applied

sciences
Article
An Evaluation of the Efficiency of Compartmented
Alginate Fibres Encapsulating a Rejuvenator
as an Asphalt Pavement Healing System
Amir Tabaković 1,2, *, Luke Schuyffel 1 , Aleksandar Karač 3 and Erik Schlangen 1
1 Materials & Environment, Faculty Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology,
2628CN Delft, The Netherlands; L.S.Schuyffel@student.tudelft.nl (L.S.); erik.schlangen@tudelft.nl (E.S.)
2 Research Enterprise and Innovation, Dublin Institute of Technology, 143 Rathmines Road Lower,
Dublin 6, D06H328, Ireland
3 Polytechnic Faculty, University of Zenica, Fakultetska 1, 72000 Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
akarac@unze.ba
* Correspondence: amir.tabakovic@dit.ie; Tel.: +353-1-402-7537

Received: 19 April 2017; Accepted: 15 June 2017; Published: 23 June 2017

Abstract: This paper explores the potential methods for evaluating a healing system for asphalt
pavements. The healing system under investigation involves compartmented calcium-alginate fibres
encapsulating an asphalt binder healing agent (rejuvenator). This system presents a novel method
of incorporating rejuvenators into asphalt pavement mixtures. The compartmented fibres are used
to distribute the rejuvenator throughout the pavement mixture, thereby overcoming some of the
problems associated with alternate asphalt pavement healing methods, i.e., spherical capsules
and hollow fibres. The asphalt healing efficiency methods to be evaluated in this paper include:
(i) standard test methods for asphalt pavements, such as the Indirect Tensile Strength test and the
4 Point Bending Fatigue test; and (ii) alternative fracture tests such as the Semi Circular Bend test. The study
employs fracture theory in order to evaluate the efficiency of the damage repair. The research findings
demonstrate that including compartmented calcium-alginate fibres encapsulating a rejuvenator
into an asphalt pavement mix does not significantly improve the healing properties of the asphalt
pavement. Nevertheless, the findings indicate that, with further enhancement, compartmented
calcium alginate fibres may present a promising new approach for the development of self-healing
asphalt pavement systems. Additionally, the test results indicate that the 4 point bend fatigue test is
the most suitable test for evaluating the performance of self healing asphalt pavements.

Keywords: self-healing; asphalt pavements; compartmented fibres; calcium alginate; rejuvenation;

Indirect Tensile Strength test (ITS); 4 Point Bending fatigue test and Semi Circular Bend test (SCB)

1. Introduction
An EU directive recommending roads which are ‘Forever Open’ drives the need for improved
asphalt pavement design, i.e., pavement materials and designs that will reduce road maintenance
and improve safety levels for road users. Since 2008, ‘self-healing technology’ for asphalt pavements
has been advanced [1]. Incorporating this technology into pavement design offers the potential for
road damage to be repaired by an internal (implanted) healing system, rather than by traditional road
maintenance (which is costly and disrupts traffic flow). The objective of self-healing technology is
to enable/assist material systems to heal after damage on a local or global scale, thereby reducing
the level of damage and extending the functionality and life-time of the road. Fisher [2] defines the
self-healing and self-repair of a material or system as: “the ability to substantially return to an initial, proper
operating state or condition prior exposure to a dynamic environment by making the necessary adjustments to
restore to normality and/or the ability to resist the formation of irregularities and/or defects”.

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647; doi:10.3390/app7070647 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 2 of 16

To date, researchers have tested two methods for self healing in asphalt pavements [3–11]:

(i) Induction heating, whereby electrically conductive fillers (steel fibres and steel wool) were added
to the asphalt mix. Healing was initiated within the asphalt by sending an alternating current
through the coil and generating an alternating electromagnetic field. When the conductive asphalt
specimen was placed beneath the coil, this electromagnetic field induced currents flowing along
the conductive loops formed by steel fibres [3]. The current caused the steel fibres to heat up,
which heats and softens the aged bitumen, allowing it to flow and close the cracks, and to repair
the damage.
(ii) Rejuvenation, whereby an encapsulated healing agent (rejuvenator) is added into the asphalt mix
to restore the original binder properties. When micro cracks begin to form within the pavement
system, they encounter a capsule in the crack propagation path. The fracture energy at the tip of
the crack opens the capsule, releasing the healing agent which then diffuses within the asphalt
binder to seal the crack.

The potential benefits of applying self healing technology to asphalt pavements are clear [12]:
reduced road maintenance with a subsequent reduction in CO2 production, improved safety for both
road users and road workers, improved road life span, and reduced cost of road maintenance. However,
although research has demonstrated the potential benefit of an improved pavement performance
via the incorporation of self-healing technology, it has not yet been universally accepted by the road
industry. One of the biggest obstacles to its adoption is the absence of suitable standard testing
procedures which could be used to evaluate the healing performance of the asphalt pavements mix.
Su et al. [10] studied a modified Three Point Bend (3PB) test system for the evaluation of asphalt
mix containing capsules encapsulating a rejuvenator. Tabakovic et al. [12] also used a 3PB test system
to evaluate the healing effect of the mortar mix. The difficulty with this approach is in the asphalt mix;
the mix is binder rich and has a higher potential to heal. Additionally, testing must be performed at low
temperatures to avoid material deformation. While these approaches are suitable for proof of concept,
more robust testing methods are required to convince the road industry to adopt self healing asphalt
material as standard within the road design process. Garcia [13] and Barrasa et al. [14] evaluated the
performance of asphalt mixture when subjected to Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS), Indirect Tensile
Stiffness Modulus (ITSM), and Indirect Tensile Fatigue (ITF) testing. However, these studies only
reported on the comparative performance between asphalt mixes with and without healing agents,
rather than the healing process itself. Most recently, Tabaković et al. [15] studied the self healing
performance of Porous Asphalt (PA) mixes and used ITS and ITSM tests to evaluate the healing
performance of asphalt mix. This study demonstrated that the test approach is effective, although ITS
damages test samples to the extent that they are unsuitable for repeat testing. Furthermore, the ITS
test system, the sample thickness, and the dark surface of the test specimens preclude observations of
crack propagation and healing, unless damage to the test specimen is severe.
This study evaluates the efficiency of asphalt mix healing employing both: (i) standard test
methods for asphalt pavements such as the ITS and the 4 Point Bending (4PB) Fatigue test; and (ii)
alternative fracture tests such as the Semi Circular Bend test (SCB). The study employs fracture theory in
order to evaluate the efficiency of the damage repair crack propagation. The study specifically examines
the compartmented calcium-alginate fibres encapsulating asphalt binder healing agent (rejuvenator).
The compartmented fibres are used to distribute the rejuvenator (healing agent) throughout the asphalt
mix and to overcome the problems associated with spherical capsules and hollow fibres.
The research findings presented demonstrate that the inclusion of compartmented calcium-alginate
fibres encapsulating a rejuvenator into an asphalt pavement mix, does not significantly improve the
healing properties of the asphalt pavement as previously thought [15]. Although the tests results
did not demonstrate significant improvement in the system healing properties, they do indicate that
compartmented calcium alginate fibres present a promising new approach for the development of
self-healing asphalt pavement systems. In addition, the test results show that fracture tests, such
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 3 of 16

as the 4PB Fatigue test, are the most suitable for evaluating the performance of self healing asphalt.
The form and testing process initiates minor damage (micro cracks) to the pavement mix, allowing
the test specimen to keep its form and to be used repeatedly. However, the results also indicated that
the ITS and the SCB tests are unsuitable testing methods, as the damage caused to the test specimens
precluded repeat testing. Modification of the ITS and the SCB test procedures are required to improve
their suitability for this purpose.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Compartmented Alginate Fibres Production

The compartmented fibres were spun from an emulsion of rejuvenator suspended in a water
solution of sodium alginate. A 6 wt % solution of sodium alginate in de-ionized water was prepared
for this purpose. At the same time, a 2.5 wt % poly(ethylene-alt-maleic-anhydride) (PEMA) polymeric
surfactant solution was prepared by dissolving the copolymer in water at 70 ◦ C and mixing it for 60 min.
After the PEMA has been dissolved in the water, it was allowed to cool to room temperature (20 ± 2 ◦ C)
and was combined with the rejuvenator, forming a healing agent solution, in PEMA/rejuvenator
1/1.5 proportion. Sodium alginate and PEMA/rejuvenator solutions were then combined in accordance
with Tabaković et al. [15] with a 70/30 rejuvenator/alginate proportion, found to be optimal for the
compartmented alginate fibres. All of the solutions were mixed at 200 rpm for 60 s. It is important to
note that the stirring rate and stirring time can be used to control the size of the rejuvenator droplets in
the solution and thus the size of the rejuvenator compartments [7,12,16] (The lower the stirring rate
and the shorter the stirring time, the larger the droplets; the higher the stirring rate and the longer the
stirring time, the smaller the droplets).
The emulsions were spun with a plunger-based lab scale wet spinning line in a conventional
wet spinning process [12,16,17] to form the rejuvenator-filled compartmented fibres. More details on
the fibre preparation and spinning process can be found elsewhere [17]. All chemicals used in the
process were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Zwijndrecht, The Netherlands), except for the rejuvenator,
Modesel R20, which was provided by Latexfalt B.V. (Koudekerk aan den Rijn, The Netherlands).

2.2. Porous Asphalt Mastic Mix Design and Mixing Procedure

In an effort to evaluate the efficiency of the rejuvenator encapsulated in compartmented calcium
alginate fibres, a Porous Asphalt (PA) mix was designed. The grading envelope Rationalisatie en
Automatisering Grond-, Water- en Wegenbouw (RAW) 2005 was used to produce a PA asphalt mix
typical of those used for road design i [18,19]. The limestone used originated from a quarry in Norway,
the filler material was hydrated lime (Wigro 60K), and pen 70/100 of bitumen was used. Figure 1
illustrates the mix grading curve and illustrates how the mix compares well with the grading envelope.
The figure also shows the slightly higher passing of fine material than was required by the grading
limits, but because of the high dust content of the aggregate, it was impossible to achieve a 100%
match. Further consultations with industrial partners confirmed that the fit employed in this study
compared favourably with PA mix production. Table 1 summarises these mix constituents and shows
their proportions in the mix, both with and without fibres. The fibres were added in an amount of
5%, which in the total mix volume represents 0.23%. Tabakovic et al. [15] demonstrated that 5% is an
optimum fibre content within an asphalt mix; mixes with a higher fibre content (10%) experience lower
stiffness and strength values and have a lower healing efficiency. The aggregate mix constituent content
was unchanged with the addition of fibres into the mix because the fibre is an active replacement for
the bitumen and is not load carrying. Therefore, the fibre was inserted as a binder replacement.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 4 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 4 of 16

Table1.1.PA
Table PAmix
mixdesign
design(percentage
(percentageconstituent
constituent content
content is
is given
givenby
byweight).
weight).
% Content in Mix
Mix Constituent % Content in Mix
Mix Constituent without Fibres 5% Fibres
22.4 mm without Fibres
20.1 5% Fibres
20.1
16.0 mm
22.4 mm 20.125.6 20.125.6
16.0 mm
11.2 mm 25.634.8 25.634.8
11.2 mm
8.0 mm 34.8 7.4 34.87.4
8.0 mm 7.4 7.4
6.0 mm 6.7 6.7
6.0 mm 6.7 6.7
Sand (2.0 mm)
Sand (2.0 mm) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Filler (<0.063 mm)
Filler (<0.063 mm) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Bitumen
Bitumen 4.5 4.5 4.3 4.3
Fibre
Fibre 0 0 0.230.23

Figure1.1.Porous
Figure Porousasphalt
asphalt mix
mix grading,
grading, grading
grading envelope
envelopeRAW
RAW2005
2005[20].
[20].

The porous asphalt mix was prepared using a 5l Hobart mixer. Prior to mixing, all mix
The porous
constituents wereasphalt mix was
preheated to prepared
160 °C forusing a 5l Hobart
2 h. During mixer. Prior
the mixing to mixing,
process, all mix
sand, filler, andconstituents
bitumen
were preheated to 160 ◦ C for 2 h. During the mixing process, sand, filler, and bitumen were mixed first,
were mixed first, and fibres were then added gradually to the mix to avoid a conglomeration of fibres
and fibresthe
within were
mix.then
Theadded
additiongradually to the
of the fibres mix to in
resulted avoid a conglomeration
a prolonged of fibres
mixing period, whichwithin
causedthethe
mix.
The addition of the fibres resulted in a prolonged mixing period, which caused
mix to cool down and reduced its workability. Therefore, the mix had to be reheated to 160 °C several the mix to cool down
and reduced
times duringitsthe
workability. Therefore,
mixing process. The finalthe mixing
mix had to be
was performed 160 ◦ to
reheatedbytohand, C several times
ensure that theduring
mix
theconstituents
mixing process. The final
(sand, filler, mixingwere
and fibres) wasfully
performed
and evenlyby hand,
coatedtoinensure
bitumen.that the mix constituents
(sand, filler, and fibres)
In order to accountwere fully
for theandasphalt
evenly coated
ageing,inan bitumen.
aging programme was developed. The
In order to account
recommended by Kliewerfor the asphalt
et al. [21], asageing,
follows:anLong
agingterm;
programme
15 years was
fielddeveloped.
ageing 4 h atThe135recommended
°C followed
byby 4 days et
Kliewer at al.
85 [21],
°C inasa forced
follows: airLong oven. 15 years field ageing 4 h at 135 ◦ C followed by 4 days at
draft term;
85 ◦ C inRecently,
a forcedTabaković et al. [12] and Casado Barrasa et al. [14] successfully used similar protocols
air draft oven.
to investigate the effect
Recently, Tabaković et al.of short
[12]and
andlong termBarrasa
Casado aging ofetthe
al. asphalt mix containing
[14] successfully alginateprotocols
used similar capsulesto
and microcapsules
investigate the effect encapsulating
of short and long asphalt
termbinder
agingrejuvenator.
of the asphalt mix containing alginate capsules and
Following the asphalt aging procedure,
microcapsules encapsulating asphalt binder rejuvenator. the mix was preheated to the standard asphalt
mixing/compaction
Following the asphalt aging procedure, the mix were
temperature of 160 °C and the fibres was gradually
preheatedadded
to the to the mix to asphalt
standard avoid
conglomeration of the fibres within the◦ mix. After the fibres were included
mixing/compaction temperature of 160 C and the fibres were gradually added to the mix to avoid in the mix, the test
conglomeration of the fibres within the mix. After the fibres were included in the mix, the test
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 5 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 5 of 16

specimens were prepared. The air void content in the mix design was 20%, with a target density
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 5 of 16
of
specimens
2.05124 kg/cm 3 for
were prepared.
the control Themixair and
void2.05088
content kg/cm 3 fordesign
in the mix the mix was 20%, withthe
containing a target
fibres.density of
2.05124 kg/cmwere
specimens 3 for the control mix and 2.05088 kg/cm3 for the mix containing the fibres.
prepared. The air void content in the mix design was 20%, with a target density of
2.3. Test
2.05124 kg/cmCompaction
Specimen 3 for the control Procedures
mix and 2.05088 kg/cm3 for the mix containing the fibres.
2.3. Test Specimen Compaction Procedures
2.3.1.2.3.
SCB and
Test ITS Test
Specimen Specimens
Compaction Procedures
2.3.1. SCB and ITS Test Specimens
The SCB test was adopted for this study because its simple test specimen production process
2.3.1. SCB and ITS Test Specimens
and testThesetSCB test was
up make adopted
it more for this study
advantageous because its simple
in comparison test specimen
to the standard production
3PB test, process
where specimens
and test The
set SCB
up test
make was
it adopted
more for
advantageousthis study
in because
comparison its simple
to the test specimen
standard
are produced from a large test slab, making it a more expensive test process in terms of the materials 3PB production
test, where process
specimens
areand
required
test set from
produced up make
for test specimen
it more
a large testadvantageous
slab, making
production.
in
it acomparison
The cylindricalmore expensiveto the test
standard
test specimens
3PB test,
process
werein
where
terms
compacted
specimens
of thein materials
accordance
are
requiredproduced from a large test slab, making it a more expensive test process in terms of the materials
with IS EN for test specimen
12697-31:2007 production.
using a SERVOPAC The cylindrical test specimens
gyratory compactor. Thewere
staticcompacted
compaction in accordance
pressure was
required
EN for test specimen production. The cylindrical testcompactor.
specimens The werestatic
compacted in accordance
setwith
atwithISMPa
0.6 12697-31:2007
IS ENwith an angular
12697-31:2007
using
using
a SERVOPAC
velocity gyratory
of 30 gyrations
a SERVOPAC gyratoryper minute and
compactor.
compaction
the gyratory
The static compaction angle pressure
was set at
pressure
was
◦
1.25 .wasset
A set at 0.6 MPa with an angular velocity of 30 gyrations per minute and the gyratory angle was
set at 0.6 MPa with an angular velocity of 30 gyrations per minute and the gyratory anglegyrations.
number of gyrations is used as the compaction control target; in this case, 100 was
set at 1.25°. A set number of gyrations is used as the compaction control target; in this case,
The specimens
set at 1.25°.were A set compacted
number of at gyrations
dimensions of 100
is used asmm
the in diameter control
compaction and 100target;
mm ininheight. In total,
this case,
100 gyrations. The specimens were compacted at dimensions of 100 mm in diameter and 100 mm in
100 ×
five 100 100 mm
gyrations. Thecylindrical
specimensspecimens
were compacted wereatproduced
dimensions per mix.mm
of 100 Following
in diameter compaction,
and 100 mmthe in test
height. In total, five 100 × 100 mm cylindrical specimens were produced per mix. Following
height.were
specimens In total,
left infivethe 100 × 100
moulds to mm
cure cylindrical
for 2 h, at which specimens
pointwere
the SCBproduced per mix. were
test specimens Following
machined
compaction, thethe test specimens were left in the moulds to cure forfor22h,h,atatwhich
whichpoint
pointthe the SCB test
usingcompaction,
a masonry cutting test specimens
saw. Figure were left in the
2 shows the test
moulds to curemachining
specimen process, SCB test
from which 12 SCB
specimens were
specimens were machined
machined using
using a masonry
a masonry cutting
cutting saw. Figure
saw. Figure 2 shows
2geometry the
shows theof test
test specimen
specimen machining
machining
test specimens
process, from
were
which
produced
1212 SCB
per mix. Figure 3 illustrates the the SCB test specimen.
process, from which SCBtest
testspecimens
specimenswere were produced
produced per per mix.
mix.Figure
Figure33illustrates
illustrates the
the geometry
geometry
TheSCB
of the cutting was carried out in three steps (as illustrated in Figure 2):
test specimen.
of the SCB test specimen.
1. The
The cutting
The
samples was
cutting
are carried
was
cut out
carried ininthree
outheight
over the insteps
three three(as
steps (as illustrated
illustrated
equal in30
in
parts of Figure
Figure 2): using a 3 mm sawing blade.
2):
± 3 mm,
2. 1 1These
TheThe
samples
parts areare
are
samples cut
cut over
overthe
across
cut theheight
the in
diameter
height inthree equal
equal parts
to obtain
three of 30
30±±33mm,
semi-circular
of mm, usinga a3 3mm
specimens.
using mm
The sawing
thickness
sawing blade.
blade.of the
2 2specimen
These
Theseparts
was adjusted to 20 ± 2 mm for crack propagation purposes (it creates a better the
partsare
arecut across
cut across the
thediameter
diameter to
to obtain
obtain semi-circular
semi-circular specimens.
specimens. The
The thickness
thickness of of
the crack
specimen
specimen
visibility andwaswas adjusted
adjusted
speeds up toto2020
the ±±22mm
healing mmprocess).
for crack
for crack A
propagation
propagation
2 mm thick purposes
sawing(it(it
purposes creates
creates
blade wasa abetter
better
used crack
crack
for more
visibility
visibility
precise and
cutting and speeds
speeds
and up
excessupthe
thehealing
healing
material process).
process).
was A 2 mm
discarded. mm thick
thick sawing
sawingblade
bladewas wasused
used forfor
more
more
precise cutting andexcess
excess materialwas wasdiscarded.
discarded.
3. Aprecise cutting
triangular and
shaped notch material
of 10 ± 2 mm in length and 10 ± 2 mm in height was created at the
3 3base A triangular
A triangular shapednotch
shaped notchofof1010±±22mm
of the specimen. The same sawing blade
mm in in length
length and
wasand
10
10as
used
±± 22mm
mmininheight
describedheight was
in stepwascreated at at
2. created
thethe
Figure 3 shows
base
base of of
thethe specimen.The
specimen. Thesame
samesawing
sawingblade
blade was
was used
used as
as described
describedininstep
step2.2.Figure
Figure 3 shows
3 shows a a
a schematic
schematic diagram
diagram of
of an
an SCB
SCB testspecimen.
test specimen.
schematic diagram of an SCB test specimen.

Figure 2. SCB test specimen cutting and marking process.

Figure 2. SCB test specimen cutting and marking process.
Figure 2. SCB test specimen cutting and marking process.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of SCB test specimens (dimensions are given in mm).

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of SCB test specimens (dimensions are given in mm).
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of SCB test specimens (dimensions are given in mm).
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 6 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 6 of 16

Forproduction
For the the production of the
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647
of the ITS
ITS testspecimen,
test specimen, the
the same
samecompacted
compacted asphalt
asphalt cylinders werewere
cylinders usedused
as as6 of 16

for production of the SCB test specimens, as described above. Following the curing process, a thin
for production For
of the SCB test of
the production specimens, as described
the ITS test specimen, above.
the same Following
compacted the curing
asphalt cylinders process,
were used as a thin
cylinder test was machined from each compaction cylinder, producing a total of six ITS test
for production of the SCB test specimens, as described above. Following the curing process,
cylinder test was machined from each compaction cylinder, producing a total of six ITS test specimens. a thin
specimens. Figure
cylinder test 4was
shows a schematic
machined illustration of thecylinder,
from each ITS test specimen.
Figure 4 shows a schematic illustration of the compaction
ITS test specimen.producing a total of six ITS test
specimens. Figure 4 shows a schematic illustration of the ITS test specimen.

ФФ
100
100
2424
Figure 4. Schematic
4. Schematic illustration
illustration of the
ofofthe ITSITS testspecimen
test specimen (dimensions are given
(dimensions in mm).in mm).
Figure
Figure 4. Schematic illustration the ITS test specimen (dimensions areare given
given in mm).

2.3.2. Fatigue Beam Test Specimens

2.3.2. 2.3.2. Fatigue
Fatigue BeamBeam
TestTest Specimens
Specimens
The fatigue test beams were machined form an asphalt slab which was produced by using a
The
The fatiguefatigue
shear box test beams
testcompactor.
beams Thewere
were slab machined
machined
produced form form
using anthean asphalt
asphalt
shear slab
box slab which
which
compactor was
waswas a produced
ofproduced bybyusing
length, width, usingaashear
and
shear box
max compactor.
height of 450The
mm, slab
150 produced
mm, and using
180 mm, the shear
respectively.box compactor
Due
box compactor. The slab produced using the shear box compactor was of a length, width, and to the was
size of of
the a length,
slab and width,
the large and max
max height
numberof 450 mm,required
of fibres 150 mm,for and
its 180 mm, respectively.
production, it was decidedDuetotoproduce
the sizeaofslab
thecontaining
slab and thebothlarge
height of 450 mm, with
mixtures,
150 and
mm, and fibres.
without
180 mm, respectively.
The base ofitthe
Due to thefibres
slabdecided
did not contain
size of the mix) slaband
and the large
number of fibres required for its production, was to produce (control
a slab containing theboth
number of fibres required
top with
of theand for
slab without its production,
containedfibres.
fibres. The
Fourbase it
beams was decided to produce a slab containing both mixtures,
mixtures, ofofthe
450slab
× 50did
× 50not
mmcontain
for 4PBTfibres
were (control
cut out ofmix)
the slab:
and the
with and without
top of the slabfibres.
two with and two The
contained base of
without
fibres. the Figure
fibres.
Four slab
beams did of not
450 contain
5 illustrates
× 50the fibres
beam
× 50 mmtest (control
forspecimen mix)
4PBT were andout
the
extractions
cut oftop
from ofslab:
the
the the slab
contained compacted asphalt slab. × ×
two with and two without fibres. Figure 5 illustrates the beam test specimen extractions from the two
fibres. Four beams of 450 50 50 mm for 4PBT were cut out of the slab: two with and
without fibres. Figure
compacted asphalt5slab.
illustrates the beam test specimen extractions from the compacted asphalt slab.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the compacted slab and test beams.

2.4. Testing
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the compacted slab and test beams.
2.4.1. ITS Test
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the compacted slab and test beams.
2.4. Testing The Instron hydraulic test system was adjusted in order to perform an ITS test in accordance
2.4. Testing with EN 12697-23:2003. The ITS test was conducted by applying a vertical compressive strip load at
a constant loading rate, in this case 0.1 mm/s, to a cylindrical specimen. The load was distributed over
2.4.1. ITS Test
the thickness of the specimen through two loading strips at the top and base of the test specimen. The
2.4.1. ITS Test
The Instron
tests hydraulicattest
were conducted system
a room was adjusted
temperature of 20 ± in order
2 °C. The to
aimperform an ITS
of this study wastest in accordance
to observe the
The
withInstron
ENcrack hydraulic
healing
12697-23:2003. test(crack
efficiency
The ITSsystem
test waswas
repair) and adjusted
strengthby
conducted inapplying
order
recovery to
of the perform
asphalt mix
a vertical an ITS
with and
compressive test in accordance
without
strip a at
load
with EN self healing
a constant loadingsystem.
12697-23:2003. rate,
The For
in thiscase
this
ITS purpose,
test 0.1
was two
mm/s, ITS
to specimens
conducted were
a cylindrical machined
specimen.
by applying to a thickness
The
a vertical load wasofdistributed
24 mm (thin
compressive over
strip load at
the thickness of the specimen through two loading strips at the top and base
a constant loading rate, in this case 0.1 mm/s, to a cylindrical specimen. The load was distributed of the test specimen. The
teststhickness
over the were conducted at a room through
of the specimen temperature twoofloading
20 ± 2 °C. Theat
strips aim
theoftop
thisandstudy
basewas
oftotheobserve the
test specimen.
crack healing efficiency (crack repair) and strength recovery◦ of the asphalt mix with and without a
The tests were conducted at a room temperature of 20 ± 2 C. The aim of this study was to observe
self healing system. For this purpose, two ITS specimens were machined to a thickness of 24 mm (thin
the crack healing efficiency (crack repair) and strength recovery of the asphalt mix with and without
a self healing system. For this purpose, two ITS specimens were machined to a thickness of 24 mm
(thin specimens) and one to a thickness of 33 mm (thick specimen). The standard EN 12697-23
indicates that the test specimens should not be thinner than 29 mm, but it was difficult to observe
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 7 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 7 of 16

crackspecimens)
propagationand though
one to a the full specimen
thickness of 33 mm thickness. Therefore,
(thick specimen). two specimens
The standard were
EN 12697-23 machined
indicates
to a 24 mm thickness so that crack propagation though the thickness of the test specimen
that the test specimens should not be thinner than 29 mm, but it was difficult to observe crack could be
observed, in addition
propagation to the
though its subsequent
full specimenhealing, i.e.,
thickness. crack closure.
Therefore, two specimens were machined to a 24
mm thickness so that crack propagation though the thickness of the test specimen could be observed,
2.4.2.inSCB Test to its subsequent healing, i.e., crack closure.
addition
For the SCB test, a modified NCHRP09-46 procedure was adopted. The load was applied at
2.4.2. SCB Test
the centre line, above the ‘V’ notch, at a loading rate of 0.1 mm/s and at a temperature of 20 ± 2 ◦ C.
The support For span
the SCB test,
‘S’ = 80 amm,
modified NCHRP09-46
included 80% of the procedure was adopted.
spec diameter, leavingThe10load
mmwas applied
on each at Figure
side. the 6
centre line, above the ‘V’ notch, at a loading rate of 0.1 mm/s and at a temperature of 20 ± 2 °C. The
shows a schematic diagram and an actual view of the SCB test-setup. Several modifications to the
support span ‘S’ = 80 mm, included 80% of the spec diameter, leaving 10 mm on each side. Figure 6
test were made in the specimen geometry. The diameter of the specimen was reduced from 150 mm
shows a schematic diagram and an actual view of the SCB test-setup. Several modifications to the test
to 100 mmmade
were and inthethe
thickness
specimenfrom 50 mm
geometry. Thetodiameter
20 mm,of whereas the notch
the specimen shape was
was reduced fromchanged
150 mm to from a
straight
100 line
mm to thethe
and V-notch
thicknessshape.
fromThese
50 mmchanges were
to 20 mm, employed
whereas in order
the notch shape to was
achieve full depth
changed from acrack
propagation throughout
straight line the depth
to the V-notch of thechanges
shape. These test specimen, with the
were employed onsettoatachieve
in order the tipfull
of depth
the notch.
crack Test
samples were loaded
propagation until the
throughout thecrack
depthhas propagated
of the to 25with
test specimen, mmthe or when the
onset at thesamples started
tip of the notch.toTest
deform
samples were loaded until the crack has propagated to 25 mm or when the samples
considerably. The crack propagation was measured in order to calculate the crack propagation speed. started to deform
considerably.
The crack The crack
propagation propagation
velocity was measured
was measured in order
manually, bytoobserving
calculate the
thecrack propagation
crack propagation speed.
during
The crack propagation velocity was measured manually, by observing the crack propagation
the test, from the tip of the crack (0 mm) to the max (25 mm). For this procedure, a measuring scale was during
the test, from the tip of the crack (0 mm) to the max (25 mm). For this procedure, a measuring scale
painted along the centerline of the specimen. The progression of the crack propagation was measured
was painted along the centerline of the specimen. The progression of the crack propagation was
against the load and crosshead displacement.
measured against the load and crosshead displacement.

Figure 6. Schematic (left) and actual (right) view of the SCB test system set up.
Figure 6. Schematic (left) and actual (right) view of the SCB test system set up.

In order to obtain rough estimations, the fracture energy (GIc) and fracture toughness (KIc) were
In order to obtain rough estimations, the fracture energy (GIc ) and fracture toughness (KIc ) were
calculated by following the NCHRP09-46 (for straight line notch), and using Equations (1) and (4),
calculated by following the NCHRP09-46 (for straight line notch), and using Equations (1) and (4),
respectively:
respectively:
√
K Ic ==YIc(0.8
. ) σo√ πa (1) (1)
where:
where:
KIc =KFracture
Ic = Fracture Toughness (Pa·m
Toughness (Pa·m1/2))
1/2

σo = Stress (N/m2), P (2)

σo = Stress (N/m2 ), (2)
P = Applied load (N)
2rt
r = Specimen
P = Applied loadradius
(N) (m)
r = Specimen radius (m) (m)
t = Specimen thickness
YIc = Normalised Stress intensity factor,
t = Specimen thickness (m)
YIc = Normalised Stress intensity factor, .
. = 4.782 + 1.219 + 0.63 (3)

a
(7.045( ))
!
a r
YIc(0.8) = 4.782 + 1.219 + 0.63e (3)
r
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 8 of 16

Wf
G Ic = (4)
Alig
where:
GIc = Fracture Energy (J/m2 ),
Wf = Work of the fracture–area under the load displacement curve (J),
Z
Wf = Pdu (5)

P = Applied load (N),

u = load line displacement (m),

Alig = Ligament area (m2 ), Alig = (r-a)t (6)

r = Specimen radius (m),

t = Specimen thickness (m),
a = Notch length (m).
It has to be noted that modifications of these formula to account for V-notch effects (instead of
a straight notch) were not within the scope of this study. Instead, rough estimations were used to
qualitatively investigate the effects that certain parameters and conditions had on the healing efficiency.
Stiffness was measured from the elastic region of the curve slope.

2.4.3. 4PB Fatigue Test

The 4PB Fatigue test was employed as a third standard test for the evaluation of asphalt
mix healing and asphalt healing system efficiency. The system does not allow for adequate crack
propagation and monitoring as with the previous two test systems (ITS & SCB), but it is considered
the most reliable means of evaluating asphalt pavement performance [21]. The authors believe that
the healing system for an asphalt pavement is only effective for micro cracks, because large cracks,
even if closed, will still deform the test specimen, thus rendering it useless and challenging the results.
Hartman et al. [21] found that microcracks result in the creation of large cracks, leading to full pavement
failure. Thus, a focus of the self healing system should be the prevention of large cracks and a test
system able to insert fatigue loading, simulating repetitive wheel loading, with a deflection strain
control allowing small deformations and small crack formation in the test specimen is most suitable
for studying the asphalt mix healing and asphalt healing system efficiency.
Figure 7a,b illustrate the 4PB Fatigue test set-up. They show a prismatic beam, 50 × 50 × 400 mm,
subjected to four point bending with supposedly free rotation and translation at all load and reaction
points. The bending is realised by a sinusoidal movement of the centre bearings in a vertical direction.
The vertical position of the end-bearings is fixed. The applied displacement was generated by means
of a servo-hydraulic testing device and an Instron Labtronic 8400 controller, which used feedback
control of the actuator and an NI DAQ system with LABVIEW software to control the loading process
and to collect test data. The program enables full control of the test system. A displacement transducer
for the measurement of the deflection, not shown in Figure 7b, is positioned at the middle of the upper
surface of the test specimen, where the deflection is at a maximum (300 µm). The measuring range of
the displacement transducer was ±1 mm, and its resolution, according to the specifications, was 1 µm.
The measuring range of the load cell for the measurement of the force was 2 kN. The maximum
deflection amplitude was 300 µm. The test temperature was 20 ◦ C, and the frequency was fixed at
30 Hz. Figure 7c shows the continuous sine-shaped deformation in the four-point bending test when
the load frequency was 30 Hz and the deflection was 300 µm.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 9 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 9 of 16

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 7. (a) 4PB fatigue test system; (b) Schematic illustration of the 4PB Fatigue test beam set up
Figure 7. (a) 4PB fatigue test system; (b) Schematic illustration of the 4PB Fatigue test beam set up
(dimensions are given in mm) and (c) Continuous sine-shaped deformation in the four-point bending
(dimensions
fatigueare
test.given in mm) and (c) Continuous sine-shaped deformation in the four-point bending
fatigue test.
Since the load and displacement are continuously measured during the test, the parameters,
such as flexural stiffness (Smix), can easily be calculated. By shifting the stiffness versus loading
Since the load and displacement are continuously measured during the test, the parameters, such
frequency curves at a reference temperature using the Arrhenius equation [22], a master curve for the
as flexural stiffness
stiffness can be(S mix ), can easily
determined be calculated.
(Equation (7)). By shifting the stiffness versus loading frequency
curves at a reference temperature using the Arrhenius equation [22], a master curve for the stiffness
can be determined (Equation (7)). = 1− (7)
( f a2 )
re f
where: −[ ]
Smix = a0 1 − e a1 (7)
Smix = stiffness,
fref = reduced frequency (Hz) and
where: a 0, a1, a2 = material parameters.

The fatigue life is defined as the number of cycles where the stiffness is half of the initial value.
Smix = stiffness,
Fatigue relationships are described using Equation (8).
fref = reduced frequency (Hz) and
a0 , a1 , a2 = material parameters. = or = + (8)

The fatigue life is defined as the number of cycles where the stiffness is half of the initial value.
where:
Nf = number are
Fatigue relationships of constant strain
described applications
using Equationuntil(8).
the specimen reaches half of the initial stiffness,
ε = applied strain (µm/m) and
c & k = material parameters.
N f = cεk or logN f = logc + klogε (8)
2.5. Asphalt Mix Healing Programme
where:
In orderof
Nf = number to constant
investigatestrain
effect applications
of the fibres on the mechanical
until properties
the specimen reaches of half
the asphalt mix and
of the initial stiffness,
evaluate the healing efficiency of the compartmented fibres encapsulating the rejuvenator, a special
ε = applied strain (µm/m) and
testing programme was designed, including:
c & k = material parameters.
• two mixtures: control mix and mix containing fibres (5%),
2.5. Asphalt Mix Healing Programme
In order to investigate effect of the fibres on the mechanical properties of the asphalt mix and
evaluate the healing efficiency of the compartmented fibres encapsulating the rejuvenator, a special
testing programme was designed, including:
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 10 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 10 of 16

• two mixtures: control mix and mix containing fibres (5%),
•• following test methods: ITS, SCB, and 4PB Fatigue,
• test temperature
temperature of 20 ±
of 20 ◦ C,
± 33 °C,
•• temperature of
healing temperature of 20
20 ± ◦ C,
± 33 °C,
•• and 40
healing time of 20 h and 40 hh after
after the
the initial
initial test.
test.
For the
For the 4PB
4PB Fatigue
Fatigue test,
test, only
only aa single
single healing
healing stage
stage was
was performed.
performed.
A parallel testing programme was conducted on samples with
A parallel testing programme was conducted on samples with and
and without
without thethe healing
healing system,
system,
where the mixture without the healing system was used as a reference guide.
where the mixture without the healing system was used as a reference guide. In this way, one can In this way, one can
investigate whether the mix design is suitable for standard testing; for example, it
investigate whether the mix design is suitable for standard testing; for example, it is well-known, is well-known, via
via international standards, what the expected stiffness performance of a particular standard mix is.
international standards, what the expected stiffness performance of a particular standard mix is.
Three tests were used in the investigation, namely, ITS, SCB, and 4PB Fatigue
Three tests were used in the investigation, namely, ITS, SCB, and 4PB Fatigue test methods. test methods.
The purpose
The purpose of
of the
the ITS
ITS test
test was
was toto evaluate
evaluate the
the crack
crack healing
healing efficiency
efficiency and
and strength
strength recovery
recovery
through experimental
through experimental load-displacement
load-displacement histories.
histories. More
More specifically, the maximum
specifically, the maximum load load for
for all
all tests
tests
was determined and compared. In terms of the SCB tests, two parameters
was determined and compared. In terms of the SCB tests, two parameters for both mixtures werefor both mixtures were
monitored and
monitored and compared:
compared: the the crack
crack speed
speed and
and fracture
fracture toughness.
toughness. Finally, the healing
Finally, the healing efficiency was
efficiency was
also investigated
also investigated using
using 4PB
4PB Fatigue
Fatigue tests
tests via
via flexural
flexural strength
strength vs.
vs. number
number of of cycles
cycles histories.
histories. For
For all
all
test methods, special attention was given to the repeatability of the
test methods, special attention was given to the repeatability of the results. results.

3. Results

3.1. ITS Test

Test
Figure 8 shows the results from the ITS test. It can be seen that the mix containing fibres (5%)
underperformed in comparison
comparison to the control mix. Figure Figure 8b8b shows
shows that
that the fibre mix has a higher
variation
variation in test results
results in comparison
comparison to to the control
control mix
mix (Figure
(Figure 8a).
8a). This could be caused by random
fibre distribution throughout the compacted test specimen and also the possibility possibility that rejuvenator
was released from the fibre
fibre compartments
compartments during during the mixing, compaction, and test specimen cutting
procedure. Furthermore, the results presented in Figure 8c illustrate that the asphalt fibre mix had a
higher strength
strength recovery
recovery after
after the first
first healing stage, by recovering
recovering 59% of its initial strength, whereas
the control
control mix
mixrecovered
recoveredonlyonly36%36% of of
its its original
original strength.
strength. It outperforms
It also also outperforms the control
the control mix
mix where
where fibre ITS = 0.10 MPa and control mix ITS = 0.08 MPa. However, after the second
fibre ITS = 0.10 MPa and control mix ITS = 0.08 MPa. However, after the second healing stage, the healing stage,
the control
control mixmix outperforms
outperforms thethe fibre
fibre mix.
mix. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, a amix
mixlosing
losing64%
64%and
and70%
70%ofofits
its initial
initial strength
would be considered
considered as as one
one that
that had
had failed.
failed.

(a)

Figure 8. Cont.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 11 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 11 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 11 of 16

(b)

(b)

(c)
Figure 8. ITS PA healing test results, (a) control(c) mix-load vs. displacement; (b) fibre mix-load vs.
Figure 8. ITS PA healing test results, (a) control mix-load vs. displacement; (b) fibre mix-load vs.
displacement;
Figure 8. ITSand
PA (c) ITSmaxtest
healing for results,
both the(a)
control and
control fibre mixtures.
mix-load vs. displacement; (b) fibre mix-load vs.
displacement; and (c) ITSmax for both the control and fibre mixtures.
displacement; and (c) ITSmax for both the control and fibre mixtures.
3.2. SCB Test
3.2. SCB Test
3.2. SCB Test
The SCB test was specifically employed in order to study crack propagation and its closure
The SCB test was specifically employed in order to study crack propagation and its closure
TheinSCB
(healing) test wasmix.
an asphalt specifically
Figure 9employed
illustratesinsuccessful
order to study
crack crack propagation
closure (healing) inand
an its closure
asphalt test
(healing) in an asphalt mix. Figure 9 illustrates successful crack closure (healing) in an asphalt test
(healing) in an asphalt mix. Figure 9 illustrates successful crack closure (healing) in
specimen containing 5% compartmented alginate fibres encapsulating the rejuvenator after 20 han asphalt test
specimen containing 5% compartmented alginate fibres encapsulating the rejuvenator after 20 h
ofspecimen
healing. containing 5% compartmented alginate fibres encapsulating the rejuvenator after 20 h
ofof
healing.
healing.

Figure 9. SCB test specimen crack closure/healing.

Figure9.9.SCB
Figure SCB test
test specimen
specimen crack
crack closure/healing.
closure/healing.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 12 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 12 of 16

3.2.1. Crack Speed

3.2.1. Crack Speed
Figure 10 shows the crack propagation speed within the test sample at the initial test and after
Figure 10 shows the crack propagation speed within the test sample at the initial test and after
two healing
two healing stages.
stages.ItItisisclear
clearfrom
from the
the graph that the
graph that thefibre
fibremix
mixexperiences
experiences slower
slower crack
crack propagation.
propagation.
This could
This bebe
could due
duetotothe
thesoftened
softenedbinder
binder and reducedfracture
and reduced fractureenergy
energyavailable
availableforfor crack
crack propagation.
propagation.
This result illustrates the benefits of the compartmented fibre encapsulating a rejuvenator
This result illustrates the benefits of the compartmented fibre encapsulating a rejuvenator mix mix in terms
in
of terms
crack propagation,
of crack propagation, where the rejuvenation (softening) of aged binder can reduce the of
where the rejuvenation (softening) of aged binder can reduce the brittleness
thebrittleness
aged binder, thereby
of the reducing
aged binder, the energy
thereby available
reducing for crack
the energy propagation.
available for crack propagation.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Crack
Crack speed.
speed.

3.2.2. Fracture Toughness (KIc) and Fracture Energy (GIc)

3.2.2. Fracture Toughness (KIc ) and Fracture Energy (GIc )
Tables 2 and 3 summarise the fracture energy and fracture toughness results. The results confirm
Tables 2 and 3 summarise the fracture energy and fracture toughness results. The results confirm
that the asphalt mix containing fibre has a lower fracture toughness and energy, and thus a reduced
that the asphalt mix containing fibre has a lower fracture toughness and energy, and thus a reduced
crack velocity (Figure 10) in comparison to the control asphalt mix. However, a detailed statistical
crack velocity (Figure 10) in comparison to the control asphalt mix. However, a detailed statistical
analysis of these results shows significant variation between tests. The coefficient of variation ranges
analysis
from 25%of these
at theresults shows
initial test significant
to 97% variation
at the second between
test after 20 h tests. The for
of healing coefficient of variation
the control ranges
mix and from
from 25% at the initial test to 97% at the second test after 20 h of healing for the control mix
27% to 74% for the fibre mix under the same conditions. Therefore, it is questionable whether this test and from
27% to 74% for the fibre mix under the same conditions. Therefore, it
can be used to adequately analyse the healing efficiency of the asphalt mixtures.is questionable whether this test
can be used to adequately analyse the healing efficiency of the asphalt mixtures.
Table 2. Control Mix-Fracture Toughness and Fracture Energy results.
Table 2. Control Mix-Fracture Toughness and Fracture Energy results.
Fracture Toughness KIc (Pa·m1/2) Fracture Energy GIc (J/m)
Spec No. 1/2 )
·mTest Fracture Energy GIc (J/m)3rd Test
Spec No. 2nd Test KIc (Pa
Fracture Toughness
1st Test 3rd 1st Test 2nd Test
1 1st Test
6.37 2nd
2.80 Test 3rd
1.93Test 1st Test
431.19 2nd Test
167.80 3rd105.32
Test
2 1 10.28 6.37 8.87
2.80 4.29
1.93 1217.65
431.19 574.29
167.80 160.75
105.32
3 2 7.7510.28 -8.87 -
4.29 646.19
1217.65 574.29- 160.75 -
4 3 8.817.75 - - 1.96- 1114.53
646.19 -- 126.35
-
5 4 4.988.81 0.91- -
1.96 492.16
1114.53 113.21
- 126.35 -
6 5 10.55 4.98 4.09
0.91 2.00- 1804.93
492.16 440.80
113.21 105.39
-
7 6 11.0510.55 7.71
4.09 -
2.00 1591.86
1804.93 992.21
440.80 105.39 -
8 7 11.8611.05 2.39
7.71 2.33- 1127.41
1591.86 97.53
992.21 115.49
-
9 8 - 11.86 -2.39 -
2.33 -
1127.41 97.53- 115.49 -
10 9 11.58 - - - -- -
1369.73 -- - -
11 10 10.5611.58 - - -- 1369.73
1968.69 -- - -
12 11 7.6110.56 1.83- 2.64- 1968.69
707.56 -
80.75 -
205.55
Mean12 9.157.61 1.83
4.09 2.64
2.16 707.56
1133.81 80.75
352.37 205.55
116.98
Mean
Std. Dev 2.309.15 4.09
3.05 2.16
1.26 1133.81
523.95 352.37
340.70 116.98
62.99
Std.
Coef. Dev
Var. 0.252.30 3.05
0.75 1.26
0.58 523.95
0.46 340.70
0.97 62.99
0.54
Coef. Var. 0.25 0.75 0.58 0.46 0.97 0.54
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 13 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 13 of 16
Table 3. Fibre Mix-Fracture Toughness and Fracture Energy.

Fracture Toughness
Table 3. KIc (Pa·m1/2
Fibre Mix-Fracture )
Toughness Fracture
and Fracture Energy.Energy GIc (J/m)
Spec No.
1st Test 2nd Test 3rd Test 1st Test 2nd Test 3rd Test
1 10.24Fracture Toughness
- KIc (Pa·m - 1/2 ) 1030.88
Fracture Energy - GIc (J/m) -
Spec No.
2 6.571st Test 1.85
2nd Test 2.35
3rd Test 777.55
1st Test 92.39
2nd Test 117.92
3rd Test
3 - - - - - -
1 10.24 - - 1030.88 - -
4 5.27 1.98 2.16 556.49 117.08 169.39
2 6.57 1.85 2.35 777.55 92.39 117.92
5 5.09 1.11 2.29 546.55 34.71 223.51
3 - - - - - -
6 4 8.81 5.27 - 1.98 -
2.16 843.89
556.49 117.08 - 169.39 -
7 5 6.95 5.09 3.111.11 3.45
2.29 569.72
546.55 345.16
34.71 223.51318.46
8 6 5.90 8.81 - - - - 638.77
843.89 - - - -
9 7 6.13 6.95 3.503.11 1.16
3.45 582.55
569.72 237.07
345.16 318.46 70.25
10 8 4.79 5.90 1.99 - 1.68- 638.77
424.55 -
102.35 - 91.20
11 9 8.90 6.13 3.933.50 1.16
3.77 582.55
1039.87 237.07
409.72 70.25336.30
12 10 8.34 4.79 - 1.99 1.68
- 424.55
835.12 102.35 - 91.20 -
Mean 11 6.85 8.90 2.503.93 3.77
2.41 1039.87
700.20 409.72
191.21 336.30189.58
12 8.34 - - 835.12 - -
Std. Dev 1.81 1.03 0.92 205.56 142.13 107.04
Mean 6.85 2.50 2.41 700.20 191.21 189.58
Coef. Var. 0.26 0.41 0.38 0.29 0.74 0.56
Std. Dev 1.81 1.03 0.92 205.56 142.13 107.04
Coef. Var. 0.26 0.41 0.38 0.29 0.74 0.56
3.3. 4PB Test-Healing Efficiency
3.3. 4PB Test-Healing
Figure 11 showsEfficiency
the healing efficiency of the PA control mix and fibre mix flexural stiffness (Smix).
The results show a very close initial test performance (Figure 11a). However, Figure 11b shows a
Figure 11 shows the healing efficiency of the PA control mix and fibre mix flexural stiffness (Smix ).
higher stiffness recovery for the PA fibre mix after 20 h healing at 20 °C. These results demonstrate
The results show a very close initial test performance (Figure 11a). However, Figure 11b shows a higher
the potential benefits of the PA mix containing compartmented alginate fibres encapsulating the
stiffness recovery for the PA fibre mix after 20 h healing at 20 ◦ C. These results demonstrate the potential
rejuvenator.
benefits of the PA mix containing compartmented alginate fibres encapsulating the rejuvenator.

(a)

Figure 11. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 14 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 14 of 16

(b)
Figure 11. 4PBT results – healing efficiency of the fibre asphalt mix vs. control asphalt mix, (a) initial
Figure 11. 4PBT results – healing efficiency of the fibre asphalt mix vs. control asphalt mix, (a) initial
test results; (b) test results after 20 h healing at 20 °C.
test results; (b) test results after 20 h healing at 20 ◦ C.

4. Discussion & Conclusions

4. Discussion & Conclusions
The healing capacity of the compartmented alginate fibres encapsulating a rejuvenator as a self
The healing capacity of the compartmented alginate fibres encapsulating a rejuvenator as a self
healing system for Porous Asphalt (PA) mix was evaluated in this study, by comparing the
healing system for Porous Asphalt (PA) mix was evaluated in this study, by comparing the performance
performance of asphalt mixtures with and without healing systems. By carrying out the parallel tests
of asphalt mixtures with and without healing systems. By carrying out the parallel tests programme,
programme, the control mixture (without a healing system) can be used to ascertain whether the self
the control mixture (without a healing system) can be used to ascertain whether the self healing asphalt
healing asphalt mix design is suitable for standard testing. The test results can be compared to the
mix design is suitable for standard testing. The test results can be compared to the historical data sets
historical data sets of standard asphalt mixtures. The results further demonstrated the value of such
of standard asphalt mixtures. The results further demonstrated the value of such comparisons, as in
comparisons, as in some cases, mixtures without the healing system outperformed mixtures with the
some cases, mixtures without the healing system outperformed mixtures with the healing system.
healing system. This approach gives researchers the opportunity to further investigate and correct
This approach gives researchers the opportunity to further investigate and correct self healing system
self healing system design or asphalt pavement mix design.
design or asphalt pavement mix design.
The healing time adopted in this study was 20 h at 20 °C,◦ and this healing time was shown to be
The healing time adopted in this study was 20 h at 20 C, and this healing time was shown to
sufficient for this particular healing system, which employs a rejuvenator as the healing agent.
be sufficient for this particular healing system, which employs a rejuvenator as the healing agent.
However, the healing time can be reduced and the temperatures increased, but if the temperature is
However, the healing time can be reduced and the temperatures increased, but if the temperature
decreased, the healing time needs to be increased. This is due to the time that it takes for the
is decreased, the healing time needs to be increased. This is due to the time that it takes for the
rejuvenator to diffuse into the aged binder.
rejuvenator to diffuse into the aged binder.
The key aim of this study was to assess test methods for the evaluation of the asphalt healing
The key aim of this study was to assess test methods for the evaluation of the asphalt healing
performance. Specifically, the ITS, SCB, and 4PB test methods were used to evaluate the healing
performance. Specifically, the ITS, SCB, and 4PB test methods were used to evaluate the healing
performance of asphalt mixtures containing compartmented fibres as a self healing system. The
performance of asphalt mixtures containing compartmented fibres as a self healing system. The results
results from the ITS and SCB tests showed that the initial strength of the control mix is higher than
from the ITS and SCB tests showed that the initial strength of the control mix is higher than that of
that of the mixtures containing fibres. This was an unexpected result as research had previously
the mixtures containing fibres. This was an unexpected result as research had previously suggested
suggested that fibres can reinforce and strengthen asphalt mixtures [14,15]. It is believed that the
that fibres can reinforce and strengthen asphalt mixtures [14,15]. It is believed that the reduction in the
reduction in the material initial strength was caused by the test specimen machining process; during
material initial strength was caused by the test specimen machining process; during the test specimen
the test specimen production process, fibre compartments were damaged, which caused the release
production process, fibre compartments were damaged, which caused the release of the rejuvenator
of the rejuvenator and the premature triggering of the healing process, i.e., rejuvenation. In addition,
and the premature triggering of the healing process, i.e., rejuvenation. In addition, the results from
the results from the SCB test showed that the crack propagation speed for asphalt mixtures containing
the SCB test showed that the crack propagation speed for asphalt mixtures containing fibres is lower
fibres is lower than that for the control asphalt mix. This is due to aged binder rejuvenation, binder
than that for the control asphalt mix. This is due to aged binder rejuvenation, binder softening, caused
softening, caused by the release of the rejuvenator into the asphalt mix. In general, the observations
from the ITS and SCB tests demonstrated that full loading-full failure causes large deformations of
the test specimens, significantly deforming the shape of the test specimen. These deformations are
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 647 15 of 16

by the release of the rejuvenator into the asphalt mix. In general, the observations from the ITS and
SCB tests demonstrated that full loading-full failure causes large deformations of the test specimens,
significantly deforming the shape of the test specimen. These deformations are difficult to repair,
thus making test specimens unusable for repeated tests after healing and these tests unsuitable for an
evaluation of the asphalt healing.
On the other hand, the 4PB Fatigue test, as it is strain controlled (deflection controlled), controls
the damage to the test specimen and the minor damage caused presents as micro cracks, which are
common on-site. Therefore, the most suitable and convenient test method for the evaluation of the
self-healing asphalt mix performance is the 4PB Fatigue test method. The results from these tests
showed that the compartmented alginate fibres encapsulating a rejuvenator have a better stiffness
recovering ability in comparison to the control asphalt mix (without fibres). These results confirm
the potential of the compartmented alginate fibres encapsulating a rejuvenator as an asphalt healing
system. However, the development of the healing system is still in its infancy and requires further
development, such as: modifying the fibre composition in order to improve its mechanical and the
thermal strength of the fibres. The improvement of the compartmented alginate fibres mechanical and
thermal properties will be the focus of future research studies.

Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank: Bert Jan Lommerts and Irina Catiugă, Latexfalt, B.V. for the
support they provided to this project. The Authors would also like to thank Santiago Garzia from the Novel
Aerospace Materials group, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, for organising
the use of the fibre spining machine. This research was conducted under the Marie Curie IEF research funding,
research project Self-healing Asphalt for Road Pavements (SHARP), project number 622863.
Author Contributions: Amir Tabaković, is a lead researcher on the project (Self Healing Asphalt Pavements;
SHARP). Tabaković was responsible for every aspect of this work, this includes: work design, fibre production,
material mix design, material mixing, compaction, carrying out experimental work (all: ITS, SMB and 4PB test),
data collection and analysis and manuscript writing, coordinating submission and contact with the journal.
Luke Schuyffel, was researcher on the project. As part of his final year project he has carried out the ITS and
SCB test. His work included: fibre production, asphalt mix production, test specimen preparation (compaction
and cutting), carrying out the experimental testing ITS and SCB test analysis. Aleksandar Karač, assisted in
fracture (SCB) testing design and test results analysis. He was also involved in manuscript resubmission writing
and modification during the review process. Erik Schlangen, is PI of the project (Self Healing Asphalt for Road
Pavements—SHARP). He was involved from the outset in the project design, fibre and mix design, testing, test
data analysis, manuscript writing and in preparation of the responses to the reviewers comments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. This research was conducted under the EC
FP7 Marie Curie IEF research funding, research project Self-healing Asphalt for Road Pavements (SHARP),
project number 622863. The founding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses,
or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results.

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