose Statement is the research
design. While there are numerous designs, the most common qualitative designs seen in DBA
doctoral studies are the case study design, miniethnography, focus group, and the
phenomenological design. The correlational design is the most common design for quantitative
studies. You simply need to identify the design of your study. There is no other information
required other than this single statement.
Variables (quantitative study only)46. A variable is any entity that can take on different
values. Another definition of a variable is that it is a characteristic or condition that changes or
has different values for different individuals or units of analyses (i.e. sample units). More so,
variables are the corner stone of quantitative research, where the researcher seeks to explain the
relationships among variables or to compare group differences regarding a variable or variables
46
See section 1.6 “Research Questions” for more information on variable requirements.
35
of interest. Another important distinction for term variable is the distinction between an
independent and dependent variable.
An independent variable is the variable you have control over (experimental designs),
what you can choose and manipulate. A dependent variable is also known as a response variable
or explained variable. The independent variable is usually what you think will affect the
dependent variable. In some cases, you may not be able to manipulate the independent variable.
It may be something that is already there and is fixed (i.e. company size), something you would
like to evaluate with respect to how it predicts, influences, impacts, or causes a change in the
dependent variable (i.e. employee satisfaction).
Targeted population. A population is the larger group that you are studying. The
population is not to be misconstrued as the sample, or your study’s participants. You will select
your sample, or study participants from the larger population. For example, your population
might be all small business leaders in New York. You will however, select a subset of small
business leaders in New York to serve as your sample or participants. Remember, you are to
address the broader population in this component of the Purpose Statement.
In a qualitative ethnographic or case study, you will need to define the population with
the scope of the study. For example, if you are conducting a single case study, the population
will be people that meet the participant criteria within that organization/company. Likewise, in a
multiple case study the population will be the people that meet the participant criteria within the
organizations/companies in the study.
Examples for a case study with the following research question: What strategies do
department store managers use to motivate their sales associates?
Single case study example. The population will be department store managers in one
New England department store who have a strategy to motivate their sales associates.
Multiple case study example. The population will be department store managers in four
New England department stores who have a strategy to motivate their sales associates.
36
state, or city. Of course, this may vary based upon the purpose of your study. In the decision to
identify the geographic location, one must ensure that the confidentiality of the company(ies) and
participants. If one is conducting a study in an automotive manufacturing facility and there are
only one or two companies in the city or state (i.e. Alabama), one should define the geographic
location to avoid the specific sample units being easily identifiable (i.e., southern United States).
Social change. The final element of your Purpose Statement requires you to provide a
positive social change statement. Positive social change involves improvement of human or
social conditions by promoting the worth, dignity, and development of individuals, communities,
organizations, institutions, cultures, or societies. Focus on explaining “WHO” may benefit, and
“HOW” the “WHO” may benefit from your study’s findings and recommendations.
Note: DBA doctoral studies require the highest level or rigor and scholarship. One
focus of rigor and scholarship is that of the number of predictor or independent variables
examined in quantitative doctoral studies. Nonexperimental research (i.e. correlation, quasi-
experimental, etc.) requires the use of at least two independent or predictor variables.
Qualitative hypothetical example (case study). The purpose of this qualitative multiple
case study is to explore the strategies that department store managers use to motivate their sales
associates. The targeted population will comprise of department store managers form one of the
three department stores in the southeast region of the United States who have implemented
strategies to motivate their sales associates. The implication for positive social change includes
the potential to (provide social change statement).
Note: In a case study, and often in ethnographic studies, the population is limited to those
people meeting the participant criteria in the company or companies being studies. In a
phenomenological or narrative study, the population includes all people who meet the participant
criteria.
The Nature of the Study component serves two purposes (a) describing and justifying the
methodology (i.e. quantitative, qualitative, mixed-method) and (b) describing and justifying the
design (i.e. case study, phenomenological, correlation, sequential explanatory, etc.). Therefore, a
well-crafted Nature of the Study can be presented in two paragraphs and not exceed one page.
The first paragraph describes and justifies the methodology and the second paragraph describes
and justifies the design. These two components should not be intermingled. A common error in
this heading is to restate the purpose, identify variables, analyses, etc. and include other
superfluous information. Again, map to the rubric and only include the required content!
37
Remember that the Nature of the Study succinctly represents your defense of your choice
of method and design; therefore, it must have depth. You must demonstrate to the reviewers
that you have done the reading and research needed to support your research method and
design. That evidence also includes discussing why you did not choose other methods and
designs.
Keep this heading deep yet brief. You will have time to expand upon the Nature of the Study
later in the Research Method and Design heading.
I chose a quantitative methodology for this study. Using a quantitative study enables one
to identify results that can be used to describe or note numerical changes in numerical
characteristics of a population of interest; generalize to other, similar situations; provide
explanations of predictions, and explain casual relationships (cite). Thus, the quantitative method
is appropriate for this study because the purpose of the study is to analyze numerical data and
infer the results to a larger population. A mixed methods study contains the attributes of both
quantitative and qualitative methods (cite). The qualitative method is appropriate when the
research intent is to explore business processes, how people make sense and meaning, and what
their experiences are like (cite). Therefore, the qualitative and qualitative portions of a mixed-
method approach are not appropriate for this study.
Specifically, the correlation design is chosen for this study. A correlation researcher
examines the relationship between or among two or more variables (cite). The correlation design
is appropriate for this study because a key objective for this study is to predict the relationship
between a set of predictor variables (leadership style and size of business) and a dependent
variable (company revenue). Other designs, such as experimental and quasi-experimental designs
are appropriate when the researcher seeks to assess a degree of cause and effect (cite). This
principal objective for this study is to identify a predictive model; thus the experimental and
quasi-experimental designs are not appropriate.
The three research methods include qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods (cite). I
selected the qualitative method to use open-ended questions. Qualitative researchers use open-
ended questions to discover what is occurring or has occurred (cite). In contrast, quantitative
researchers use closed ended questions to test hypotheses (cite). Mixed methods research
includes both a qualitative element and quantitative element (cite). To explore (your topic), I will
not be testing hypotheses which is part of a quantitative study or the quantitative portion of a
mixed methods study.
47
Note: As you can see, the example clearly starts with topic sentences (red text) that foreshadow what is to be
addressed in the paragraph. Notice the quantitative method paragraph does not address the design, as the topic
sentence does not suggest the design is the focus of the paragraph. The design is not foreshadowed in the topic
sentence. Remember, a topic sentence alerts the reader to the main topic of the paragraph.
38
I considered four research designs that one could use for a qualitative study on (2-3
words identifying your topic): (a) miniethnography, (b) focus group, (c) narrative, and (d) case
study. (Note: Select the designs that you considered and are applicable to an applied qualitative
study.) Miniethnography involves… (Briefly discuss miniethnography, 1-sentence defining with
a citation, 1-sentence if needed why it is or is not the optimal choice). Business researchers use
focus groups to… (Briefly discuss focus groups, 1-sentence defining with a citation, 1-sentence
if needed why it is or is not the optimal choice). A narrative design entails… (Briefly discuss
narrative designs, 1-sentence defining with a citation, 1-sentence if needed for why it is or is not
the optimal choice). Case study researchers… (Briefly discuss case study, 1-sentence defining
with a citation, 1-sentence is needed why it is or is not the optimal choice).
DBA doctoral studies require the highest level or rigor and scholarship. One focus
of rigor and scholarship is that of the number of predictor or independent variables
examined in quantitative doc studies. Non-experimental research (i.e. correlation, quasi-
experimental, etc.) requires the use of at least two independent or predictor variables. This
is due to the “third variable” problem. A third variable also known as a confounding or
mediator variable can confound the relationship between the independent and dependent
variable. This confounding can lead the researcher to incorrectly interpret the results,
leading to an incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis.
As such, all DBA quantitative studies require the examination of at least two predictor, or
independent variables. This affects the statistical analysis, as simple bivariate correlations
(correlation designs) or one-way ANOVAs cannot be used as inferential statistical tests. Other
statistical procedures, such as partial correlation, semipartial correlation, mediation and
moderation, and multiple regression analyses, as a minimum must be used for correlation studies.
Quasi-experimental, causal comparative, etc., designs must employ statistical analyses (i.e.
factorial ANOVAs), as a minimum, which examines more than one independent variable.
39
Inappropriate Quasi-experimental Example (only one independent variable):
Does employee job satisfaction significantly influence employee productivity?
Hypotheses
Two major elements in the research design are the hypotheses and the variables used to
test them. A hypothesis is a provisional idea whose merit deserves further evaluation. Two
hypotheses, the null (H0) and alternative (H1), are to be stated for each research question. Below
are appropriate examples of correlation and quasi-experimental/casual comparative null and
alternative hypotheses; note how they mirror the research questions identified above in the
Quantitative Research Questions heading. These examples depict predictor/independent
variables, which are (a) employee job satisfaction and (b) leadership experience. The dependent
variable is company gross revenue. The H0 and H1 reflect the appropriate statistical notation and
are to be included. See more on hypotheses at:
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php
Correlation
Null Hypothesis (H0): The linear combination of employee job satisfaction and
leadership experience will not significantly predict employee productivity.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The linear combination of employee job satisfaction and
leadership experience will significantly predict employee productivity.
Quasi-experimental
Null Hypothesis (H0): Employee job satisfaction and leadership experience do not
significantly influence employee productivity.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Employee job satisfaction and leadership experience
significantly influence employee productivity.
40
41
1.9 - Interview Questions (Qualitative Only)
In qualitative studies, the researcher must first identify the population for the study
(business leaders that have solved or are solving the specific business problem) and align the
interview questions with the population and the research question. Interview questions must (a)
provide answers to the research question, (b) not go beyond the research question (i.e., no
demographics if not part of the research question), (c) be in the language (word choice) that the
participant will understand, (d) be open-ended questions (no Yes or No answerable questions),
and (e) be applied DBA rather than speculative PhD questions (see the example below).
Interview questions should be straightforward and ask what or how the business leader
has addressed the research problem. Typically, case study and ethnographic interviews will be
semistructured, semiformal, unstructured, or informal. Phenomenological studies use the
phenomenological long interview with only one to three questions to have a longer discussion
getting in depth data and reaching a state of epoché. Students should critically read about the
different interviewing techniques and select the best technique for the study design.
In contrast, the phenomenological long interview typically has one or two interview
questions. Although phenomenological interview questions are written as a question, the
interview protocol involves creating an in depth discussion (typically 1-2 hours) and reaching a
state of epoché. The phenomenological long interview requires more study and preparation as
compared to more traditional interviewing techniques used in ethnography and case study
designs.
42
Be cautious not to confuse the interviewing process with the interviewing questions.
The concept of semistructured questions or semistructured interview questions does not exist.
Semistructured interviews (semiformal, unstructured, or informal interviews) are a specific
interviewing technique/process. All qualitative interview questions are open-ended. However,
the interview questions are not semistructured.
What strategies do department store managers use to motivate their sales associates?
Make certain that the theory aligns with the research question. Consider the following when
searching for a theory or conceptual model for the conceptual framework.
Critically read peer- reviewed studies related to your topic and identify the theories that
the sources found aligned with their studies. After one has read and synthesized
numerous peer-reviewed studies related to the topic for the annotated bibliography, one
will notice a few theories (or conceptual models) that aligned with several studies.
Critically read the seminal work on the theories (or conceptual models) that you found in
peer-reviewed studies related to your topic.
Related studies may be about the concept and not the specific industry.
For example, if one is studying how the family owned wrecking yard leaders succession
plan, one could look at studies on leadership training and development in other types of
organizations.
43
Quantitative. Select the theory or conceptual model that best aligns with the
research question and provides an interrelated set of constructs, variables,
hypotheses, or propositions that offer an explanation for phenomenon.
Qualitative. Select the theory or conceptual model that best aligns with the
research question.
As you can see, it is important to immerse yourself in the literature pertaining to your
conceptual framework to gain a good understanding of the framework. More important, your
literature review must include an exhaustive review of the literature pertaining to the conceptual
framework you are proposing for your study. This is extremely important, as you will be
required to discuss your findings as they confirm, disconfirm, extend, etc., the extant literature
on your conceptual framework. You must critically analyze and synthesize the studies where
your conceptual framework has been the lens through which the phenomenon has been viewed.
As outlined in the DBA Rubric, you are required to present a brief overview of your
theory or conceptual framework in Section one of the proposal. Please note this is not to be a
detailed review of your theory or framework. The detailed review is required in the Review of
the Literature heading. Here, a model for presenting the theory or framework heading is offered.
You will want to state the name of the theory or identify the conceptual framework, identify the
theorist if applicable, list key concepts of the theory or framework, identify any propositions or
hypotheses, and identify how the theory or framework applies to your study. Please note there
are obvious variations to this model depending upon your particular study and topic. However,
the intent is to briefly present the key aspects of your theory and or framework and show how it
fits into your study.
Quantitative Example
Burns (1978) developed the transformational leadership theory. Burns used the theory to
offer an explanation for leadership based upon the premise that leaders are able to inspire
followers to change expectations, perceptions, and motivations to work toward common goals.
Burns identified the following key constructs underlying the theory (a) idealized attributes, (b)
idealized behaviors, (c) intellectual stimulation, (d) inspirational motivation, and (e)
individualized consideration. As applied to this study, the transformational leadership theory
holds that I would expect the independent variables (transformational leadership constructs),
measured by the Multifaceted Leadership Questionnaire, to predict employee turnover intention
because (provide a rationale based upon the logic of the theory and extant literature). The
following figure48 is a graphical depiction of the transformational leadership theory as it applies
to examining turnover intentions.
48
Graphical models are useful for depicting the theoretical framework in quantitative studies.
44
Idealized Attributes
Idealized Behavior
Inspirational Motivation
Moral Integrity
Let’s examine the theoretical framework from the perspective of possible lenses through
which to view phenomena. Assume the business problem or phenomenon is the failure rate of
small businesses, an obvious business concern. There are plethora’s of explanations that can be
offered for the failure of small businesses. As the researcher, you have the choice of lens for
which to view the problem. For example, you might hypothesize or rationalize that
transformational leadership characteristics offer a systematic view for the failure of small
businesses. Specifically, you hypothesize or rationalize that a leaders transformational leadership
characteristics are influential in the success of small businesses. As such, your study would be
grounded in transformational leadership theory or transformational leadership conceptual
framework.
Perhaps, one of the most misunderstood aspects of theory is how to apply it in the
doctoral study. Researchers utilizing a quantitative study grounded in transformational leadership
theory must measure or assess the constructs underlying the theory. The broad constructs of
transformational leadership theory are idealized attributes, idealized behaviors, inspirational
motivation, stimulation, and idealized consideration.
45
study would not have construct validity. For example, the Servant Leadership Survey (SLS)
instrument could not be approved for use in a study grounded in transformational leadership
theory, as the SLS was validated for use in measuring constructs underlying servant
leadership theory.
Qualitative Example
Do not include terms found in a basic academic dictionary (i.e. Webster’s). List only
terms than might not be understood by the reader. All definitions should be sourced from
professional/scholarly sources and in alphabetical order. Do not include more than 10 key
operational definitions. Although one can use a maximum of 10 terms, there may only be a few
terms pertinent to the study. Listing a specific term that only one or two sources in the literature
review introduce is likely not pertinent to the study and should not be listed in the operational
definitions.
1.12 - Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations49
Assumptions are facts considered to be true, but which cannot actually be verified by the
researcher. Assumptions carry risk and should be treated as such. A mitigation discussion would
be appropriate. Identify all assumptions associated with the study. Limitations refer to potential
study weaknesses, which cannot be addressed by the researcher. Identify all limitations
49
Review the following resource for more detailed information: Ellis, T. J., & Levy, Y. (2009). Towards a guide for
novice researchers on research methodology: Review and proposed methods. Issues in Informing Science and
Information Technology, 6, 323-337. Retrieved from http://www.informingscience.org/Journals/IISIT/Overview
46
associated with the study. Delimitations refer to the bounds or scope of the study. Describe the
boundaries and what is in and out of your study’s scope.
Critical analysis and synthesis of the relevant literature will be an important element of
the literature review. The review of the literature is not to be a regurgitation of what you have
read. It is also not to teach about a topic; rather, it is to show your mastery of the previous and
recent research on your topic and provide a comprehensive up-to-date literature review on your
topic. Start with an introductory heading and then report the literature. This should be an
exhaustive review of the literature using the chosen theoretical/conceptual framework and
consist of the key and recent writings in the field. Repeat this approach if there are any additional
theories. In addition, in quantitative studies, there must be a critical analysis and synthesis for
each variable.
There are three questions that students typically ask about the literature review: (a)
length, (b) organizational structure, and (c) content. The length will depend upon the theoretical
foundation related to the topic and scholarly studies related to the theory. Typically, for a
doctoral study, a literature review will average 35-40 pages. However, demonstrating a rich and
50
Literature reviews will vary by topic, author, etc. However, Appendix A presents the minimum requirements for a
quantitative study.
47
comprehensive review of the topic is more important than the number of pages in a literature
review.
The most common ways that one may organize the literature review are to use a
chronological, topical, or combination of chronological and topical structure. The literature
review should be a succinct yet in-depth critical analysis of scholarly studies and authoritative
seminal work. The literature review should not be a summary of one’s reading or an
amalgamation of essays on the topic.
The literature review content needs to be a comprehensive and critical analysis and
synthesis of the literature related to the theory and/or conceptual model that one identified in the
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework as well as the existing body of knowledge regarding the
research topic. Typically one half to two thirds of a good literature review will relate the theory
or conceptual models to a critical analysis and synthesis about the topic and problem. One
organizational strategy for the literature review is (a) one third discussing the theory or
conceptual model (see figure below), (b) one third topical foundation, and (c) one third
discussing the topic in relation to the theory.
48
1.15 – Transition
This heading summarizes the key contents of Section 1. Do not introduce any new
material in the summary, but do provide an overview of the primary objectives and contents of
Sections 2 and 3.
49
SECTION 2: THE
50
2.1 - Purpose Statement
The Role of the Researcher is an important part of your proposal and study. The content
that you present in this subheading is important because it demonstrates that a) you have done
the research that is required, b) that you understand what your role is in the study design, and 3)
you understand the limitations and challenges in this type of role, and how any concerns may be
mitigated to enhance the reliability and validity of your work.
One of the most challenging parts to write in this subheading is about the use of a
personal lens primarily because novice researchers (like students) assume that they have no bias
in their data collection. However, it is important to remember that a participant’s as well as the
researcher’s bias/worldview is present in all social research, both intentionally and
unintentionally which is why it is important to address strategies to mitigate bias.
To address the concept of a personal lens, remember that in qualitative research, the
researcher is the data collection instrument and cannot separate themselves from the research,
which brings up special concerns. Remember that the researcher operates among multiple worlds
while engaging in research, which include the cultural world of the study participants as well as
the world of one’s own perspective. A researcher's cultural and experiential background will
contain biases, values, and ideologies that can affect the interpretation of a study’s findings.
Therefore, researcher bias is a concern because the data can reflect the researcher’s personal bias
and concerns. It becomes imperative that the interpretation of the phenomena represent that of
participants and not of the researcher. Hearing and understanding the perspective of others may be
one of the most difficult dilemmas the researcher must address. The better a researcher is able to
recognize his/her personal view of the world and to discern the presence of a personal lens, the
better one is able to hear and interpret the behavior and reflections of others.
How you address and mitigate a personal lens/worldview during your data collection and
analysis is important and a key component in the Role of the Researcher subheading. It is
important that a novice researcher recognizes their own personal role in the study and mitigates
any concerns during data collection. Part of your discussion in this subheading should address
how this is demonstrated through using an interview protocol, member checking, transcript
validation and review, reaching data saturation, enabling sense making, facilitating epoché,
careful construction of interview questions, and other strategies to mitigate the use of one’s
personal lens during the data collection process of the study.
It would be impossible to remove all bias because you are a human being. Rather, one
mitigates bias as best as one can. This is demonstrated via using an interview protocol, member
checking, data saturation, and other strategies to mitigate the use of one personal lens during the
data collection process of your study. Inadvertently driving participants to predetermined
conclusions speaks to the same concepts.
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2.3 - Participants
The requirements are straight forward but often missed in the Participants heading.
Consider the explanations in the following table.
b. Discusses strategies for Explain your plan for gaining access to participants. In a
gaining access to quantitative survey, one may use a professional association
participants. membership list or other types of list to access participants
via email, phone, etc.
c. Identifies strategies for Once one gains access, one needs to develop a working
establishing a working relationship with the participants. This may be as simple as
relationship with sending a survey link via email in a quantitative study to
participants. how you will cover the informed consent form and set the
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stage for a qualitative interview (often referencing the
interview protocol).
d. The participants must align This requirement is a reminder that one must have the
with the overarching correct criteria for selecting the participants and that the
research question. criteria must align with the research question—nothing else
should be included in the criteria.
This heading is an extension of the Nature of the Study. The first paragraph of the
Nature of the Study required a description of and justified the methodology. Here you will
extend that discussion by providing more information and additional resources. Remember to
use multiple sources to support claims and decisions. It is important to have a strong case to
support the rationale for research method and design.
This section is an extension of the Nature of the Study. The second paragraph of the
Nature of the Study required a description of and justified the design. Here you will extend that
description by providing more information and additional resources. Remember to use
multiple sources to support claims and decisions.
A vital prerequisite for a valid qualitative study is having a plan to ensure data saturation.
Data saturation in qualitative research ensures the validity in a qualitative study similar to a
statistically valid sample in a quantitative study. See more on data saturation in the
Population and Sampling heading below.
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How to Use Multiple Sources to Support Claims and Decisions
Specifically stating multiple sources is one way to make it clear to the reviewers that you
have mapped to the Rubric. However, what the reviewers are looking for is that students have
done the required reading to justify the choice of research design that will best assist collecting
data to answer the research question. Rather than list name-date, name-date, name-date
repeatedly, one would synthesize the concepts into one cohesive whole supported by sources in a
somewhat indirect manner. For example:
Case studies are the preferred strategy researchers employ when asking how or
what questions (Amerson, 2011; Andrade, 2009; Yin, 2009). These types of studies
identify operational links among events over time (Andrade, 2009; Baxter & Jack, 2008;
Yin, 2009). Case studies may be exploratory, explanatory, or descriptive and may involve
one organization and location or multiple organizations and locations for a comparative
case study (Amerson, 2011; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009).
In other words, you are supporting your synthesis with multiple sources. Another way to
support your design with a source is:
In other words, you support your synthesis in a more direct way. Note that Bernard's
entire work is not within the text, but, rather, one important statement that he did make is and it
supports the chosen research design.
Population
Start by describing the population from which the sample will be drawn. Include any
pertinent demographic variables (e.g., CEO, senior executive, mid-level manager, sales
professional, front-line supervisor, etc.). Refer to pg. 29 (Participant Characteristics) of the
APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) for other appropriate characteristics
when appropriate.
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Sampling
The two broad categories of sampling methods are probabilistic sampling (random
sampling) and non-probabilistic sampling (non-random sampling)51. Identify and defend your
sampling method. You must address the strengths and weaknesses of your chosen sampling
method. For example, if you will utilize a stratified random technique defend your reason for
doing so. Also note why stratified sampling is more appropriate for your research situation than
another sampling technique. You will need to refer to the literature pertaining to sampling
techniques.
Describe and defend the sample size. This is where you discuss conducting a power
analysis to determine the appropriate sample size. You will present your power analysis in this
component. G*Power3 is an excellent power analysis software tool and can be downloaded at:
http://www.gpower.hhu.de/en.html. You will find a user’s manual and short tutorial at the same
website. See Appendix B for an example power analysis.
Describe the eligibility criteria for inclusion in the study. Discuss any exclusion criteria.
Make the eligibility criteria clear, as the results of the study cannot be generalized beyond your
targeted population. You need to make it clear as to who can, and who cannot, participate in your
study.
In this heading, one needs to define the scope of the study. For example, in a
phenomenological study, the population will be all the people within the scope of the study (i.e.,
a specific industry) that meet the participant criteria noted in the participant section 2.3 above. In
an ethnographic study or case study, the population would comprise all people that meet the
participant criteria in one company for an ethnographic study or single case study and multiple
companies for a multiple case study. One should identify the number of companies in a multiple
case study. Likewise, one should identify the approximate number of people (that meet the
participant criteria) within your study’s population.
Sampling
One must describe and justify the sampling method (census, convenience, criterion,
purposeful, quota, snowball, etc.). Once one defines the total population meeting the participant
criteria within the scope of the study, one must identify the sample size that has the best
opportunity for the researcher to reach data saturation. A large sample size does not guarantee
that one will reach data saturation, nor does a small sample size—rather, it is what constitutes the
sample size. One must also select a sampling technique that supports the research design.
51
See Appendix B for a typology of sampling strategies.
55
For example, one may use a census sample for a single or multiple case study with a
small population versus a convenience sample in an ethnographic study. A census sample is
actually a census, which means that the study participants will include 100% of the population.
For example, as depicted in the following graphic, if one identified the scope of a multiple case
study to include five companies and the people that meet the participant criteria for the
population as the CEOs of the five companies, there would be a census sample if all five of the
CEOs participated.
In the Population and Sampling heading (as well as the Research Design and the
Validity headings), one must define how one will ensure data saturation. Although data
saturation in qualitative research ensures the validity in a qualitative study similar to a
statistically valid sample in a quantitative study, there is no direct correlation between the
sample size and reaching data saturation. Data saturation in qualitative research is a way to
ensure that one obtained accurate and valid data. Using too small of a sample or too large of a
sample will not ensure data saturation. One should critically read and obtain a clear
understanding of data saturation before writing a qualitative proposal. Fusch and Ness (2015)
synthesized the literature to identify some key characteristics of reaching data saturation which
include no new data, no new themes, no new coding, and ability to replicate the study (providing
one asks the same participants the same questions in the same timeframe). The study design
(case study, miniethnography, phenomenological, etc.) will affect when and how one reaches
data saturation. One may be conducting interviews only in a phenomenological study, whereas
one would use multiple data collection methods in a case study.
Each research study comes with its own set of specific ethical issues. Thus, a rubric
cannot address all possible scenarios. Therefore, it will be helpful to review the IRB Application
Form before you complete this component to ensure you address any requirements not identified
in the rubric or Research Handbook. However, as a minimum, discuss the informed consent
process. Include a copy of the informed consent form in an appendix and list the informed
56
consent form in the Table of Contents. Discuss participant procedures for withdrawing from the
study. Describe any applicable incentives. Clarify measures for assuring the ethical protection of
participants is adequate. Agreement documents are to be listed in the (a) text of the study, (b)
appendices and (c) Table of Contents. Include a statement that data will be maintained in a safe
place for 5-years to protect rights of participants. Ensure you indicate that the final doctoral
manuscript will include the Walden IRB approval number. Ensure the document does not include
names or any other identifiable information of individuals or organizations.
Each participant in your study must give written consent to take part in the data collection
phase of the work. Moreover, as a researcher following the protocols of the Belmont Report, you
must ensure that your participants have a full understanding of their part in the study. Finally,
you must ensure that participants understand that they may withdraw from your study at any time
without penalty, and how to withdraw from the study.
It is a good practice to complete the first draft of your IRB application while completing
the ethics section as well as Section 2. Consider: (a) writing a sentence about your plan to share
a summary of the findings with the study participants, and (b) do not use the term anonymous for
qualitative studies if you will be interviewing or knowing whom the participants are. Qualitative
researchers can protect the confidentiality but not the anonymity of participants because the
researcher will know who the participants are. Depending upon the data collection method,
quantitative researchers may be able to protect participants’ anonymity.
You will describe each instrument’s purpose, intended populations, scales, scoring
process, time needed to complete, etc. This heading will also address the psychometric issues
surrounding the instrument, reliability and validity—this is very important. You will need to
report the reliability and validity coefficients. Where possible, include the details of the
reliability measures employed (e.g. test-retest, equivalent or alternate form, split-half, and
internal consistency). Validity should include content validity, criterion-related validity, and
construct validity. State briefly what these measures of validity are, and report their
Intercorrelation coefficients.
You will need to address any special requirements of the publisher. You will need to gain
permission from the test publisher to use some instruments. This can be requested by sending a
formal letter or email to the publisher. Alternatively, you may need to complete a training course
or require your chair’s signature to acquire the instrument—be sure to include this information if
applicable.
The requirements are straight forward but often missed in the Participants heading.
Consider the explanations in the following table.
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Rubric requirement Explanation
a. In addition to identifying Rubric requirement has two parts and students sometimes
the student as the primary miss one of them, which can lead to a revision request.
data collection instrument,
identifies the data collection 1. Identifying that you are the primary data
instrument/process (i.e., collection instrument.
informal interview, 2. Identifying all of the secondary, tertiary, etc. data
semistructured interviews, collection instruments. Although common in
phenomenological in-depth ethnographic research, in case studies, students
interviews, focus groups, must have a minimum of two data collection
company/archival methods.
documents, etc.).
b. Clarifies how the student Describe how you will use the instrument(s) by providing a
will use the data collection brief definition of each instrument and referencing
instrument/technique (the interview or focus group protocols, etc.
process/protocol).
The focus here should be more on defining and using the
instrument. For example, if you are using a specific type of
interview, what is the interviewing technique specific to
your chosen approach (i.e., unstructured or semistructured
interviews). Keep this brief; however, be sure to define the
different data collection methods (with scholarly support).
In the Data Collection Technique Heading, where you will
expand upon the process.
c. Identifies how the student Clarify how you will enhance the reliability and validity of
will enhance the reliability the instruments such as using an expert panel to validate
and validity of the data interview questions, member checking follow up
collection interviews after semistructured interviews, triangulation of
instrument/process (i.e., multiple data collection methods (during the data analysis
member checking, transcript as applicable to the research design), etc.
review, pilot test, etc.).
e. Supports every decision During the study plan, one will make several decisions. In
with a minimum of three this heading there are several decisions to make and
scholarly peer-reviewed or support. Each decision such as the following will need
seminal sources. scholarly support:
Identifying that you are the primary data collection
58
instrument.
Identifying all of the secondary, tertiary, etc. data
collection instruments such as type of interviews,
focus groups, company/archival documents,
company marketing materials, etc.).
Identifying how you will use the instruments by
providing a brief definition of the instrument and
referencing interview or focus group protocols, etc.
Identifying how you will enhance the reliability and
validity of the instruments such as by using
member-checking follow up interviews after a
semistructured interview.
59
sources.
Do not confuse the purpose of this heading with that for the explanation of procedures.
You want to discuss the main approach to collecting your data. It is a good idea to restate the
research question and then address the data collection process. Depending upon whether you are
using a quantitative or qualitative method, you should discuss and support your decision for
collecting the data.
Quantitative Studies
In a quantitative study one would discuss: (a) surveys, (b) structured record reviews to
collect data (e.g., sales data, performance records, government databases, etc.), and (d) structured
observations. Self-administered questionnaires and structured records are more prevalent with
quantitative research. Indicate the process you will use to collect your data. State your rationale
for selecting the process (e.g., in terms of strengths and weaknesses, cost, data availability,
convenience, etc.).
Qualitative Studies
Describe the process for collecting the data (i.e., interviews, focus groups, direct or
participant observations, and review of company/archival documents, performance indicators,
sales reports, business plans, etc.) Provide an abridged interview protocol, focus group protocol,
observation protocol, etc., and identify the location of the protocols in an appendix.
Data analysis involves discussing the statistical test(s) you will use to answer each
research question, and justify the tests’ selection. Indicate the nature of the scale for each
60
variable (e.g., nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio). Why is the selected statistical test more
appropriate than another? (Hint: The statistical test is usually selected due to the nature of the
question and scale of measurement of the variables you defined). Describe how you will deal
with discrepant cases (missing data, data that cannot be interpreted, etc.). Identify the software
that will be used to analyze the data. Be sure to discuss the data assumptions, how they will be
assessed, and how you will address any violations (e.g., using Bootstrapping).
The qualitative data analysis heading is critical for demonstrating doctoral level
competence and will help you prepare for Section 3. This heading must be deep yet can be
covered in one or two succinct paragraphs. Reviewing the following table’s contents will help
you develop and write your data analysis plan.
b. Provides a logical and Students must succinctly describe how they will perform
sequential process for the the data analysis. Students must use all the data for the
data analysis. analysis. Often students planning case studies or
ethnographic studies discuss the data collection instruments
and techniques above, but forget everything but the
interview data in the data analysis section.
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c. Details the student’s Or is the key word in this requirement. Explain the classic
conceptual plan or software data analysis method or qualitative software analysis
(i.e., NVivo, Atlasti, method (how you will do it).
Ethnograph, Excel, etc.) for
coding, mind-mapping, and Classic Data Analysis Method
identifying themes.
For the classic data analysis method, discuss sorting all of
the concepts and ideas on separate sheets of paper into
categorized piles—be sure to support your decision.
Critically analyze the data using a large physical mind map
(i.e., stacks, piles, or clusters of concepts and ideas on a
wall or large room floor) for the classic data analysis
method.
Themes
d. Identifies how the student This should be a one or two sentence plan on how you
will focus on the key will correlate the key themes with recent studies and the
themes, correlate the key theory or conceptual models from your conceptual
themes with the literature framework.
(including new studies This will help you prepare for the presentation of findings
published since writing the in Section 3.
proposal) and the
conceptual framework.
e. Supports every decision Critically reading seminal and authoritative work for data
62
with a minimum of three analysis in your selected research design is vital at this
scholarly peer-reviewed or stage of your doctoral journey. You should have ample
seminal sources. sources to support your decisions—there are some
suggested readings lists in the Bibliography-Suggested
Readings Lists
If you are not conducting an experiment then indicate that this is a nonexperimental
design (i.e. correlation) and threats to internal validity are not applicable. However, indicate that
threats to statistical conclusion validity are of concern, and then address threats to statistical
conclusion validity.
Threats to statistical conclusion validity. Start by explaining what these threats are.
Threats to statistical conclusion validity are conditions that inflate the Type I error rates,
(rejecting the null hypothesis when it is in fact true), and Type II error rates (accepting the null
hypothesis when it is false.) The three conditions that you need to cover here are: (a) reliability
of the instrument, (b) data assumptions, and (c) sample size.
52
See more on internal validity @ http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intval.php
63
Reliability of the instrument. You already reported the reliability properties of your
instrument in the Instrumentation heading. However, you need to determine how reliable the
instrument is for your specific sample. Here you will indicate you will conduct an internal
consistency reliability check of the instrument against your specific sample. The intent is to see
how close the reported reliability coefficient (in section 2.9 - Instrumentation) is and your
calculated reliability coefficient. State what an acceptable value is (i.e. >.7) and how you will
check your instrument’s reliability. There is a procedure (Analyze/Scale/Reliability Analysis) in
SPSS that will allow you to compute Cronbach’s alpha, one of several reliability coefficients.
You will report the results of the reliability analysis in Section 3, Presentation of Findings
heading. The degree of agreement/disagreement can provide information for your discussion,
especially in the event of a nonsignificant result.
Data assumptions53 (varies by statistical test). You will state what the assumptions are
pertaining to your tests and the effects violation of the assumptions can have on your results.
Indicate how you will check these assumptions. Refer to a basic statistics textbook for
assumptions regarding various tests. For example, the Green and Salkind text used in the DDBA
8438 course is an excellent resource for identifying assumptions for most basic statistical tests.
Pallant (2010)54 is an excellent text for instruction on performing parametric assumption testing.
The following Table contains the major assumptions and procedures for testing the assumptions
for multiple linear regression and for ANOVA tests.
Table X
53
Data assumptions vary by statistical test.
54
Pallant, J. (2010). SPSS survivor manual (4th ed.). Berkshire. England: McGraw-Hill.
64
Sample size. Include a brief explanation of the effects of using too small a sample size
could have on your study’s outcomes (refer to any basic statistics textbook). However, you will
indicate this threat has been met by conducting a power analysis to ensure you have a sufficient
sample size. Be sure to cite your work.
External Validity
External validity refers to the extent the study findings can be generalized to larger
populations and applied to different settings. External validity is related to the sampling strategy
(identified in Heading 2.6, Population and Sampling). Probability sampling strategies (random
sampling) enhances external validity. Conversely, nonprobabilistic sampling strategies hinder
external validity. This relationship is to be discussed in this heading.
Reliability
Reliability refers to how one will address dependability. Some of the ways to enhance the
dependability of the study are member checking of data interpretation, transcript review, pilot
test, expert validation of the interview questions, interview protocol, focus group protocol, direct
or participant observation protocol, etc. Reaching data saturation will help assure the
dependability of the findings. See the seminal literature on reliability.
Validity
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Confirmability. One can enhance the confirmability by ensuring that the results can be
confirmed or supported by others. Probing during interviews and follow up member checking
interviews, questioning from different perspectives, triangulation, etc. are techniques one may
use to enhance the confirmability.
Transferability. Be sure to demonstrate how you will enable others to determine the
transferability of the findings (i.e., meticulously adhering to the data collection and analysis
techniques for the research design, using interview protocol, focus group protocol, direct or
participant observation protocol, reaching data saturation, etc.). In contrast to quantitative
studies where the researcher generalizes the findings, qualitative researchers do not generalize
and do not state that the findings are transferable.
End with a transaction heading that contains a summary of key points and provides an
overview introducing Section 3. Do not include any new information in the summary.
66
SECTION 3: APPLICATION TO PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CHANGE
Section 3 –Application to
Professional Practice and
Implications for Change
67
3.1 - Introduction
Reacquaint the reader to the purpose of the study. For quantitative studies, simply restating the
first two sentences of the Purpose Statement followed by a brief summary of the study findings.
For qualitative studies simply restate the first sentence of the purpose statement and briefly
summarize the findings.
Quantitative Example
The purpose of this quantitative correlation study was to examine the relationship
between employee job satisfaction, employee motivation, and employee turnover intention. The
independent variables were employee job satisfaction and employee motivation. The dependent
variable was employee turnover intention. The null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative
hypothesis was accepted. Employee job satisfaction and employee motivation significantly
predicted employee turnover.
Qualitative Example
The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the strategies that
department store managers used to motivate their sales associates. The data came from manager
interviews, manager-employee observations, and company documentation at five department
stores in Texas. The findings showed methods that the managers used to motivate their sales
employees to provide better customer service and increase sales.
Quantitative Example
In this subheading, I will discuss testing of the assumptions, present descriptive statistics,
present inferential statistic results, provide a theoretical conversation pertaining to the findings,
and conclude with a concise summary. I employed Bootstrapping, using 1,000 samples, to
address the possible influence of assumption violations. Thus, bootstrapping 95% confidence
intervals are presented where appropriate.
68
Tests of Assumptions
Table X
55
These are the same assumptions discussed in Section 2; the results of the assumption testing are now
discussed. These assumptions differ by statistical test and the appropriate assumptions are to be discussed. Note,
your specific discussion might differ. For example, there may be severe data assumption violations in the data you
collected. Therefore, you would discuss appropriately.
69
Figure 1. Normal probability plot (P-P) of the regression standardized residuals.
70
Descriptive Statistics
In total, I received 207 surveys. Three records were eliminated due to missing data,
resulting in 204 records for the analysis. Table X contains descriptive statistics of the study
variables.
Table X
Inferential Results
Standard multiple linear regression,57 α = .05 (two-tailed), was used to examine the
efficacy of age, weight, and height in predicting sleep index. The independent variables were
age, weight, and height 58. The dependent variable was sleep index 59. The null hypothesis was
that age, weight, and height would not significantly predict sleep index. The alternative
hypothesis was that age, weight, and height would significantly predict sleep index. Preliminary
analyses were conducted to assess whether the assumptions of multicollinearity, outliers,
normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, and independence of residuals60 were met; no serious
violations were noted (see Tests of Assumptions). The model as a whole was able to significantly
predict sleep index, F(3, 200) = 4.778, p < .003, R2 = .06761. The R2 (.067) value indicated that
approximately 7% of variations in sleep index is accounted for by the linear combination of the
predictor variables (sex, weight, and height). In the final model, age and height were statistically
56
The 95% Bootstrap confidence intervals are produced when the bootstrapping procedure is selected in the SPSS
regression process. See regression video tutorial located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ItFMKlPG5k
57
Identify the test and of purpose of the test.
58
Restate the independent variables as presented in the purpose statement and research question; there is to be no
deviation.
59
Restate the dependent variables as presented in the purpose statement and research question; there is to be no
deviation.
60
Identify the assumptions and state they how were assessed.
61
State whether the model as a whole was able to predict (or not) the dependent variable. Report the appropriate
statistics.
71
significant with age (t= -3.892, p < .01) accounting for a higher contribution to the model than
height (t = -2.595, p < .05). Weight did not explain any significant variation in sleep index. The
final predictive equation was:
Age. The negative slope for age (-.148) as a predictor of sleep index indicated there was
about a .148 decrease in sleep index for each one-point increase in age. In other words, sleep
index tends to decrease as age increases. The squared semi-partial coefficient (sr2) 62 that
estimated how much variance in sleep index was uniquely predictable from age was .03,
indicating that 3% of the variance in sleep index is uniquely accounted for by age, when weight
and height are controlled.
Height. The negative slope for height (-2.303) as a predictor of sleep index indicated
there was a 2.303 decrease in sleep index for each additional one-unit increase in height,
controlling for age and weight. In other words, sleep index tends to decrease as height increases.
The squared semi-partial coefficient (sr2) that estimated how much variance in sleep index was
uniquely predictable from height was .04, indicating that 4% of the variance in sleep is uniquely
accounted for by height, when age and weight are controlled. The following Table depicts the
regression summary table.
Table X
62
Derived from the SPSS output.
72
Regression Analysis Summary for Predictor Variables
B 95%67
Variable Β63 SE Β β64 t65 p66 Bootstrap CI
Age -.148 0.054 -.393 -3.892 <. 01 [-.262, -.025]
Analysis summary. The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of age, weight,
and height in predicting sleep index. I used standard multiple linear regression to examine the
ability of age, weight, and height to predict the value of sleep index. Assumptions surrounding
multiple regression were assessed with no serious violations noted. The model as a whole was
able to significantly predict sleep index, F(3, 200) = 4.778, p < .003, R2 = .067. Both age and
height provide useful predictive information about sleep index. The conclusion from this analysis
is that age and height are significantly associated with sleep index, even when weight is
controlled (e.g. held constant).
63
Β values are to be used in the regression equation. These are the unstandardized coefficients in the SPSS output.
64
The beta weights identify which variables contribute more to the model. These are the standardized coefficients in
the SPSS output.
65
The test statistic for the hypothesis test for the slope (Β); derived from the SPSS output; used to evaluate the
significance of the Β weights, where p ≤ .05 is significant.
66
The test statistic for the hypothesis test for the slope (Β); derived from the SPSS output; used to evaluate the
significance of the Β weights, where p ≤ .05 is significant.
67
The 95% Bootstrap confidence intervals are produced when the bootstrapping procedure is selected in the SPSS
regression process. See regression video tutorial located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ItFMKlPG5k
68
Rubric item 3.2g
69
This rubric requirement substantiates the requirement to critically analyze, synthesize and “report” the results of
the literature (studies) pertaining to the theory and variables (see rubric component 1.14, Review of the Professional
and Academic Literature).
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Rubric item 3.2h
73
practice. Analyzes and interpret the findings in the context of the theoretical framework, as
appropriate. 71Ensures interpretations do not exceed the data, findings, and scope.
There is a common misconception about Section 3. Reporting the results of the study
findings is more complicated than it first appears to be. This is because the findings must be
related back to the body of knowledge as well as the conceptual framework. It is not a matter of
telling the reader who-said-what-and-when, one must present an in-depth scholarly discussion of
how the study findings contribute to the field.
Do not be misled or fail to understand that reporting the findings is not about listing the
answers to the interview questions. The answers to the interview questions are your evidence, not
the answer to the research question. Moreover, one should never list the interview questions in
the presentation of findings.
Remember that the rubric asks about the research question, not the interview questions.
The research question is the overarching question that your study answers.
Also, remember that you are presenting your findings as themes—major, minor,
unexpected, and/or serendipitous that are a result of your data—answers to interview questions,
document review, journaling, observation notes, focus group answers, etc. Also, remember that it
is a good practice when using a qualitative data analysis software program to include at least one
table per theme from NVivo, Atlasti, Ethnograph, or others that illustrates the frequencies.
Finally, when appropriate, remember to integrate member checking.
To sum up: Present the theme, present the evidence from the findings that support the
theme (including tables), then support both from the body of knowledge/conceptual framework.
Discuss how business leaders can apply the findings to aid in solving the specific
business problem. Do not repeat literature review; rather focus on application. Often researchers
can use this heading to help gain access by offering potentially participating company leaders a
summary of the findings including suggestions for professional practice.
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Rubric item 3.2i
74
3.6 - Recommendations for Action
This is where you can create a win-win for companies and individuals participating in
your study. The rubric requires the following: (a) that you ensure the recommendations flow
logically from the conclusions and contain steps to useful action, (b) that you state who needs to
pay attention to the results (this can help you with a win-win to discuss when gaining access for
the study), and (c) that you indicate how the results might be disseminated via literature,
conferences, training, etc.
This is a good section to discuss serendipitous results, unanswered new questions that
arose, and a finding that does not seem to align with a theory or conceptual model warranting a
recommendation for further research. Often this section can lead to postdoc research.
3.8 - Reflections
Per the rubric, this short heading includes a reflection on the researcher's experience
within the DBA Doctoral Study process in which the researcher discusses possible personal
biases or preconceived ideas and values, the possible effects of the researcher on the participants
or the situation, and her/his changes in thinking after completing the study.
3.9 - Conclusion
Per the rubric, students should close with a strong concluding statement making the take-
home message clear to the reader. This should be a conclusion and not a summary.
75
APPENDIX A: WALDEN UNIVERSITY DOCTOR OF BUSINESS
ADMINISTRATION PROGRAM VIDEO TITLES AND URL ADDRESSES
Title URL Address
1 Walden DBA Rubric and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KiiDGmLbRN0
Handbook Video Tutorial
2 Walden DBA Problem https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYWzCYyrgpo
Statement Tutorial
3 Walden DBA Purpose https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pLP4r0mfT9A
Statement Tutorial
4 Walden DBA http://youtu.be/P-01xVTIVC8
Theoretical/Conceptual
Framework
5 Scales of Measurement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDsMUlexaMY
6 DDBA Week One Application https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pRnTKU913IM
7 DDBA 8438 Week Two https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yEc7bzEsFH0
Application Video – Part 1
8 Week Two Application Video – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WqgA36uXK2g
Part 2
9 Part 1: Independent Samples T - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r2hxzEcglsY
Test
10 Part 2: Independent Samples T - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXmINdmgX0g
Test
11 Part 1: Week Five One-way https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cnhlXya-YR8
ANOVA
12 Part 2: Week Five One-way https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5pJosM-yWU
ANOVA
13 Walden University Doctor of https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ItFMKlPG5k
Business Administration
Multiple Linear Regression –
Part 1
14 Walden University Doctor of http://youtu.be/Pyz6E26joU0
Business Administration
Multiple Linear Regression –
Part 2
Note: Titles in green are used in DDBA 8438 but can be applicable in the research process.
76
APPENDIX B: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PRIMER: PROBLEM
STATEMENT, PURPOSE STATEMENT, RESEARCH
QUESTION(S), AND HYPOTHESES
Doctor of Business
Administration
77
DBA doctoral studies require the highest level of rigor and scholarship. One focus of
rigor and scholarship is the number of predictor or independent variables72 examined in
quantitative doc studies. Nonexperimental research (i.e. correlation73, quasi-
experimental74, etc.) requires the use of at least two independent or predictor variables.
This is due to the third variable problem. A third variable, also known as a confounding
or mediator variable, can confound the relationship between the independent and
dependent variable. This compounding effect can lead the researcher to incorrectly
interpret the results, leading to an incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis (Type I error).
As such, all DBA quantitative studies require the examination of at least two predictor
(correlation studies), or independent (i.e., quasi-experimental, causal comparative, etc.
studies) variables. This affects the statistical analysis, as simple bivariate correlations
(correlation designs) or one-way ANOVAs cannot be used as inferential statistical tests.
Other statistical procedures, such as multiple regression analyses, must be used for
correlation studies. Quasi-experimental/causal comparative designs must employ
statistical analyses (i.e. factorial ANOVAs), as a minimum capable of examining more
than one independent variable. Please be sure to discuss this with your chair!
Again, map to the rubric in this component and all components of your doctoral study.
The rubric criteria are the basis for judging the quality of your study. Notice how each of
the six rubric elements is included in the purpose statement and there is no superfluous
information.
72
Click the hyperlink to be taken to additional information.
73
Click the hyperlink to be taken to additional information.
74
Click the hyperlink to be taken to additional information.
78
Hypothetical Example (Correlation Design)
Problem Statement
Purpose Statement
Research Question
What is the relationship between employee job satisfaction, employee motivation,
and employee turnover intentions?
Hypotheses
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no statistically significant relationship between
employee job satisfaction, employee motivation, and employee turnover intentions.
75
Hook
76
Anchor
77
General business problem
78
Specific business problem
79
Method
80
Design
81
Independent variables
82
Dependent variable
83
Targeted population
84
Social change statement
79
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a statistically significant relationship
between employee job satisfaction, employee motivation, and employee turnover
intentions.
80
Hypothetical Example (Causal-Comparative Design)
Problem Statement
Organizations place great emphasis on retention because of the strategic value of
intellectual capital and the costs of replacing valued employees (cite). Research in this
domain is potentially valuable because turnover costs U.S. businesses billions of dollars
per year (cite), and practices that promote retention can save even small companies
millions of dollars annually (cite). The general business problem is that turnover intention
have been shown to have a significant impact on employee turnover (cite). The specific
business problem is that some micro-electronic business owners do not understand the
impact of job satisfaction, motivation, on employee turnover intentions.
Purpose Statement
Research Question
What is the impact of employee job satisfaction and employee motivation on
employee turnover intentions?
Hypotheses
Null Hypothesis (H0): Employee job satisfaction and employee motivation have no
significant impact on employee turnover intentions.
85
Method
86
Design
87
Independent variables
88
Dependent variable
89
Targeted population
90
Social change statement
81
Research Tips
Variables are presented in temporal order; that is the independent variables are presented
The word and (see bold text in Purpose Statement) separates the predictor variables
The word on (see bold text in Purpose Statement) separates the independent variables
The null and alternative hypotheses are almost mirror images of the research question
The null hypothesis is the hypothesis of no difference; suggesting there will not be a
significant result
significant result
82
APPENDIX C: MAJOR QUANTITATIVE DESIGNS
Research design91 is the blueprint that enables the investigator to develop solutions to
research problems and guides the researcher in the various stages of the research (Frankfort-
Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). The research design aids the researcher in structuring, analyzing,
and interpreting the data (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). DeForge (2010) described
research design as a plan for guiding researchers in addressing research problems and answering
research questions.
83
APPENDIX D: SAMPLING TYPOLOGIES92
92
Adapted from Daniel, J. (2012). Sampling essentials: Practical guidelines for making sampling choices. Los
Angeles, CA: SAGE.
84
APPENDIX E: SAMPLE POWER ANALYSIS
apriori sample size analysis (Faul, Erdfelder, Buchner, & Lang, 2009)93. A power analysis, using
G*Power version 3.1.9 software, was conducted to determine the appropriate sample size for the
study. An a priori power analysis, assuming a medium effect size (f 2= .15), α = .05, and 2
achieve a power of .80. Increasing the sample size to 146 will increase power to .99. Therefore,
the researcher will seek between 68 and 146 participants for the study (Figure 1).
The use of a medium effect size (f2 = .15) is apporiate for this proposed study. The
medium effect size was based on the analysis of X articles where (identify your variable) was the
outcome measurement.
93
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests
for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1149-1160. doi:10.3758/brm.41.4.1149
85
APPENDIX F: SAMPLE QUANTITATIVE LITERATURE REVIEW
OUTLINE
Introduction
Introduce the theory. You can present the information provided in Heading 1-4,
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework. However, this heading should be expanded, providing the
reader with more depth pertaining to the theory. Descriptive information should be included
here. The critical analysis and synthesis of the literature follows below.
Main point one.95 Conducting a good literature review involves the reader identifying
and separating literature by similar ideas, themes, topics etc. The similar ideas can be presented
using appropriate APA L2 headings; use subordinate headings as appropriate. You are not to
simply regurgitate the material you have read. The literature presented in each main topic
heading must be a critical analysis and synthesis of the empirical observations (research studies)
you have reviewed. Critical analysis and synthesis of the literature grounded in your theoretical
framework will enable you to meet the requirements in the Presentation of Findings heading.
See the Doctoral Study Rubric for more information.
Main point two. The same information presented in main point one applies for main
point two.
Main point three. The same information presented in main point three applies for Main
Point C.
There are always rival theories, that is, rival/alternate lenses for examining a
phenomenon. A good literature review comprises an inquiry into the major rival theories.
Provide a very brief overview of two to three rival theories and then shift the discussion to one
major rival theory. Questions you may consider addressing in this component are:
86
Why did you not choose to examine your problem through this theoretical lens?
What do opponents (other authorities) in the field identify as the limitations or
weakness of this rival theory?
Measurement
A good literature review must address the measurement instruments pertaining to the
variables or constructs underlying the theoretical framework. Often times, there is more than one
measurement instrument available to measure the same variables or constructs. A review of the
measurement instruments will facilitate your identifying appropriate instruments for your
theoretical variables/constructs. Addressing, validity and reliability properties of the various
instruments is a vital component of this heading. In addition, discussing the various populations
for which the instruments were used is vital to addressing the requirements for this component.
The study may contain additional variables96 outside the umbrella of the theoretical
framework. Therefore, discussions of these variables are warranted. An informed decision must
be made to include variables in a study. As such, variables or constructs examined in a
quantitative study are derived from extant literature; they are not arbitrarily selected for inclusion
in a study. For example, assume job satisfaction is an independent or predictor variable in your
study. If so, this variable must be substantiated from the literature. Therefore, you are to conduct
a critical analysis and synthesis pertaining to the literature. This critical analysis and synthesis
must support evidence of a relationship between each potential independent variable and the
dependent variable in your study, or a variable closely related to the dependent variable in your
study. In addition, there might be inconclusive evidence and you are to provide the support for
including the independent or predictor variable in your study. Include APA sub headings for
each independent and dependent variable.
96
It is important to understand you are not addressing variables underlying the theoretical framework. Here you are
addressing any “additional” variables included in the study that are not aligned with the theoretical framework. In
essence, there will be justification for every variable measured in the study.
87
Independent Variable B (variable not underlying the theory)
Dependent Variable
The dependent variable must also be addressed in the literature review. This is normally
the problematic variable in the study. Remember you are viewing this problematic variable
through the identified theoretical lens. Again, this component is to include a critical analysis and
synthesis of the empirical literature pertaining to the dependent variable.
Methodologies
Summary
End with a transition heading that contains a summary of key points and provides an
overview introducing Section 2 and Section 3. Do not include any new information in the
summary.
88
APPENDIX G: SAMPLE APA TABLES
Properly formatted APA tables are critical media for presenting descriptive and
inferential statistics results. This appendix provides templates that serve as models for
what is required for various types of statistical analyses. The examples are based on
guidelines contained in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association97. You can simply cut and paste these tables into the
97
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association. (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
98
Tables will need to be adjusted for your particular analyses. For example, you may need to add/delete
additional rows/columns as appropriate.
89
Basic One Group Descriptive Statistics Table for Quantitative Variables
(Example Depicting 3 Variables)
Table X
Table X
Variable n %
Variable 1 32 32
Variable 2 34 34
Variable 3 34 34
Total 100 100
90
Simultaneous Regression Table (2 Variables)
Table X
Table X
Step 1
The table above reflects a “Play it Safe99” hierarchical regression table with 2 variables in step
one and 3 variables in step 2. You will need to make modifications according to your specific
model.
99
The “Play It safe” table is comprehensive and thus would be appropriate if the writer wanted to be as
thorough as possible and was not concerned with brevity.
91
Two-Way ANOVA Table
Table X
Between subjects
Within-subjects
92
Correlation Table
Table X
Students (n = XX)
93
Logistic Regression Table (6 Predictors)
Table X
94
APPENDIX H: SAMPLE INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Interview Protocol
What you will do What you will say—script
Introduce the interview and set the Script XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
stage—often over a meal or coffee
Watch for non-verbal queues 1. Interview question
Paraphrase as needed 2. Interview question
Ask follow-up probing questions 3. Interview question
to get more in depth 4. Interview question
5. Interview question
6. Interview question
7. Interview question
8. Interview question
9. Interview question
10. Last interview question should be a
wrap up question such as: What
additional experiences have you had…?
Wrap up interview thanking Script XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
participant
Schedule follow-up member Script XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
checking interview
Follow–up Member Checking Interview
95
Share a copy of the Script XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
succinct synthesis for 1. Question and succinct synthesis of the
each individual question interpretation—perhaps one paragraph or as
needed
Bring in probing 2. Question and succinct synthesis of the
questions related to interpretation—perhaps one paragraph or as
other information that needed
you may have found—
3. Question and succinct synthesis of the
note the information
interpretation—perhaps one paragraph or as
must be related so that
needed
you are probing and
adhering to the IRB 4. Question and succinct synthesis of the
approval. interpretation—perhaps one paragraph or as
needed
Walk through each
question, read the 5. Question and succinct synthesis of the
interpretation and ask: interpretation—perhaps one paragraph or as
needed
Did I miss anything?
Or, What would you 6. Question and succinct synthesis of the
like to add? interpretation—perhaps one paragraph or as
needed
7. Question and succinct synthesis of the
interpretation—perhaps one paragraph or as
needed
8. Question and succinct synthesis of the
interpretation—perhaps one paragraph or as
needed
9. Question and succinct synthesis of the
interpretation—perhaps one paragraph or as
needed
10. Question and succinct synthesis of the
interpretation—perhaps one paragraph or as
needed
96
BIBLIOGRAPHY: SUGGESTED READINGS LISTS
Please note that these references are an amalgamation of input and suggestions. The
purpose is to provide DBA students with additional reading sources to prepare for the
doctoral study. Students are responsible for correctly referencing any sources per the
APA publication manual (6th ed.). The following Readings lists are in order by the
following topics.
97
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
Assumptions
Abrams, L. S. (2010). Sampling hard to reach populations in qualitative research: The
case of incarcerated youth. Qualitative Social Work, 9, 536-550.
doi:10.1077/1473325010367821
Bansal, P., & Corley, K. (2011). The coming of age for qualitative research:
Embracing the diversity of qualitative methods. Academy of Management
Journal, 54, 233- 237. doi:10.5465/AMJ.2011.60262792
Bunniss, S., & Kelly, D. R. (2010). Research paradigms in medical education research.
Qualitative Research in Medical Education, 44, 358-366. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2923.2009.03611.x
Cunliffe, A. L. (2011). Crafting qualitative research: Morgan and Smircich 30 years on.
Organizational Research Methods, 14, 647-673. doi:10.1177/1094428110373658
Draper, A. A., & Swift, J. A. (2011). Qualitative research in nutrition and dietetics: Data
collection issues. Journal of Human Nutrition & Dietetics, 24(1), 3-12.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-277X.2010.01117.x
Ellis, T. J., & Levy, Y. (2009). Towards a guide for novice researchers on research
methodology: Review and proposed methods. Issues in Informing Science &
Information Technology, 323-337. Retrieved from http://informingscience.org/
Fan, X. (2013). “The test is reliable”; “The test is valid”: Language use, unconscious
assumptions, and education research practice. The Asia-Pacific Education
Researcher, 22, 217-218. doi:10.1007/s40299-012-0036-y
98
Gallop, S. (2011). Viewpoint: Assumptions. Journal of Behavioral Optometry, 22, 158-
160. Retrieved from http://www.oepf.org/journals
Lips-Wiersma, M., & Mills, A. J. (2013) Understanding the basic assumptions about
human nature in workplace spirituality: Beyond the critical versus positive divide.
Journal of Management Inquiry, 23(2), 148-161. doi:10.1177/1056492613501227
Kirkwood, A., & Price, L. (2013). Examining some assumptions and limitations of
research on the effects of emerging technologies for teaching and learning in
higher education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44, 536-543.
doi:10.1111/bjet.12049
Kouchaki, M., Okhuysen, G. A., Waller, M. J., & Tajeddin, G. (2012). The treatment of
the relationship between croups and their environments: A review and critical
examination of common assumptions in research. Group & Organization
Management, 37, 171-203. doi:10.1177/1059601112443850
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2016). Designing qualitative research (6th ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pratt, M. G. (2009). For the lack of a boilerplate: Tips on writing up (and reviewing)
qualitative research. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 856-862.
doi:10.5465/AMJ.2009.44632557
99
Limitations
Aastrup, J., & Halldorsson, A. (2013). Quality criteria for qualitative inquiries in logistics.
European Journal of Operational Research, 144, 321-332. doi:10.1016/S0377-
2217(02)00397-1
Brutus, S., Aguinis, H., & Wassmer, U. (2012). Self-reported limitations and future
directions in scholarly reports analysis and recommendations. Journal of
Management, 39(1) 48-75. doi:10.1177/0149206312455245
Brutus, S., Gill, H., & Duniewicz, K. (2010). State of science in industrial and
organizational psychology: A review of self-reported limitations.
Personnel Psychology, 63, 907-936. doi:10.1111/j.1744-
6570.2010.01192.x
Bunniss, S., & Kelly, D. R. (2010). Research paradigms in medical education research.
Qualitative Research in Medical Education, 44, 358-366. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2923.2009.03611.x
Cunliffe, A. L. (2011). Crafting qualitative research: Morgan and Smircich 30 years on.
Organizational Research Methods, 14, 647-673. doi:10.1177/1094428110373658
Draper, A. A., & Swift, J. A. (2011). Qualitative research in nutrition and dietetics:
Data collection issues. Journal of Human Nutrition & Dietetics, 24(1), 3-12.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-277X.2010.01117.x
Ellis, T. J., & Levy, Y. (2009). Towards a guide for novice researchers on research
methodology: Review and proposed methods. Issues in Informing Science &
Information Technology, 323-337. Retrieved from http://informingscience.org/
10
0
Fan, X. (2013). “The test is reliable”; “The test is valid”: Language use, unconscious
assumptions, and education research practice. The Asia-Pacific Education
Researcher, 22, 217-218. doi:10.1007/s40299-012-0036-y
Gibbs, L., Kealy, M., Willis, K., Green, J., Welch, N., & Daly, J. (2007). What have
sampling and data collection got to do with good qualitative research?
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 31, 540-544.
doi:10.1111/j.1753- 6405.2007.00140.x
Houghton, C., Casey, D., Shaw, D., & Murphy, K. (2013). Rigour in qualitative case-
study research. Nurse Researcher, 20(4), 12-17.
doi:10.7748/nr2013.03.20.4.12.e326
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2016). Designing qualitative research (6th ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
O’Reilly, M., & Parker, N. (2012, May). Unsatisfactory saturation: A critical exploration
of the notion of saturated sample sizes in qualitative research. Qualitative
Research Journal, 1-8. doi:10.1177/1468794112446106
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2010). Generalization in quantitative and qualitative research:
Myths and strategies. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 47, 1451-1458.
doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.06.004
Pratt, M. G. (2009). For the lack of a boilerplate: Tips on writing up (and reviewing)
qualitative research. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 856-862.
doi:10.5465/AMJ.2009.44632557
Prowse, M., & Camfield, L. (2013). Improving the quality of development assistance:
What role for qualitative methods in randomized experiments? Progress in
Development Studies, 13(1), 51-61. doi:10.1177/146499341201300104
10
1
Sabbour, S., Lasi, H., & Tessin, P. (2012). Business intelligence and strategic decision
simulation. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 6, 980-987.
Retrieved from http://waset.org/Publications?p=61
10
2
Delimitations
Barratt, M., Choi, T. Y., & Li, M. (2011). Qualitative case studies in operations
management: Trends, research outcomes, and future research
implications. Journal of Operations Management, 29, 329-342.
doi:10.1016/j.jom.2010.06.002
Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and
implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13, 544-559.
Retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR13-4/baxter
Bunniss, S., & Kelly, D. R. (2010). Research paradigms in medical education research.
Qualitative Research in Medical Education, 44, 358-366. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2923.2009.03611.x
Cunliffe, A. L. (2011). Crafting qualitative research: Morgan and Smircich 30 years on.
Organizational Research Methods, 14, 647-673. doi:10.1177/1094428110373658
Draper, A. A., & Swift, J. A. (2011). Qualitative research in nutrition and dietetics:
Data collection issues. Journal of Human Nutrition & Dietetics, 24(1), 3-12.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-277X.2010.01117.x
Ellis, T. J., & Levy, Y. (2009). Towards a guide for novice researchers on research
methodology: Review and proposed methods. Issues in Informing Science &
Information Technology, 323-337. Retrieved from http://informingscience.org/
Fan, X. (2013). “The test is reliable”; “The test is valid”: Language use, unconscious
assumptions, and education research practice. The Asia-Pacific Education
Researcher, 22, 217-218. doi:10.1007/s40299-012-0036-y
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2016). Designing qualitative research (6th ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
10
3
Nenty, H., & Adedoyin, O. O. (2010). Research orientation and research-related
behaviour of graduate education students at University of Botswana.
International Research Journal, 1, 577-585. Retrieved from
http://interesjournals.org
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias
in social science research and recommendations on how to control
it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 539-569. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-
120710-100452
Pratt, M. G. (2009). For the lack of a boilerplate: Tips on writing up (and reviewing)
qualitative research. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 856-862.
doi:10.5465/AMJ.2009.44632557
Small, M. (2009). How many cases do I need: On science and the logic of case
selection in field-based research. Ethnography, 10(1), 5-38.
doi:10.1177/1466138108099586
10
4
Case Study Sources
Alfonso, M., Nickelson, L., & Cohen, D. (2012). Farmers’ markets in rural
communities: A case study. American Journal of Health Education, 43(3), 143-
151. Retrieved from http://www.aahperd.org/aahe/publications/ajhe/
Almutairi, A. F., Gardner, G. E., & McCarthy, A. (2014). Practical guidance for the use
of pattern-matching technique in case-study research: A case presentation.
Nursing & Health Sciences, 16, 239-244. doi:10.1111/nhs.12096
Amerson, R. (2011). Making a case for the case study method. Journal of
Nursing Education, 50, 427-428. doi:10.3928.01484834-20110719-01
Ates, O. (2013). Using case studies for teaching management to computer engineering
students. International Journal of Business and Management, 8(5), 72-81.
doi:10.5539/ijbm.v8n5p72
Baker, R. G., (2011). The contribution of case study research to knowledge of how to
improve the quality of care. British Medical Journal Quality and Safety, 20, 30-35.
doi:10.1136/bmjqs.2010.046490
Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and
implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13, 544-559.
Retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR13-4/baxter
Beverland, M., & Lindgreen, A. (2010). What makes a good case study? A positivist
review of qualitative case research published in Industrial Marketing
Management, 1971-2006. Industrial Marketing Management, 39, 56-63.
doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2008.09.005
Boblin, S. L., Ireland, S., Kirkpatrick, H., & Robertson, K. (2013). Using Stakes
qualitative case study approach to explore implementation evidence-based
practice. Qualitative Health Research, 23, 1267-1275.
doi:10.1177/1049732313502128
Breslin, M., & Buchanan, R. (2011). On the case study method of research and teaching
in design. Design Issues, 24(1), 36-40. Retrieved from http://www.mitjournals.org
Bucic, T., Robinson, L., & Ramburuth, P. (2010). Effects of leadership style on team
learning. Journal of Workplace Learning, 22, 228-248.
doi:10.1108/13665621011040680
10
5
Butvilas, T., & Zygmantas, J. (2011). An ethnographic case study in educational
research. Acta Paedagogica Vilnensia, 27, 33-42. Retrieved from
http://www.leidykla.eu/index.php?id=36
Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A., Huby, G., Avery, A., & Sheikh, A. (2011). The
case study approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11(1), 1-9.
doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100
Da Mota Pedrosa, A., Näslund, D., & Jasmand, C. (2012). Logistics case study based
research: Towards higher quality. International Journal of Physical Distribution
& Logistics Management, 42, 275-295. doi:10.1108/09600031211225963
De Massis, A., & Kotlar, J. (2014). The case study method in family business research:
Guidelines for qualitative scholarship. Journal of Family Business Strategy, 5(1),
15-29. doi:10.1016/j.jfbs.2014.01.007
Eno, M., & Dammak, A. (2014). Debating the case study dilemma: Controversies and
considerations. Veritas: The Academic Journal of St Clements Education Group,
5(3), 1-8. Retrieved from http://stclements.edu/Veritas/VERITAS%20October
%202014
Gibbert, M., & Ruigrok, W. (2010). The what and how of case study rigor: Three
strategies based on published work. Organizational Research Methods, 13, 710-
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