Building from Tradition

Building from Tradition examines the recent resurgence of interest in the handmade building and the use
of local and renewable materials in contemporary construction. In the past, raw materials were shaped
to provide shelter and to accommodate the cultural, social, and economic needs of individuals and
communities. This is still true today as architects, engineers, and builders turn once again to local resources
and methods, not simply for constructing buildings, but also as a strategy for supporting social engagement,
sustainable development, and cultural continuity.

Building from Tradition features global case studies that allow readers to understand how building
practices—developed and refined by previous generations—continue to be adapted to suit a broad range
of cultural and environmental contexts. The book provides:

• a survey of historical and technical information about geologic and plant-based materials such as: stone,
earth, reed and grass, wood, and bamboo;
• 24 detailed case studies examining the disadvantages and benefits to using traditional materials and
methods and how they are currently being integrated with contemporary construction practices.

Elizabeth M. Golden is a registered architect in the United States and in Germany. She has contributed her
expertise to the design and construction of the Gohar Khatoon Girls’ School, the largest institution of its kind
in Afghanistan, and to Niamey 2000, an urban housing proposal for the rapidly expanding capital of Niger.
As an Assistant Professor in the Department of Architecture at the University of Washington, she teaches
courses focused on design, materials, and building technology, with an emphasis on sustainable systems.
She is also co-director of the Philippines Bamboo Workshop.
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
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 Building from Tradition
Local Materials and
Methods in Contemporary
Architecture

Elizabeth M. Golden
ROUTLEDGE

Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

First published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2018 Elizabeth M. Golden

The right of Elizabeth M. Golden to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any
electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record has been requested for this book

ISBN: 978-1-138-90991-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-90992-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-69370-5 (ebk)

Typeset in Helvetica Neue by

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Contents
Acknowledgements vi
Figure Credits vii
Introduction: Building from Tradition ...................... 1
Part I: Material Fundamentals
1 Geologic Materials ............................................ 7
Earth............................................................... 8
Stone............................................................ 16
2 Plant Materials ................................................ 27
Reeds and Grasses...................................... 28
Wood ............................................................ 35
Bamboo ....................................................... 44
Part II: Material Strategies
3 Bespoke to Standardized................................ 59
3.1 Onjuku Beach House ............................. 63
3.2 Hostal Ritoque ....................................... 69
3.3 Niamey 2000 .......................................... 75
3.4 Base Affordable Housing ....................... 81
3.5 ModCell Straw Technology .................... 86
3.6 Ricola Kräuterzentrum ........................... 91
4 Local Engagement .......................................... 97
4.1 Opera Village and Center for .............. 100
Health Care and Social Promotion
4.2 Dungga Daycare .................................. 106
4.3 Common Ground Neighborhood ......... 112
4.4 Women’s Opportunity Center .............. 117
4.5 Esperanza Series ................................. 122
4.6 Ma’anqiao Village Reconstruction ....... 127
5 Materials and Place....................................... 133
5.1 Tåkern Visitor Center ........................... 136
5.2 Al Jahili Fort ......................................... 142
5.3 Jianamani Visitor Center ...................... 147
5.4 Bry-sur-Marne Social Housing............. 153
5.5 Wind and Water Bar ............................. 159
5.6 Haus am Moor ..................................... 164
6 Primitive to Performative............................... 171
6.1 Kargyak Learning Center ..................... 174
6.2 Pani Community Center ....................... 179
6.3 Haus Rauch ......................................... 186
6.4 Aknaibich Preschool ............................ 191
6.5 Blooming Bamboo Home .................... 197
6.6 Thread Artist Residency and................ 203
Cultural Center
7 Reflections and Looking Ahead .................... 211
Index ....................................................................221
Acknowledgements
This book would not have been possible without the support of David Miller, chair of the Department of
Architecture at the University of Washington (2007–2015). He, in addition to my colleagues Ann Huppert and
Vikram Prakash, offered encouragement and guidance at critical moments during the development of this
project. Research for this project was made possible by a grant from the University of Washington Royalty
Research Fund.

Several individuals deserve special recognition for offering their expertise on materials and building
traditions. Thanks goes to Ray Villanueva, Rene Armogenia, and Herbie Teodoro for furthering my
understanding of bamboo construction, and to Kent Harries, for bringing me up to speed on bamboo and
the ISO standardization process. I also owe a great deal to Mariam Kamara for enhancing my knowledge
of compressed earth block construction, as well as earth architecture in Niger. Thanks to Li Peipei Sun
who assisted with translations and advanced my work through her graduate thesis project, which included
research on counter-urbanization and building traditions in China.

I am extremely appreciative of the cooperation, enthusiasm, and generosity of all participating firms and
organizations. I would like to specifically thank Till Gröner, Corrina Salzer, Christina Jentsch, Lutz Nadia,
Clemens Quirin, David Barragán, Jordan Mactavish, Alejandro Soffia, Bruce Engel, Finlay White, Alastair
Townsend, Li Wan, Sandy Bishop, Takashi Niwa, Gerrit Schilder Jr., Hill Scholte, who spent time answering
questions and reviewing case study drafts.

I must also thank Nancy Later for her editorial assistance and Jacqueline Golden for her copyediting and
encouragement. And finally, I am grateful to my husband Philip Straeter; his unwavering patience and
support allowed me to complete this book.

vi Acknowledgements
Figure Credits
1.1 Mud brick ice house in Iran. Source: © Adam Jones
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/)
1.2 Contemporary rammed earth house in Arizona, USA. Source: © David Quigley
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
1.3 Traditional mud brick house next to contemporary concrete home in Al Huwayah, Oman. Source:
© Bart Dooms
1.4 Agadez, Niger. Source: © Russell Scott
1.5 Rammed earth construction. Source: © Steve Hoge
1.6 Making mud bricks. Source: © Frank Stabel
1.7 Compacting earth with pneumatic backfill tamper. Source: © Markus Bühler-Rasom
1.8 Cob combined with light wood frame construction. Source: © Natural Building Extravaganza
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/)
1.9 Making compressed earth blocks. Source: © Gustave Deghilage
1.10 Massive dry stone wall at Machu Picchu, Peru. Source: © Jorge Láscar
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
1.11 “The Slave” by Michelangelo. Source: © Scala/Art Resource, NY
1.12 Granite cobble stones. Source: © Onnola (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/)
1.13 Limestone wall. Source: © Martin Thomas (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
1.14 Marble flooring. Source: © Xlibber (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
1.15 Irregular stone wall. Source: © Stefan David (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/)
1.16 Stratified wall. Source: © Edgar Pierce (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
1.17 Squared ashlar wall. Source: © SEIER+SEIER (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
1.18 Emplecton wall. Source: © Harvey Barrison (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/)
1.19 Corbeled roof. Credit: Maxim Matusevich
1.20 Massive stone exterior of the Druk White Lotus School. Credit: Eryn Gaul
1.21 Massive stone foundations of the Gohar Khatoon Girls’ School. Source: © Sahar, Credit: Airokhsh
Faiz Qaisary
2.1 Traditional Japanese minka house in Japan. Source: © Tanaka Juuyoh
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
2.2 Reed structure built by the Al Shakamra tribe in Al Kuthra, Iraq. Credit: 318th Psychological
Operations Company, US Army
2.3 Common reed. Source: © The New York State Integrated Pest Management Program at Cornell
University (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
2.4 Earth plaster with straw. Source: © Frank Stabel
2.5 Roof thatch installation. Source: © Bernard Marcia (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
2.6 Traditional thatched roof in Japan. Source: © Bryan (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/)
2.7 Straw bale house ca. 1926 in Nebraska, USA. Source: © Nebraska State Historical Society
2.8 Yusuhara Marche by Kengo Kuma & Associates. Source: © Takumi Ota Photography
2.9 Contemporary straw bale construction in Utah, USA. Source: © U.S. Department of Agriculture
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/2.0/)
2.10a Prefabricated CLT and straw elements for the Gateway Building. Source: © Make Architects
2.10b The Gateway Building at the University of Nottingham. Source: © Make Architects
2.11 Wood detailing of the Villa Sørensen by Arne Jacobsen. Source: © SEIER+SEIER
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
2.12 Wood under a microscope at 40x magnification. Source: © GorissenM
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/)
2.13 Log cabin in Kansas, USA. Source: © Luke Lienau (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
2.14 German Fachwerkhaus. Source: © Michael Pollak (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)

Figure Credits vii

 2.15a Mortise and tenon joint. Source: © Peter Alfred Hess (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
2.15b Half-lap joint. Source: © Peter Alfred Hess (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
2.16 Cross-laminated timber blocks. Source: © Oregon Department of Forestry
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
2.17 Haus Walpen, modified log construction. Source: © Lucia Degonda
2.18 Bamboo bridge in Vietnam. Source: © Vincent Hudry
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/)
2.19 Bamboo clump. Source: © Quinn Dombrowski (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/)
2.20 Bolo or Filipino bamboo knife. Credit: Elizabeth M. Golden
2.21 Bamboo shingles. Credit: Elizabeth M. Golden
2.22 Flattening bamboo culms. Credit: Elizabeth M. Golden
2.23 A contemporary bahay kubo before pegging and lashing. Credit: Kejia Zhang
2.24 Bamboo floor. Source: © Marlon E (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/)
2.25 Fish mouth joint. Credit: Buddy Burkhalter
2.26 Bahareque construction. Source: © José Antonio Rivas Ramírez
2.27 Laminated bamboo. Credit: Elizabeth M. Golden
2.28 Bamboo roof structure in vacation house by Mañosa & Company. Credit: Elizabeth M. Golden
3.1 Prefabricated rammed earth panels at the Ricola Kräuterzentrum. Source: © Markus Bühler-Rasom
3.1.1 Onjuku Beach House exterior view. Source: © BAKOKO
3.1.2 CNC precut timber members. Source: © BAKOKO
3.1.3 Structural framing plan. Source: © BAKOKO
3.1.4 Timber frame assembly. Source: © BAKOKO
3.1.5 Main floor plan. Source: © BAKOKO
3.1.6 Living room. Source: © BAKOKO
3.2.1 View of Hostal Ritoque from south. Source: © Pablo Casals-Aguirre
3.2.2 Site plan. Source: © Gabriel Rudolphy + Alejandro Soffia Arquitectos
3.2.3 Exterior view. Source: © Juan Durán Sierralta
3.2.4 Plans and axonometric drawings of communal living spaces. Source: © Gabriel Rudolphy +
Alejandro Soffia Arquitectos
3.2.5 Wood framing. Source: © Gabriel Rudolphy + Alejandro Soffia Arquitectos
3.2.6 View from guesthouse. Source: © Pablo Casals-Aguirre
3.3.1 Niamey 2000 from southwest. Source: © united4design, credit Torsten Seidel
3.3.2 Ground-floor plan and longitudinal section. Source: © united4design
3.3.3 Compressed earth block construction. Source: © united4design, credit Mariam Kamara
3.3.4 Southeast corner from street. Source: © united4design, credit Torsten Seidel
3.3.5 Earth masonry vaults. Source: © united4design, credit Torsten Seidel
3.4.1 Two-story duplex in Iloilo City. Source: © Base
3.4.2 Cement bamboo frame construction. Source: © Base
3.4.3 Prefabricated bamboo elements after installation. Source: © Base
3.4.4 Home interior. Source: © Base
3.5.1 Panel assembly. Source: © ModCell
3.5.2 BaleHaus. Source: © ModCell
3.5.3 LILAC cohousing. Source: © ModCell
3.5.4 Section showing ModCell units clad with brick. Source: © ModCell
3.5.5 Shirehampton homes. Source: © ModCell
3.6.1 Ricola Kräuterzentrum from southwest. Source: © Markus Bühler-Rasom
3.6.2 Ground-floor plan and longitudinal section. Source: © Herzog & de Meuron
3.6.3a Prefabricated rammed earth panels. Source: © Markus Bühler-Rasom
3.6.3b Panel installation. Source: © Markus Bühler-Rasom
3.6.3c Filling and tamping seams between panels. Source: © Markus Bühler-Rasom
3.6.3d Earth render application on interior. Source: © Markus Bühler-Rasom
4.1 Members of the Women’s Opportunity Center construction team. Source: © Sharon Davis Design
4.1.1 Bird’s eye view of future Opera Village. Source: © Kéré Architecture

viii Figure Credits

4.1.2 Center for Health Care and Social Promotion from northwest. Source: © Erik-Jan Ouwerkerk
4.1.3 Ground-floor plan. Source: © Kéré Architecture
4.1.4 Building section. Source: © Kéré Architecture
4.1.5 Exterior wall section. Source: © Kéré Architecture
4.1.6 Interior courtyard. Source: © Kéré Architecture
4.1.7 Members of the construction team. Source: © Grünhelme, credit Till Gröner
4.2.1 Students constructing the daycare roof. Source: © Estudio Damgo, credit Ray Villanueva
4.2.2 Dungga Daycare from northwest. Source: © Estudio Damgo, credit Ray Villanueva
4.2.3 West elevation. Source: © Estudio Damgo, credit Ray Villanueva
4.2.4 Floor plan and transverse section. Source: © Estudio Damgo
4.2.5 Daycare interior. Source: © Estudio Damgo, credit Ray Villanueva
4.3.1 Common Ground Neighborhood. Source: © Mithun
4.3.2 One- and two-bedroom flex units. Source: © Mithun
4.3.3 Energy systems. Source: © Mithun
4.3.4 Straw bale construction crew. Source: © Mithun
4.3.5 Straw bale wall foundation. Source: © Mithun
4.3.6 Straw bale plaster finish. Source: © Mithun
4.4.1 Demonstration farm at Women’s Opportunity Center. Source: © Elizabeth Felicella
4.4.2 Site plan. Source: © Sharon Davis Design
4.4.3 Brick production. Source: © Sharon Davis Design
4.4.4 Brick form. Source: © Sharon Davis Design
4.4.5 Brick kiln. Source: © Sharon Davis Design
4.4.6 Coursing plans. Source: © Sharon Davis Design
4.4.7 Classroom interior. Source: © Elizabeth Felicella
4.5.1 Esperanza Dos. Source: © Al Borde, credit Andrea Vargas
4.5.2 Diagrams of structural system. Source: © Al Borde
4.5.3 Tripod construction. Source: © Al Borde
4.5.4 Interior of Esperanza Dos. Source: © Al Borde, credit Andrea Vargas
4.5.5 Community workshop. Source: © Al Borde
4.6.1 Ma’anqiao after 2011 earthquake. Credit: Jun Mu
4.6.2 Ma’anqiao after reconstruction. Credit: Li Wan
4.6.3 Constructing the house prototype. Credit: Jun Mu
4.6.4 House improvements. Credit: Li Wan
4.6.5 Reconstructed homes. Credit: Jun Mu
4.6.6 Ma’anqiao village center. Credit: Jun Mu
5.1 Cutting wood for Haus am Moor in Vorarlberg, Austria. Source: © Bernardo Bader Architekten
5.1.1 Visitor center on Lake Tåkern. Source: © Christian Badenfelt
5.1.2 Main entry. Source: © Åke E:son Lindman
5.1.3 Exhibit space. Source: © Åke E:son Lindman
5.1.4 Floor plan. Source: © Wingårdh Arkitektkontor
5.1.5 Thatch façade of visitor center. Source: © Åke E:son Lindman
5.1.6 Section detail. Source: © Wingårdh Arkitektkontor
5.1.7 Thatch installation. Source: © Wingårdh Arkitektkontor
5.2.1 Al Jahili Fort courtyard. Source: © Torsten Seidel
5.2.2 Site Plan. Source: © Roswag & Jankowski Architekten
5.2.3 Reinstallation of timber beams. Source: © Roswag & Jankowski Architekten
5.2.4 Base layer application of clay plaster. Source: © Roswag & Jankowski Architekten
5.2.5 Environmental systems diagram. Source: © Roswag & Jankowski Architekten
5.2.6 Cooling system installation. Source: © Roswag & Jankowski Architekten
5.2.7 Café and arcade. Source: © Roswag & Jankowski Architekten
5.3.1 Visitor center exterior. Source: © Atelier TeamMinus
5.3.2 Diagram of significant sites surrounding the Jianamani Visitor Center. Source: © Atelier TeamMinus
5.3.3 Mani stones. Source: © Ken Marshall (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)

Figure Credits ix
 5.3.4 Ground-floor plan. Source: © Atelier TeamMinus
5.3.5 Stone masonry. Source: © Atelier TeamMinus
5.3.6 Viewing platform. Source: © Atelier TeamMinus
5.4.1 Courtyard elevation. Source: © Sergio Grazia
5.4.2 Main floor plans and longitudinal section. Source: © Eliet & Lehmann Architectes
5.4.3 East elevation. Source: © Sergio Grazia
5.4.4 Noyant quarry. Source: © Pierre-Yves Brunaud
5.4.5 Section and elevation detail. Source: © Eliet & Lehmann Architectes
5.4.6 Cut stone. Source: © Pierre-Yves Brunaud
5.4.7 Stone assembly. Source: © Pierre-Yves Brunaud
5.5.1 Wind and Water Bar exterior. Source: © Hiroyuki Oki
5.5.2 Plan and section. Source: © Vo Trong Nghia Architects
5.5.3 Bamboo framing. Source: © Hiroyuki Oki
5.5.4 Roof structure. Source: © Vo Trong Nghia Architects
5.5.5 Foundation connection. Source: © Vo Trong Nghia Architects
5.5.6 Bar interior. Source: © Phan Quang
5.6.1 Haus am Moor east elevation. Source: © Adolf Bereuter
5.6.2 Plans and transverse section. Source: © Bernardo Bader Architekten
5.6.3 Panel installation. Source: © Bernardo Bader Architekten
5.6.4 Studio interior. Source: © Adolf Bereuter
5.6.5 Foundation excavation. Source: © Bernardo Bader Architekten
5.6.6 Heating system installation. Source: © Bernardo Bader Architekten
6.1 Earthquake-resistant construction at the Aknaibich Preschool. Source: © Frank Stabel
6.1.1 View of learning center and Kargyak village. Source: © arch i platform
6.1.2 Collecting stones. Source: © arch i platform
6.1.3 Exterior of Kargyak Learning Center. Source: © arch i platform
6.1.4 Construction site. Source: © arch i platform
6.1.5 Diagram of wall construction. Source: © arch i platform
6.1.6 Diagram of wall heat capture system. Source: © arch i platform
6.1.7 Diagram under-floor heating system. Source: © arch i platform
6.1.8 Floor plan. Source: © arch i platform
6.2.1 Northwest corner Pani Community Center. Source: © SchilderScholte Architects
6.2.2 Plaza. Source: © SchilderScholte Architects
6.2.3 Classroom south elevation. Source: © SchilderScholte Architects
6.2.4 Ground-floor plan and longitudinal sections. Source: © SchilderScholte Architects
6.2.5 Bamboo column details. Source: © SchilderScholte Architects
6.2.6 Work area. Source: © SchilderScholte Architects
6.2.7 Brick pier construction. Source: © SchilderScholte Architects
6.2.8 Classroom interior. Source: © SchilderScholte Architects
6.3.1 Haus Rauch west elevation. Source: © Beat Bühler
6.3.2 Rammed earth with tile inserts. Source: © Beat Bühler
6.3.3 Wall construction. Source: © Lehm Ton Erde Baukunst
6.3.4 Longitudinal section. Source: © Roger Boltshauser
6.3.5 Exterior wall detail. Source: © Roger Boltshauser
6.3.6 Heating system installation. Source: © Lehm Ton Erde Baukunst
6.3.7 Reed insulation installation. Source: © Lehm Ton Erde Baukunst
6.3.8 Interior walls finished with clay plaster. Source: © Beat Bühler
6.4.1 Aknaibich Preschool west elevation. Source: © Frank Stabel
6.4.2 Plan and transverse section. Source: © BC architects + MAMOTH
6.4.3 Classroom north elevation. Source: © Frank Stabel
6.4.4 Classroom interior. Source: © Frank Stabel
6.4.5 Detail of reinforced masonry piers. Source: © BC architects + MAMOTH
6.4.6 Classroom construction. Source: © Thomas Joos

x Figure Credits
6.4.7 Cork roof insulation. Source: © Frank Stabel
6.5.1 Blooming Bamboo Home exterior. Source: © H&P Architects
6.5.2 Floor plan and section. Source: © H&P Architects
6.5.3 Lower level living space. Source: © H&P Architects
6.5.4 Upper level living space. Source: © H&P Architects
6.5.5 Assembly diagram. Source: © H&P Architects
6.5.6 Exterior façade. Source: © H&P Architects
6.6.1 Thread from southeast. Source: © Iwan Baan
6.6.2 Thatched roof. Source: © Iwan Baan
6.6.3 Floor plan. Source: © Toshiko Mori Architect
6.6.4 Gathering space. Source: © Iwan Baan
6.6.5 Materials and water diagrams. Source: © Toshiko Mori Architect
6.6.6 Bamboo roof structure. Source: © Toshiko Mori Architect
6.6.7 Binding grass. Source: © Toshiko Mori Architect
6.6.8 Roof thatching. Source: © Toshiko Mori Architect
7.1 Agriculture Pavilion and Crafts Workshop in Pingtian, China. Source: © DnA Design and Architecture
7.2 Abandoned village of Dushang, Guangdong Province, China. Source: © Yu Wu
7.3 Pingtian Agriculture Pavilion and Crafts Workshop exterior. Source: © DnA Design and Architecture
7.4 Exhibit space. Source: © DnA Design and Architecture
7.5 Dandaji Mosque. Credit: Mariam Kamara
7.6 Axon of Dandaji Library. Source: © Yasaman Esmaili and Mariam Kamara
7.7 Interior of library. Source: © Yasaman Esmaili and Mariam Kamara

Figure Credits xi
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
Introduction:
Building from Tradition
Over the course of the last decade there has been
a resurgence of interest in the handmade building,
as well as in the use of local and renewable
materials in building construction. This has come
at a time when concerns about the environment
and economic development are at an all-time high.
These volatile circumstances have either provoked
or encouraged some individuals to consider
methods of construction that are more responsive
to local conditions. In the past, raw materials were
shaped to provide shelter and to accommodate
the cultural, social, and economic needs of
individuals and communities. This is still true today
as architects, engineers, and builders turn once
again to local resources and methods, not simply
for constructing buildings, but also as a strategy
for supporting social engagement, sustainable
development, and cultural continuity. Building from
Tradition closely examines how building practices—
developed and refined by previous generations—
continue to be adapted to suit a broad range of
cultural and environmental contexts.
The relationship between materials and humans
began with the first attempts to build shelter.
Materials employed in construction rarely remained
in their ‘natural’ or raw state, and were transformed
from the moment they were exposed or extracted.
To understand the nature of a material meant to
work with it directly, and working with accessible
resources led to an understanding of their limits
and capabilities. As architectural historian and
theorist David Leatherbarrow notes, “No stone is
known in construction that is not first ‘grasped’
manually. Knowledge of the nature of materials,
on which selection depends, is a matter of manual
or at least bodily comprehension.”1 Materials
originated from direct methods of production—
worked by hand or formed using simple mechanical
equipment. This immediacy fostered a dynamic
exchange between materiality and people, each
influencing the other.
Building materials were the product of human
work, their ‘evolution’ occurring through manual
processes and the material itself acting as the
medium through which accumulated knowledge
was passed from one generation to the next.
Materials were selected not only for their functional
properties but also for their social, symbolic, and
ritual value. It is this process of discovery and
identification, when repeated over successive
generations, that can be identified as tradition.
Tradition is often understood as something that
is passed down through action, and in this case
specifically, through the act of building. Methods
and techniques were disseminated globally over
thousands of years; knowledge was transferred
via diverse routes and adapted according to the
regional climate and resources. Local identities and
building practices emerged out of this constantly
changing process.
Today, the builder’s immediate relationship
to the site and building process has given way
to construction systems dependent upon global
supply chain logistics and economies. Beginning
with the Industrial Revolution, building construction
has been radically transformed and traditional
methods have been superseded by construction
systems reliant on manufactured materials such
as steel and glass. After World War II, the use
of industrialized materials grew dramatically. In
the United States, for example, almost half of
the materials consumed in 1900 were based on
renewable resources such as wood and other
plant-based materials: by 1990, the consumption of
these resources declined to less than 8 percent.2
The shift from traditional to modern methods
has not occurred in all places equally, nor has it
transpired all at once. The reliance on large-scale
manufacturing and distribution—now the norm
in industrialized countries—has been periodically
challenged by (perceived and real) material
scarcity, causing brief returns to older, more direct
methods of construction. Such a revival of low-
tech practices occurred in the German Democratic
Republic during the Cold War period, when the
lack of resources and growing demand for housing
prompted the government to implement a large-
scale program reliant on earth-based construction.3
Introduction: Building from Tradition 1
The US government sponsored a similar program
during the Great Depression. In these instances,
economic necessity warranted an occasional
departure from industrialized systems. In so-
called developing nations, this is often still the
case; individuals with limited financial means build
with what is close at hand, rather than relying on
expensive materials imported from other areas.
Resources such as earth and bamboo are still
commonly used for construction in many parts
of the world, and yet these materials are often
labeled as ‘alternative’ and regarded as inferior to
industrially produced concrete or steel systems.
In the US and Europe, trade organizations and
producers of manufactured building components
promote the use of their products and support
new materials research and testing. With the
exception of wood, few traditional materials have
been developed and marketed in this way, mostly
because their composition and execution introduce
numerous variables that have not, until recently,
been well understood by the construction industry.
As a result, the predictability of these materials
hardly improved before the 1990s, and traditional
construction methods remained relatively
unaffected by modern advances in building
technology.
Current concerns about climate change
and a greater demand for healthier buildings
have fostered an interest in the use of minimally
processed and transported construction materials.
Consequently, some traditional materials have
experienced a modest resurgence since the
mid-1990s. More than a romantic revival of
anachronistic practices, recent developments
have focused on enhancing material performance
by contemporary means. Research and testing,
in addition to collaborative on-site training, are
providing a greater understanding of materials
whose properties have previously been difficult to
quantify. Studies focused on improving material
performance have been carried out with the intent
to develop and promote sustainable construction
practices. The German government, for example,
has funded research focused on establishing
guidelines for certain types of earthen construction;
consequentially, that material has obtained a higher
level of performance over the past two decades
than in the last thousand years.
Traditional materials offer several significant
advantages over contemporary building products.
Their production is often achieved through simple
processes, requiring minimal (or no) power,
2 Introduction: Building from Tradition
making them very attractive in countries where
energy costs are high. In addition, the materials
are commonly biocompatible—that is, non-toxic
and easily cycled between economic and natural
systems.4 Most are either renewable or derived
from resources so ubiquitous that their supply is
considered virtually inexhaustible. The application
of traditional materials in building construction
often relies on low-tech methods using manual
labor, reducing reliance on expensive power tools
and equipment.
In addition to having a low impact on the
environment, many of the materials can be
designed to fulfill multiple functions within a
building, reducing the number of discrete elements
typically required in a conventional construction
assembly. For example, straw shaped into bales
performs thermally as well as structurally, providing
a high degree of insulation. Similarly, heavy earth
masonry or rammed earth walls can function
simultaneously as structure and as temperature-
regulating thermal mass.
The multifunctionality of various traditional
materials often simplifies construction, making
it easier for non-experts to understand and
actually take part in the building process. Thus,
community participation frequently plays a key
role in projects incorporating traditional materials.
These efforts act as social and economic
catalysts, challenging accepted modes of spatial
production by disengaging from global markets
and connecting instead to local resource systems.
This is an important aspect for a number of
architects working in locations such as China and
India, where engaging tradition and local culture
through ‘old’ construction practices has become a
potential strategy for countering the uniformity of
contemporary development. Traditional materials in
these scenarios offer possibilities that conventional
ones cannot: materials originating in the
surrounding landscape create strong ties with the
local geography and culture, and their immediacy
provides valuable opportunities for engagement
and experimentation.
Although traditional materials may offer many
advantages, their potential is often limited by a
contemporary set of complex circumstances—
building regulations, environmental factors, and a
lack of skilled labor, to name but a few. As a result,
the materials are frequently modified, or combined
with industrial products, to make them more
suitable for current applications. In some instances
such adaptations might standardize material
behavior or improve certain physical properties,
such as moisture resistance, as is the case when
cement is added to rammed earth or when bamboo
undergoes lamination. However, the imposition
of modern technologies and processes can also
eliminate important attributes and characteristics.
The most compelling integration of ‘old’ and ‘new’
technologies occurs when a material’s inherent
properties are well understood and fully utilized
from a technical as a well as cultural standpoint.
Combining traditional and contemporary
methods is not new. Even Le Corbusier, one
of the most prominent figures of the modern
movement in architecture, experimented with
hybrid construction techniques that integrated
industrial with non-industrial materials such as
straw and earth. In Towards a New Architecture
of 1923, Le Corbusier argues “natural materials,
which are innately variable in composition, must be
replaced by fixed ones.”5 The architect fluctuated,
however, between a desire for the predictability
offered by standardization and mass production
and an enthusiasm for natural, locally sourced
materials.6 Evidence of this vacillation can be seen
at the Weißenhofsiedlung in Stuttgart, where Le
Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret used reeds as
permanent formwork for constructing the insulated
concrete slabs of Houses 14 and 15 (1927).7 The
architects also experimented with lightweight,
natural materials as a means of enclosure for steel
and reinforced concrete structures. Compressed
straw and cement rendered panels were installed
over the concrete framework of the Pavillon de
l’Esprit Nouveau (constructed in 1925) and were
also intended for use in covering the steel structure
of the Maison Sec (proposed 1929).
Le Corbusier’s earlier use of traditional
materials occurred mostly in response to economic
constraints: he disguised the qualities of the
natural materials by covering them with cement
plaster, thus limiting their role in shaping the
buildings spatially. Later, Le Corbusier combined
traditional and contemporary technologies in
more obvious ways, in his design for the Maison
de Weekend in La Celle-Saint-Cloud (1934) and
in his proposal for refugee housing, Maisons
Murondins (1940). Both projects demonstrate a
more conscientious use of local materials and
manual craft, with natural materials taking on a
deeper significance. Architectural historian Mary
McLeod attributes Le Corbusier’s shift in sensibility
to his disenchantment with both government and
industry after the stock market crash of 1929: “Just
as the rational, geometric forms of the twenties
were a manifestation of his faith in technology and
American systems of Scientific Management, the
rustic, more primitive works of the thirties were
a rejection of the supremacy of this selfsame
viewpoint.”8
In Maisons Murondins, Le Corbusier specified
pisé, or rammed earth, not only for its economy and
proficiency in regulating temperature but also for
its potential to relate the buildings to the landscape
and to the earth. Of this Le Corbusier writes, “Life
in these pisé buildings can have great dignity
and regain for man in the machine age a sense of
fundamental human and natural resources.”9 Le
Corbusier’s reasons for incorporating traditional
materials into his buildings were pragmatic, and
yet their inclusion also portrays a desire to evoke
symbolic connections to culture and place.10
Le Corbusier’s hybrid approach, combining the
‘variable’ with the ‘fixed,’ is an important precursor
to much of the work discussed in this book,
highlighting as it does some of the motivations that
inspire contemporary architects and designers to
use these same materials in their own projects.
This book serves a dual purpose. As a
materials reference book, it provides essential
information about the history, properties, and
traditional applications of common plant-based
and geological materials. This can be found in
Part I, Material Fundamentals. The second, and
arguably more central, intention of this volume is
to offer a critical analysis of traditional building
practices today. Part II, Material Strategies, serves
this purpose by examining the materials and
methods through the lens of the contemporary
conditions driving their development in recent
years. Diverse economic, social, environmental,
and cultural conditions (and often a combination
of these) have compelled architects, engineers,
and other professionals to return once again to
older, more direct forms of construction. It is clear,
however, that no place or practice has remained
‘pure’ or can be disentangled from external forces.
Each case study in the Material Strategies part
represents a particular intersection between what
could be identified as ‘tradition’ and outside
influences attributed to globalization.
Tradition and contemporary development
need not be seen as diametrically opposed
to one another. In the past, tradition has often
been perceived as a foil to the modern and used
to frame and define ‘the other’—that is, the
undeveloped, the rural, and at times, the non-
Introduction: Building from Tradition 3
Western. In this light, tradition was viewed as
conservative, backward-looking, and fixed in place
and time, its perceived rootedness and immutability
offering a means for preserving the ‘authentic’
in a changing, modern world. When examining a
majority of the projects featured in this book, the
(re)introduction of traditional building practices
does not necessarily insure their absolute
authenticity or continuity with the past. Instead,
tradition is liminal—continually calibrating to a set
of rapidly changing circumstances and values.
From this perspective, it is useful to reevaluate
the original meaning of the word tradition:
actions related to communication or knowledge
transmission. In the transfer of ideas from one
place to another, from one individual to the next,
changes were inevitable and processes were
modified along the way.
Even though the ‘traditional’ in most of the case
studies has been introduced through a synthetic
process, the projects facilitated communication
and knowledge transfer—among individuals and
between people and matter. In all cases, something
new emerged from this dialog, which defies
classification as either traditional or contemporary.
Perhaps these examples present a way forward for
traditional materials and methods, or conversely,
stand to critique their position within a globalized
society. Regardless of the outcome, it is clear that
the speed of their evolution is accelerating. Newer
technologies have been integrated with traditional
applications to form hybrid systems able to fulfill
the contemporary requirements of efficiency
and stability. Whether or not these ‘traditional
transformations’ will be accepted and adopted for
the long term still remains to be seen, but what is
certain is that they are progressive, forward looking,
and worthy of our study.
4 Introduction: Building from Tradition
Notes
1 David Leatherbarrow, The Roots of
Architectural Invention: Site, Enclosure,
Materials (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1993), 159.
2 Kenneth Geiser, Materials Matter: Toward a
Sustainable Materials Policy (Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press, 2001), 259.
3 Ulrich Röhlen and Christof Ziegert, Lehmbau-
Praxis, Planung und Ausführung (Berlin:
Bauwerk Verlag GmbH, 2010), 190–191.
4 Geiser, Materials Matter, 4.
5 Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture
(1931: rpt. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2009), 232.
6 Flora Samuel, Le Corbusier in Detail
(Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Architectural Press,
2007), 19–20.
7 Heinz Rasch and Bodo Rasch, Wie Bauen?
Materialien und Konstruktionen für industrielle
Produktion (Stuttgart: Akademischer Verlag Dr.
Fritz Wedekind & Co., 1928), 175.
8 Mary McLeod, “‘Architecture or Revolution’:
Taylorism, Technocracy, and Social Change,”
Art Journal 43, no. 2 (July 1983): 143.
9 Le Corbusier, Oeuvre Complete 1946–1952,
ed. Willy Boesiger (Zurich: Editions Girsberger,
1955), 27.
10 Samuel, Le Corbusier in Detail, 32.
PART 1
MATERIAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Part I serves as an introduction to the most
significant mineral and plant-based resources
traditionally used for construction. Earth and
stone are featured in Chapter 1, and Chapter 2
covers reeds and grasses, wood, and bamboo.
Both chapters provide an overview of the history,
properties, and recent production methods of each
material, which is intended to enhance the reader’s
understanding of the case studies featured in Part II
of this book.
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
 1
Geologic Materials

1.1 Mud brick ice house in Iran.


Earth
Earth is an essential resource: the Urstoff,
or primary matter, of human existence. In all
probability, it has been endowed with more cultural
significance than any other material. As the ground
under our feet, it connects us with place and
to geologic time. As soil, it hosts plant life and
provides nourishment. In some cultures, it is even
considered to be alive, instilled with the presence
of deities or linked to biological processes, such
as aging. It has often been used as a metaphor for
new beginnings: a pure and shapeless substance
ready to be molded into new forms.1
Earth’s cultural meanings are also varied.
Earth has paradoxically been deemed sacred and
profane, precious and common, valuable and
worthless. Although it is at times associated with
luxury and health, earth is frequently denigrated
as a material to be used by only the poorest
members of society. The stigmatization of earth
has led to a decline in its acceptance as a building
material, and its unreliable and ‘dirty’ image
seemingly contradicts its previous significance as a
solid and desirable medium for building permanent
shelter.
1.2 Contemporary rammed earth house in Arizona, USA.
8 Material Fundamentals
Soil, when mixed with water, was a
‘transformative technology’ during the Neolithic
period. This newfound material formed the basis
for sedentary living, and its malleable qualities
allowed for easy transformation—a process that
quite literally reshaped the landscape into some
of civilization’s earliest permanent dwellings. Soil
also determined the location of domesticated
crops, and the material was fashioned into vessels
for carrying water to the fields as well as to the
building site. Soil was an important resource that
changed the way people lived and interacted with
their environment; as archeologist Nicole Boivin
observes, “humans shaped soil, so it likely shaped
them and their world.”2 Easily adapted to the
needs of its occupants, the basic earthen dwelling
persisted and multiplied to form larger communities
and, for many civilizations, these eventually
expanded to become some of the first significant
urban settlements.
Often these ancient cities were constructed
from unfired mud bricks. According to archeological
records, the earliest use of the material was in the
walls of Jericho. There, mud bricks formed round
houses dating from around 8000 BCE.3 Mud bricks
also contributed to the growth and evolution of
the ancient city of Mehrgarh in Pakistan, where
1.3 Traditional mud brick house next to contemporary concrete home in Al Huwayah, Oman.
evidence suggests they were in use as early as
7000 BCE.4 Visible examples of earthen urbanism
still survive—a testament to the material’s longevity.
The Ziggurat of Ur, which stands in present-day
Iraq, is constructed from mud bricks and is a
remnant of the Mesopotamian city founded in
4000 BCE. In Peru, adobe walls that formed the
foundations of Chan Chan, a pre-Columbian city that
flourished between 850 and 1470 CE, cover an area
of approximately 6 square kilometers. The city of
Agadez in Niger became an important trading center
on the edge of the Sahara during the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries and many of its banco or mud
brick buildings from this time are still in use today.
Chan Chan, Ur, and Agadez demonstrate the global
relevance and ubiquity of earthen construction for
numerous societies across many eras.
Composition and properties
The product of erosion, soil is composed of rock
that has been gradually worn down by physical,
biological, and chemical processes. The type of
‘parent’ rock and the method by which it has been
eroded gives soil its inherent characteristics. These
inherent properties influence how soil, transformed
into a building material, performs when used in
construction.
Feldspar erosion and the decomposition of
other silicate containing minerals form the base
material for clay. Despite their microscopic size
(0.0001–0.004 millimeters), these particles and
their associated binding properties are of central
importance to the builder. Clay molecules consist
of hexagonal layered sheets (lamellae) that are
bound up into packets. An electrostatic charge
occurring between the outer layers of these
packets is primarily responsible for the cohesive
capacity of the material, making clay very different
from cement and other substances that depend
on a chemical reaction to activate their binding
properties. Clay’s binding properties are activated
by water. The material swells as moisture is
absorbed between the lamellae and shrinks as
moisture evaporates.
Geologic Materials 9
1.4 Agadez, Niger.
Soil used for construction is a mixture of clay,
silt, and sand; sometimes it also contains small
stones. Clay acts as the binder, while silt, sand, and
stones are aggregates, which give the mixture its
compressive strength. Each type of construction,
be it mud brick or rammed earth, relies on varying
percentages of these ingredients. Compaction is
the most common method used to improve the
compressive strength of the material. Beating or
ramming moist soil causes the particles to vibrate,
allowing them to settle into a more ordered,
compact structure. Compaction is integral to
rammed earth construction, which involves filling
formwork with successive layers of loose soil and
pounding them until they solidify. The outcome is a
dense, monolithic material that is particularly well
suited for exterior loadbearing walls.
One drawback of earthen walls is that they are
not water resistant, making them susceptible to
damage from moisture and frost. Because of this,
most structures constructed from earth are typically
plastered or protected by a wide roof overhang, in
addition to being raised off the ground on a damp-
proof foundation. Earth’s thermal storage capacity,
however, is significant and has been exploited for
10 Material Fundamentals
centuries. Massive earthen construction provides a
buffer against outdoor temperature fluctuations; its
capacity to absorb, store, and radiate heat allows
it to temper the indoor ambient environment. Earth
walls keep rooms cool in summer and warm in
winter. They can also maintain comfortable indoor
humidity levels. The clay minerals present in the
material are hygroscopic, absorbing and releasing
moisture as it fluctuates with internal activities
and external weather conditions. The moisture
absorbed can also enhance the material’s heat
storage capacity.
Traditional methods
Earth construction technology advanced at
different rates and at different times, and the
selection of earth as a building material can be
attributed to particular climate variations and
the availability of certain resources. Earth-based
construction was most prevalent in areas where
other resources were scarce, and practices were
adjusted to respond to diverse weather conditions
and the availability of water. Water is essential
for the production of mud bricks, just as rainless
periods are necessary for drying the material.
1.5 Rammed earth construction.
Both of these factors limit where bricks can be
produced, making this technique more common
to river deltas in arid regions. Rammed earth
construction, by contrast, depends on damp soil
excavated straight from the ground and typically
requires little or no additional water. This technique
was not limited by humid weather conditions, and
can therefore be found across a wider range of
climatic and geographic zones.
When used as a building material, earth presents
several challenges. Mud tends to crack when
drying, and the spanning capacity of the material
is limited due to its low tensile strength. While the
plasticity of the material can be useful, it can also
slow construction. To overcome these deficiencies,
builders often added other locally available
materials to either strengthen or work in tandem
with earth. In order to prevent cracking, straw was
frequently incorporated as reinforcement, and
certain substances, such as plant extracts, naturally
occurring bitumen, lime, and animal blood, were all
found to improve the durability and water resistance
of earth construction. Roofs and wall openings were
spanned with wood or bamboo elements, when
available, and in cases where these resources
were scarce, earth masonry vaults and arches
were formed as an alternative. To systematize
and streamline earthen construction, builders also
employed other materials as formwork. Forms for
making bricks, typically made either from wood
or bundled reeds, required a minimal amount of
material. More substantial formwork was necessary
for rammed earth construction, necessitating
greater quantities of wood.
Archeological evidence confirms that almost
every type of soil has been used for building.
Some soils, however, proved more suitable for
construction than others. These were either
sourced directly or combined with other soils to
achieve desirable characteristics for building. As
with concrete, soil used for construction combines
aggregate of various sizes (gravel, sand, and
silt) with a binder (clay). The proportion of these
elements varies widely, but too much or too little of
one or the other directly affects the quality of the
final structure. A high percentage of sand yields
Geologic Materials 11
1.6 Making mud bricks.
strong but erosion-prone walls, whereas a large
proportion of clay results in a weaker but more
water-resistant structure.5 Although early builders
most likely did not have a full understanding of
the mechanical properties associated with these
proportions, they were still able to determine a
soil’s suitability for building by utilizing simple
evaluation techniques. One such method involved
dropping a ball of damp, compacted soil onto the
ground from waist height. If the ball shattered,
the material in question did not contain enough
clay. If it flattened into a disk, more sand needed
to be added to the mix. The builder knew the soil
was ideal if the ball held its form after hitting the
ground. Ultimately, these rudimentary field tests
were augmented by experience and observation
to become the traditional methods relied upon
for predicting a soil’s long-term durability and
performance as a building material.
Recent developments
Today engineers study soil composition at the
microscopic level, and it is at this scale that the
12 Material Fundamentals
material’s constituent particles and properties are
best understood. Our improved ability to accurately
determine the specific amount, type, and binding
capacity of clay has contributed to the overall
advancement of earth construction technology.
Laboratory testing assures the predictability of
material behavior, and this understanding has
formed the basis for modern standardization. The
most comprehensive set of regulations for earth
construction established to date are the Lehmbau
Regeln, which were developed in Germany and
adopted in 1998. These codes are based on
established norms for testing—both in the field and
in the laboratory—that assess the binding strength,
plasticity, and mineral composition of soil and
ultimately determine whether or not the material is
suitable for construction.6
Worth noting is that the addition of cement,
considered by some experts as essential to
modern earth construction, is not mentioned in
the Lehmbau Regeln. This omission points to
divergent views regarding appropriate methods
for soil stabilization. The modification of soil
properties—often through the addition of chemical
binding agents—is frequently used to stabilize the
material; that is, to improve its strength, durability,
and resistance to moisture. Portland cement, non-
hydraulic lime, and emulsified asphalt are the most
commonly used inorganic binders in contemporary
earth construction. Earth building codes in several
countries, including the United States and New
Zealand, require cement stabilization. The German
code, however, is based on a different set of
criteria. Earth used for construction is subjected
to a careful process of analysis and selection in
order to take advantage of the material’s inherent
mechanical properties. In most cases, the addition
of a chemical binding agent is only necessary
when the material will be directly exposed to
water, the structure is located in a seismic
zone, or if the design calls for a thin wall profile.
Cement stabilization comes with disadvantages.
Stabilized buildings cannot be easily demolished
and recycled, and the cost is often prohibitive.
Additionally, the mining of raw materials for
cement and the intense energy demands required
for its production negatively impact the natural
environment. By focusing technical expertise on
avoiding the need for stabilization, the German
code works to minimize the impact of earth-based
construction on the environment.
To the growing body of knowledge about soil’s
strength and durability, engineers have added
information regarding other properties. Until
recently, only steady-state heat gain/loss models
were used to measure the thermal resistance/
conductivity of earthen construction, for example.
Contrary to popular belief, research now shows
that earth walls are not highly insulative on their
own, and the U- or R-value does not adequately
describe the thermal behavior of the material. More
complex models have now been developed that
consider the material’s hygrothermal properties,
measuring the absorption, storage, and release of
both heat and moisture.7 Studies have also shown
that earth’s sorbtive properties can have a positive
effect on indoor air quality, by not only drawing
in excess humidity but also by absorbing odors
and pollutants.8 These qualities make earth-based
materials very attractive in regions where indoor
air quality has suffered as energy codes mandate
increasingly impermeable building envelopes.
In recent years research has also revealed that
combining the thermal storage capacity of earth
with radiant hydronic systems can provide a very
effective means of heating and cooling.9 For Haus
Rauch [6.3] in Austria, for example, hot water
from the solar collector on the roof is gravity-fed
through tubes installed on the interior face of the
home’s rammed earth walls, which are covered
with a layer of earth plaster. The walls retain and
gradually radiate the warmth over time; heat stored
in the rammed earth floor and oven augment
this system. Roswag & Jankowski Architekten
proposed a similar system for the restoration of
the Jahili Fort in Al Ain [5.2]. While earthen walls
some 90 centimeters thick protect the fort, their
mass alone cannot keep the interior spaces cool
in the scorching heat of the Arabian Peninsula,
which sometimes reaches temperatures of 50
degrees Celsius. After careful restoration of the
walls, a hydronic cooling system was installed
and covered with reconstituted plaster made from
existing materials from the building. In addition,
an earth-to-air heat exchanger uses the constant
temperature of the ground to pre-cool outside air,
which is then tempered and delivered to the interior
spaces. In the Rauch House and the Jahili Fort,
earth’s thermal storage capacity works together
with mechanical systems to create a comfortable
environment in two very different climates.
As the properties of earth have become more
widely understood and exploited in contemporary
construction, progress has also been made
to overcome the material’s weaknesses and
to improve the efficiency of production and
construction. Many of these developments
address issues particular to specific earth
building techniques. Three of these techniques
are described here and their advances are
summarized.
Rammed earth: In the process of creating rammed
earth buildings, a section of formwork is erected
and filled with soil, which is then compacted by
hand in successive layers to form a solid wall. After
the wall is complete, the formwork is moved, and
the process repeated to construct another section
of the structure. Traditionally, compaction, together
with the binding action of the clay minerals present
in the material, provided necessary stabilization,
but as described previously, cement has been
added in modern times to increase rammed earth’s
durability and strength. More recently, the addition
of concrete elements such as ring beams and
lintels has also expanded the material’s structural
capacity.
Efforts to meet contemporary standards
without the use of cement have also gained
Geologic Materials 13
1.7 Compacting earth with pneumatic backfill tamper.

momentum through the addition other materials. Each layer is beaten to compact the material
Engineers have discovered that geotextiles and then trimmed into shape with the edge of a
embedded during construction provide additional spade. Since cob construction does not utilize
strength and help to prevent cracking. Natural formwork and requires very simple tools, it could
fiber additives such as flax have also been used to be considered a very primitive construction method
increase durability.10 by today’s standards, but its low-tech aspects
In addition, several advances have improved
and accelerated the process of rammed earth
construction. Pneumatic backfill tampers have
replaced hand tampers, machinery now delivers
material to the formwork, and the formwork itself
has been modified to allow for larger areas to be
built concurrently. There are also a few but growing
number of cases where prefabrication has been
used to simplify and expedite the process of
rammed earth construction [3.6].

Cob: The simplest form of earth construction,

cob, is one of the most ubiquitous in the world.
The term cob is said to stem from the Old English
word for lump or loaf, the primary unit of this
technique. In cob building, a mixture of damp 1.8 Cob combined with light wood frame
soil and straw is piled up in layers to form a wall. construction.

14 Material Fundamentals
1.9 Making compressed earth blocks.
make it appealing, especially for do-it-yourself
homebuilders. It is easily combined with wood
frame construction, and the addition of features
such as vapor retarders and insulation have
improved the overall durability and performance of
contemporary cob buildings.
Unfired earth masonry: Mud brick, or adobe, was
traditionally formed by hand or with a frame made
from natural materials. The soil typically contained
more clay than that used in rammed earth or cob
construction, and straw or grass was often added
to prevent cracking. After the bricks are dried, they
were laid to form a wall using mortar of roughly the
same composition as the bricks.
The contemporary version of mud bricks—
unfired earth masonry—can take several forms.
In some industrialized countries, such as the
United Kingdom and Germany, the material is
mass-produced; standardization has increased
its reliability and consistency.11 Another modern
descendant of mud brick is the compressed earth
block (CEB). Modern CEB was developed in the
1950s to address the lack of predictability and
durability of mud brick construction, which requires
many modifications to withstand moisture and
conform to contemporary seismic codes.12 CEBs
are made by combining soil with cement (typically
4 percent to 8 percent); the mixture is then
compressed with a manual or mechanical hydraulic
press to form a solid block, which can withstand
moisture better than a typical mud brick without
render.
Other significant developments include
manufactured building products made of earth.
Geologic Materials 15
Wallboard made from a mixture of clay, reeds, and
jute fiber has been on the market in Germany for
several years. These boards offer the indoor climate
regulating benefits of massive earth construction
but can be used in contemporary wood- or steel-
framed systems. Some manufacturers offer boards
with integrated tubes for radiant heating, and a
few offer products featuring voids that permit
warm air to flow through the material. As the
demand for sustainable building materials grows in
industrialized countries, more earth-based products
will no doubt come on the market.
Testing and standardization mark the new
era of earth construction. Mass production
techniques and modern distribution networks
raise the possibility of a shift away from local
sourcing and construction to global production
and use. Future developments will partly
depend on how successfully manufacturers can
standardize and commodify a material that was
once—and in some places is still—stigmatized
as unreliable and relatively worthless. Mass-
produced elements such as compressed earth
1.10 Massive dry stone wall at Machu Picchu, Peru.
16 Material Fundamentals
blocks and prefabricated panels have introduced
predictability and efficiency, but it remains to
be seen if the process of industrialization will
completely transform earth’s identity from a
handcrafted material to a conventional building
product.
Stone
Stones are evidence of geological time. They
have seemingly always been in existence and will
endure long after our lifetime. Massive stone, once
valued for its permanence and stability, served
as a primary building material for many cultures.
Using stone for construction required a great
deal of physical labor, either for gathering loose
rocks or for cutting and lifting blocks free from the
ground; transporting the material also demanded
considerable effort and expense. Over time, more
efficient processing methods were developed,
and less material was required for construction.
Dimensionally accurate ashlar masonry replaced
rough-hewn walls, and with the rise of concrete
and steel frame construction in the nineteenth
century, stone was redefined as a decorative
veneer. Today, stone continues to be a popular
option for cladding, and has almost entirely lost its
value as a loadbearing material.
Some archeologists view early stone tool
technology not only as evidence of human
development but also as a major evolutionary
catalyst. Hominoids shaped stone, and the
material, in turn, gradually influenced anatomical
and genetic adaptations.13 For many cultures, the
boundary between human and stone was a liminal
one; aborigines, for example, considered stone
to be deposits of blood, or the internal organs left
by ancestral beings.14 According to Chinese oral
tradition, stone was alive and bestowed with qi,
a life force emanating from the earth.15 The belief
that stone was host to ‘living’ entities has been
continually reinforced throughout the centuries—
from Classical antiquity to the modern era—leading
sculptors to work, in one way or another, to liberate
the human figure hidden within the solidified
material.
Beyond these metaphysical forces, the
material’s fundamental mechanical properties,
such as strength and durability, have made it useful
for many practical applications. Early civilizations 1.11 “The Slave” by Michelangelo.
employed stones for marking significant locations
on the landscape, such as places of worship and
graves. The earliest known freestanding stone took the form of large pyramids. Tombs especially
structure of this kind, Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, were regarded as places of transformation for the
dates from around 9000 BCE. Excavations king, marking the location where he would leave
have unearthed several ringed clusters of large, the physical world of the living and ascend into
monolithic slabs of limestone built over an area the afterlife. The immutability of stone became an
of about 90,000 square meters. Archeologists are important part of this process as it assured the
fairly certain the stone circles marked burial sites king’s immortality.17
and that their placement could have only been Stone gained even greater significance as
achieved by a massive, organized effort, requiring a tool for marking territory during the Roman
cooperation between hundreds of people.16 Such Empire, when the permanence and durability
large-scale infrastructure projects stimulated local of the material propelled numerous important
development by marshaling human labor and developments. In order to delineate landownership,
physical resources. the Romans constructed stone walls—fragments
The same is true of the pyramids built by of which can still be found along the empire’s
thousands of workers in Egypt’s Nile Delta. most distant boundaries, in Germany and Great
The Pyramid of King Djoser, built during his Britain. They also created an extensive system of
reign between 2630 and 2611 BCE, marked an paved stone roads to facilitate the movement of
important shift away from the use of mud brick armies and flow of goods. With roads came the
to stone construction. After this monument was necessity of measuring distance, and the Roman
erected, locally sourced limestone and granite milestone system—a series of stone obelisks,
became the preferred materials for important called milliaria, placed at fixed increments—came
structures such as temples and tombs, which often into being. Probably the most enduring example

Geologic Materials 17
of the empire’s stone-cutting expertise, however,
is its massive aqueducts, many of which remain
in use today. As with earlier civilizations, here
stone-cutting technology, when combined with
social organization, gave rise to large-scale
infrastructure.18
Classification and architectural uses
Stone has a high compressive strength but is about
ten to thirty times weaker in tension.19 The strength
and workability of a particular stone is determined
by several factors including its hardness, grain
type, and porosity—all of which are the outcome
of specific geological processes. Rocks are
classified according to the geological forces that
formed them. They fall into three categories:
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Through
trial and error, specific types of stone from each
group have been found to be suitable for particular
architectural applications.
Igneous rock: Igneous begins as molten magma
deep below the earth’s surface. As the silicate
mixture rises and cools, it crystallizes to form a
solid material. The predominant characteristics of
igneous rock are determined both by the depth at
which the magma forms and the time it takes to
cool. Magma that solidifies deep below the earth’s
surface over a long period of time (millions of years)
is called plutonic or intrusive igneous. This slow
process of solidification results in a coarse-grained
crystalline structure, which can be observed in
granite. Extrusive igneous is the result of volcanic
eruptions. It is formed by lava that collects on
or close to the earth’s upper mantel. Extrusive
igneous cools more quickly, resulting in a fine-
grained, glassy structure.
Granite is generally the most typical type of
igneous rock used in architectural applications,
due to its durability and wide availability. It has
commonly been employed both as ashlar masonry
and as a covering in areas subject to high use or
weathering. Other varieties of intrusive igneous
rocks include diorite and gabbro. Igneous rocks of
the extrusive kind, including basalt and porphyry,
were traditionally used for flooring and pavers as
well as carved decorations.
Sedimentary rock: An accumulation of mineral
particles that have been released into the
environment through the actions of water, wind, or
erosion caused by weathering, forms the basis of
sedimentary rocks. These sediments are deposited
18 Material Fundamentals
in layers, and over time they become ‘cemented’
together to form solid stone. Sedimentary rocks
are further classified by their mineral composition
and method of formation. The most ubiquitous
sedimentary rock, sandstone, is composed
of quartz or feldspar minerals that are bound
together by calcium carbonate, iron oxides, or
silica. Sandstone is durable and frost resistant,
and is often used for ashlar masonry. Its low
resistance to abrasion makes it ideal for sculpted
elements. Limestone was also traditionally used for
ashlar masonry but is now more commonly used
as façade cladding. It is composed of calcium
carbonate resulting from the accumulation of shells
and other skeletal fragments of marine organisms.
Limestone is incorporated into construction in
another significant way; it is the main ingredient in
lime-based cement and mortar.
Metamorphic rock: Sedimentary or igneous rocks
that have undergone an additional transformation
caused either by physical or chemical processes
are classified as metamorphic. Increased
temperature, pressure, or tectonic movements
work over millions of years to transform the rock
by altering its structure; during this process,
recrystallization and new minerals can also
form. Slate is a metamorphic rock formed from
sedimentary shale. It has long been used as
a durable roofing material. Marble is another
commonly used metamorphic stone. It is
composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals
(limestone) formed under intense pressure and
heat. Marble is often selected for its decorative
patterning or color, for use as both an interior finish
and exterior cladding.
Traditional methods
Initially, builders collected loose stones from rocky
outcroppings or riverbanks for use in construction.
In the Bronze Age, around 3000 BCE, they
introduced metal tools for stone extraction. During
the erection of the pyramids in Egypt, even more
sophisticated methods for cutting and excavating
appeared. Wooden wedges were driven into
bedrock, soaked with water, and allowed to swell,
causing the stone to fracture into smaller pieces.
Laborers then cut these pieces into blocks using
handsaws and chisels.
Many of the same quarries used by the
Egyptians were later exploited by the Romans,
who absorbed them into a large network extending
throughout the empire, all the way to Germany.
1.12 Granite cobble stones.
1.14 Marble flooring.
Roman builders used saws, drills, and other tools
that were impregnated with diamonds to cut stone
and they also perfected methods for quarrying,
lifting, and transporting large blocks of the
material.20 With the fall of the empire around 400
CE, many of these techniques vanished for several
centuries. Diamond stone-cutting technology
was later rediscovered during the mid-1800s
by Swiss watchmaker George August Leschot,
who subsequently developed and patented the
antecedent of the modern-day diamond-tipped
punch rotary drill.21
1.13 Limestone wall.
Stone masonry can either be laid dry, without
mortar, or wet, using mortar made of earth,
sand and lime, or cement. Dry stone masonry
was traditionally used to construct a variety of
structures, including dwellings, storage buildings,
bridges, retaining walls, and fences. Large-scale
use of the technique can also be observed in the
sacred structures of the Incas, which were built
from massive stones, precisely hewn and tightly
fitted to form mortarless walls. Dry construction
allows for expansion and contraction of the
material, and the stones can easily be reused
after the structure reaches the end of its useful
life. When constructing a wall without mortar, the
stonemason must rely on the weight of the stones
and the friction between them to stabilize the
structure. The skilled mason positions stones to lie
as flat as possible within the wall, leaving few gaps
in between. A final, ‘capstone’ layer is often added
to the top of the wall, which bonds and protects the
structure below.
Stonemasons relied most frequently on wet
construction, and early examples built using this
method exist on every continent.22 Using mortar
brings advantages: filling the void between stones
allows walls to become thinner and structures
to become watertight. Builders employed mud
and clay as the earliest binding agents for both
mud brick and stone construction. Workers
used gypsum mortar to hold stone in place while
building the pyramids. Later, during the Roman
Empire, lime became the most commonly used
ingredient for making mortar. Workers produced
lime by burning limestone (calcium carbonate) in a
kiln at high temperatures to convert it to quicklime.
Geologic Materials 19
They then added water and sand to produce a
workable mortar. Lime-based mortars were found
to be very compatible with stone masonry because
they remained pliable over long periods, allowing
the structure to shift and move over time. The use
of lime mortar fell out of favor at the end of the
eighteenth century, with the introduction of cement-
based materials.
Stone walls can be constructed by several
different methods. The type, shape, size, and
quantity of the stone, as well as the tools employed
to work the material, determine the wall’s form.
Stone laying patterns commonly used in traditional
buildings include the following:
Irregular stone walls: Walls made of randomly
shaped, minimally dressed (worked) stone; often
sourced near the construction site. Stones must be
carefully selected and laid to fit precisely, to insure
the stability of the structure. The term ‘cyclopean’
is sometimes used to describe irregular walls made
of unusually large stones.
Emplecton or filled: Walls clad on the exterior
surfaces with valuable stone and filled on the
interior with rubble or earth. Emplecton walls
can be built using both wet and dry masonry
construction methods. The technique allows for the
very efficient use of scarce or valuable resources
(as cladding) without compromising the thickness
and stability of the structure.23
Traditionally, openings in walls were achieved
by using arches or stone lintels. Spanning
between walls to create a roof was most often
accomplished with a hybrid structure of wood
beams covered with stone tiles. Roofs using
only stone and no mortar were constructed by
corbeling, a technique of staggering successive
layers of stone until the sides of the structure
converge at the top, thus creating a conical or
domed form.

Rough-hewn or stratified walls: Walls made of

stones that are shaped to form roughly rectangular
or block-shaped units. The stones are often
irregular in size but are laid to form relatively
consistent horizontal joints. Vertical joints are
staggered to insure structural stability.

Opus quadratum or squared ashlar: Walls made

of stones, often sourced from quarries, that have
been precisely hewn into orthogonally shaped
blocks. Cutting stone with greater precision allows
the material to be used more efficiently. It also 1.16 Stratified wall.
simplifies the construction process and improves
the overall stability of the structure.

1.15 Irregular stone wall. 1.17 Squared ashlar wall.

20 Material Fundamentals
 Recent developments
Many of the operations for extracting stone have
been mechanized, but the fundamental principles
have not varied much since Roman times. To
remove dimensional sections of stone from the
quarry wall, workers use diamond wire cables and
drills. Deep holes are bored vertically into bedrock
at intervals, and a horizontal cut is made at the
base of the section with a large saw on rails. A steel
cable is then guided into the holes and drawn out
through the horizontal slot at the base of the block.
The section is cut from the face of the deposit
by mechanically drawing the cable through the
stone. With the help of hydraulic jacks, workers
maneuver the block onto a pile of earth and
gravel, which helps to cushion the fall. The stone
is then progressively cut into smaller blocks using
diamond wire saws or drills.
Contemporary stone extraction and production
has grown into a global industry, with Europe
and Asia emerging as its largest producers.
1.18 Emplecton wall. Importing low-cost stone from China has become
commonplace in many countries, especially the

1.19 Corbeled roof.

Geologic Materials 21
1.20 Massive stone exterior of the Druk White Lotus School.
United States.24 Although most natural stone is
used today as a thin veneer, the desire to present
the material in its original form continues unabated.
The archetype of the rough-hewn stone house
persists, regularly appearing in architecture
and design magazines and online. Society still
gravitates toward the image of permanence
and honesty that these structures represent.
Behind every rocky edifice, however, is a core of
loadbearing concrete, reflecting the contemporary
separation between material representation and
performance. The practice of covering coarse, less
valuable, or less durable materials with a layer of
stone is not new; it can be traced back as far as
the Egyptian pyramids. But in most contemporary
construction, stone cladding is redundant and
almost unnecessary, even as a protective layer.
In industrialized countries, stone is rarely used
structurally (except in the cases of building
renovation) and is most often employed as floor
coverings and façades.
22 Material Fundamentals
Stone is still used for loadbearing construction
in some parts of the world, however; mostly where
strong masonry traditions have endured. As in
the past, necessity drives demand, and in many
regions, local stone is often the only viable option
available for building. It was necessity that drove
Arup, the architects of the Druk White Lotus School
in Ladakh, to use local stone for constructing the
walls of its building. Most structures in this area
of India are built with mud brick, a material that
does not always perform well in the harsh climate
of the Himalayas. The stone foundations of local
monasteries provide an important exception. The
architects opted to combine materials, constructing
an inner layer of mud brick for insulation and outer
layer of stone for protection. The super-insulated
walls form a protective enclosure that regulates
indoor temperatures and resists seismic forces.
Stone can also replace more costly,
manufactured products or reduce the amount
required for building. In Afghanistan, reconstruction
1.21 Massive stone foundations of the Gohar Khatoon Girls’ School.
has dramatically increased the demand for
cement, but supply remains inconsistent; both
inclement weather and conflict on the border
influence the material’s availability and price. As a
result, cyclopean masonry is sometimes used to
replace certain components in reinforced concrete
buildings, such as foundations and infill walls.25
This can be seen in the Gohar Khatoon Girls’
School, where large stones form portions of the
building’s footings.
Monolithic stone construction has seen a
modest revival in France, where a simple wine
cellar in Vauvert, designed by Gilles Perraudin
in 1998, altered the way many French architects
viewed the material and encouraged its use for
constructing several other wineries. Stone’s low
embodied energy complements the shift toward
more sustainable winemaking, and also eliminates
the need for mechanical cooling by insuring
even storage temperatures throughout the year.
In addition, building with solid stone provides a
chemical-free environment for aging, and this in
turn has a positive influence on a wine’s taste.
Perraudin Architectes have since specified
massive stone for several projects, and their work
has inspired other architects in the region to use
the material in a wide range of building types,
from schools to housing to hospitals. Massive
stone construction can be more cost-effective in
some areas of France, where quarries are located
close to the construction site—in some cases,
even proving to be less expensive than reinforced
concrete. This led architects Denis Eliet and
Laurent Lehmann to consider monolithic stone as
a viable option for social housing in Bry-sur-Marne
[5.4].
Advances in monolithic stone construction
have come in the area of thermal performance.
Solid stone masonry already performs several
functions—enclosure, structure, and environmental
control—but in some applications, it is necessary
to include insulation and heating elements, which
often add an additional layer to the assembly.
The French stone quarrying and cutting company
Occitanie Pierres has recently developed two
masonry systems that accommodate these layers.
Geologic Materials 23
The solid ashlars of the Thermo Pierre are hollowed
out and fitted with cork insulation, whereas the
interlocking stone blocks of the Alveo Pierre (now
patented and on the market) are incised with a
honeycomb structure that allows for a seamless
integration with hydronic heating systems.26 In
both cases the thermal properties of stone are
augmented without compromising the structural
integrity of the material.
Monolithic construction not only capitalizes
on the aesthetics of stone, it also utilizes the full
structural, economic, and environmental potential
of the material. This method will likely continue
in regions where stone quarries are still active
and stonemasons persist in practicing their craft.
Its future is limited, but interesting nonetheless.
The use of stone veneer, on the other hand, has
achieved global proportions due to our enhanced
ability to transport the material. Stone veneer is
omnipresent in almost every major city around the
globe. And yet each piece of stone is still unique—
signs of the geological processes that once formed
it are still apparent if one looks closely enough.
Despite being highly processed and far removed
from its origins, stone continues to be valued as a
natural material.
Notes
1 Monica Wagner, Das Material der Kunst: Eine
andere Geschichte der Moderne (Munich:
C. H. Beck, 2001), 111.
2 Nicole Boivin, Material Cultures, Material
Minds: The Impact of Things on Human
Thought, Society, and Evolution (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2008), 6.
3 George R. H. Wright, Ancient Building in South
Syria and Palestine (Boston, MA: E. J. Brill,
1985), 351.
4 Peter Bellwood, The Global Prehistory of
Human Migration (Chichester: Wiley Blackwell,
2014), 246.
5 Paul Graham McHenry Jr., Adobe and
Rammed Earth Buildings: Design and
Construction (New York: Wiley, 1984), 48–51.
6 Dachverband Lehm e.V., Lehmbau Regeln:
Begriffe, Baustoffe, Bauteile (Wiesbaden:
Vieweg+Teubner, 2009).
24 Material Fundamentals
7 Hygrothermal refers to the movement of heat
and moisture through a material.
8 Sorption is the process through which one
substance takes up or holds another; Wulf
Eckermann, Ulrich Röhlen, Helmuth Venzmer,
and Christoph Ziegert, Zum Einfluss von
Lehmbaustoffen auf die Raumluftfeuchte
(Berlin: Beuth Verlag, 2008), 3.
9 Hydronic systems are used to heat or cool
buildings by circulating liquid through radiators
or radiant tubing installed into walls, floors,
and ceilings.
10 Ulrich Röhlen and Christoph Ziegert,
Lehmbau-Praxis: Planung und Ausführung
(Berlin: Bauwerk, 2010), 166.
11 Tom Morton, Earth Masonry: Design and
Guidelines (Bracknell, Berks: Information
Handling Services Building Research
Establishment Press, 2008).
12 The French architect François Cointeraux
(1740–1830) developed an early form of
compressed earth masonry, which was based
on the traditional French method of rammed
earth construction called pisé de terre. Bricks
produced with Cointeraux’s method relied on
naturally occurring clay for stabilization. For
more information see Paula Young Lee, “Pisé
and the Peasantry: François Cointeraux and
the Rhetoric of Rural Housing in Revolutionary
Paris,” Journal of the Society of Architectural
Historians 67, no. 1 (March 2008): 58.
13 Boivin, Material Cultures, Material Minds,
190–196.
14 Adam Brumm, “An Axe to Grind: Symbolic
Considerations of Stone Axe Use in Ancient
Australia,” in Soils, Stones and Symbols:
Cultural Perceptions of the Mineral World, ed.
Nicole Boivin and Mary Ann Owoc (London:
UCL, 2004), 147.
15 Carolyn Dean, A Culture of Stone: Inka
Perspectives on Rock (Durham, NC: Duke
University Press, 2007), 7.
16 Mark Jarzombek, Architecture of First
Societies: A Global Perspective (Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley, 2013), 258.
17 Mark Lehner, The Complete Pyramids (London:
Thames and Hudson, 1997), 35.
18 Stiftung Umwelteinsatz Schweiz,
Trockenmauern: Grundlagen, Bauanleitung,
Bedeutung (Bern: Haupt Verlag, 2014), 69.
19 Siegfried Siegesmund and Rolf Snethlage,
eds., introduction to Stone in Architecture:
Properties, Durability (Berlin: Springer,
2011), 3.
20 Norman Davey, A History of Building Materials
(London: Phoenix House, 1961), 15–16.
21 Ibid., 59.
22 Marcel Vellinga, Paul Oliver, and Alexander
Bridge, Atlas of Vernacular Architecture of the
World (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2007),
48–49.
23 Alfonso Acocella, Stone Architecture: Ancient
and Modern Construction Skills (Lucca, Italy:
Lucense, 2006), 69.
24 Siegfried Siegesmund and Ákos Török,
“Building Stones,” in Stone in Architecture, ed.
Siegesmund and Snethlage, 11.
25 Cyclopean masonry traditionally relied on
extremely large stones laid without mortar.
More contemporary versions of this practice
use cement mortar.
26 J. L. Bertrand, Procédé de fabrication d’un
bloc de construction isolant alvéolé en pierre
naturelle ou reconstituée, bloc realise et mur
realise avec un tel bloc. French Republic
Patent 1301912, filed August 11, 2013, and
issued February 12, 2015.

Geologic Materials 25
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
 2
Plant Materials

2.1 Traditional Japanese minka house in Japan.


Reeds and Grasses
Our current understanding of building materials
as durable or resistant is challenged by the
ephemeral nature of plants. Relying on reeds or
grasses for contemporary construction would,
at first glance, seem to be a backward-looking
experiment doomed to failure. Plant fibers are
fragile, susceptible to decay, and weak, especially
when used on their own. And yet for some cultures,
their use, as historian Kenneth Frampton reminds
us, embodies the “cyclical renewal of the eternal
present.”1 Just as plants persist through seasonal
cycles of growth and decomposition, structures
made from reeds and grasses have achieved
longevity through building practices that follow a
reoccurring pattern of restoration and replacement.
Reeds and grasses are universal materials; they
grow almost everywhere. Nevertheless, each
species is distinct and regionally specific. Reed and
grass structures share these qualities of ubiquity
and specificity; thatched roofs, for example, can
2.2 Reed structure built by the Al Shakamra tribe in Al Kuthra, Iraq.
28 Material Fundamentals
be found on almost every continent, although the
roofing material itself changes based on what is
locally available.
Weaving and binding were the first methods
employed to shape plants into shelter. Builders
quickly learned that the materials performed
better structurally, lasted longer, and were more
resistant to fire and insects when woven, bundled,
or combined with other materials. But while these
techniques might extend a building’s survival,
reeds and grasses are still much more susceptible
to decay than other building materials; as a result
little physical evidence of their early use remains.
Due to their abundance and considerable range of
availability, however, it is assumed that they were
widely used for construction.
By comparing ancient representations with
more recent building practices, archeologists have
inferred that reeds and grasses were often used
in roofing—as a woven infill material plastered
with mud—in Palestine and Egypt around 3000
BCE and even earlier.2 Some connections have
also been made between ancient Egyptian stone
temples, which some believe were modeled after
earlier, Predynastic dwellings constructed from
bundled papyrus reeds. Assyrian and Babylonian
carvings also depict structures made from stout
reed bundles tied together at the top to form a
series of arched ribs. The ribs were connected and
stabilized horizontally by a series of thinner reed
bundles and then covered with woven reed matting
to form a protective enclosure.3 This ancient
construction method has survived to the present
day in Iraq, only to now face an uncertain future.
Water shortages caused by dam construction and
drought threaten the wetlands where the plants
are harvested and, as a result, this long tradition of
building solely with reeds may be lost forever.
Plant species and properties
The term reed can refer to many different wetland
plants from a broad range of families and genera.4
The common reed (or Phragmites australis) is part
of the grass (or Poaceae) family and is frequently
2.3 Common reed.
favored for thatching because it grows in many
locations. The sedge (Cyperaceae) or rush
(Restionaceae) families are also used as thatching
reeds, as are other species. The term grass largely
refers to plants in the Poaceae family, which also
includes grain-bearing crops such as wheat, barley,
oats, rice, and rye, and is identified by its hollow
stem. Elephant, marram, and miscanthus are just
a few of the dozens of grass varieties used for
construction purposes.5
Most species of reed and grass used in building
construction contain large amounts of cellulose and
lignin, the compounds responsible for the structure
and strength of plants. Cellulose microfibrils form
an important structural component of plant cell
walls, while the polymer lignin acts as a binding
matrix for cellulose (and other components),
lending stiffness and rigidity to the plant’s
overall structure. Percentages vary from species
to species, but reeds and straw are generally
composed of about 40 percent cellulose. Wheat
straw consists of about 15 percent lignin, whereas
common reed typically contains about 23 percent.
Wood, by comparison, is typically composed of
about 45 percent cellulose and 25 percent lignin.
It is lignin’s hydrophobic properties that give
thatch and other grass-based building systems
their ability to shed water. Lignin is also resistant
to decay; like silica, lignin helps to slow but not
halt the decomposition of reed and grass building
components. Its resistance to decomposition,
coupled with the fact that most farm animals find
straw virtually indigestible, has often led farmers to
burn straw as agricultural waste. This has indirectly
contributed to a resurgence of interest in straw
bale construction, a building technique that offers
a sustainable strategy for utilizing this abundant
agricultural byproduct.
The high cellulose content of reed and straw
increases the materials’ hygroscopic capacity,
which can be exploited to regulate moisture within
a building.6 Other physical properties of reed and
grass derive from the cylindrical form of their
stalks. In addition to providing a high strength-to-
weight ratio, this form contributes to the materials’
insulation value. Trapped air inside the plant stalk
not only allows the materials to retain warmth but
also absorb sound.
Traditional methods
Early civilizations sourced reeds in regions located
close to water and harvested grasses in the
savannas. As they began cultivating wild grasses
Plant Materials 29
for grain production, they developed techniques
for using plant stalks, or straw, for construction.
Gradually these techniques were disseminated
across agricultural regions. In areas where wood
was scarce, the earliest shelters were built
exclusively of reeds and grasses. Later, hybrid
systems were developed. A timber or bamboo
frame combined with woven or tightly packed
grasses or reeds formed the basis for many
construction techniques. In warmer climates,
lightweight woven mats were hung from the frame.
In cooler climates, a heavier, more enclosed
adaptation of this system was developed. The
sides and top of the frame were enclosed with
layers of reeds or grasses and then covered with a
protective layer of mud. When used for walls, this
technique is sometimes called wattle and daub,
but a stouter variation was also developed for
roofing, which entails covering timber rafters with
a layer of tightly spaced reeds and covering them
with a resistant layer of clay plaster. Builders also
2.4 Earth plaster with straw.
30 Material Fundamentals
found that adding straw and grasses improved the
tensile strength of mud bricks and plaster, which
encouraged them to frequently include straw and
grasses as reinforcement, in addition to layering
and weaving the materials.
Thatch is likely the most common method
for building with reeds and grasses that is still
in use today. Thatch acts as a water-resistant
enclosure and is formed by layering compact
bundles of dried vegetal material over a structural
framework. The basic technique for thatching
is not unique to any specific country or region.
For example, in Japan, archeological evidence
suggests that thatch was prevalent as early as
the third century and subsequently flourished
as a popular roofing method for housing.7
Likewise, most early dwellings in Britain dating
from the Neolithic to the late medieval period
were thatched. In both cases, the method waned
with the introduction of fire regulations and the
development of alternative roofing materials
made from ceramic or stone.
Thatching materials varied from region to
region, depending upon what native plants and
domesticated crops grew well there: miscanthus
grass and rice straw were common in Japan,
whereas wheat and rye straw, as well as water
reeds in some areas, were common in Britain.
Workers harvested the plants, removed grain and
organic debris, and then bundled the stalks into
sheaves, which were allowed to dry before being
used for construction. Starting at the eves, roofers
would layer thatch bundles in courses and tie them
to battens attached to the primary structure. If an
existing thatched roof was to be re-covered, the
roofers would only remove the damaged parts and
the new thatch was ‘pinned’ over the old material
using wooden spars or pegs.8 Once all surfaces
were covered, the area most vulnerable to water
penetration—the roof ridge—was covered with a
protective layer of water-resistant material, such as
bark and turf (Japan) or sedge plants (Britain). The
roofers would then comb and beat the stalks into
position and orient them to direct water flow away
from ridges and openings. In order to facilitate
drainage, a thatch roof should maintain a pitch of at
least 45 degrees, and in areas with large amounts
of snowfall they were sloped at even steeper
angles. When executed properly, a thatched roof
could last upwards of 80 years. Archeologists
have even identified existing portions of thatch on
houses in England that have survived since the
1500s.9
2.5 Roof thatch installation.

2.6 Traditional thatched roof in Japan.

Plant Materials 31
 A more recently introduced method for using
straw as a building material was launched in the
late 1800s with the invention of the horse-powered
baling machine. European settlers moving to the
timber-poor Great Plains of North America first
used straw bales to construct temporary shelters
out of necessity. As these initial structures proved
warm and durable, the practice of building homes
with bales spread; however, with the expansion of
the Transcontinental Railroad, and the subsequent
increase in the availability of lumber, the use of
straw bales for building declined. Today, several
historic straw bale structures still stand in the state
of Nebraska.
Traditionally, straw bales functioned as
loadbearing elements in construction, but methods
that combined bales with other structural systems
such as wood frame construction were also
developed. To construct a bale structure, farmers
first collected the stalks remaining after harvest
and mechanically compressed them into compact,
rectangular bales, which were then left to dry. After
the foundation of a building was laid, workers
stacked the bales along the perimeter to form the
main walls of the structure. Wooden stakes were
driven in at intervals to keep the bales in place.
2.7 Straw bale house ca. 1926 in Nebraska, USA.
32 Material Fundamentals
Workers then installed a wooden box beam or
bearing plate on top of the stacked bales, which
provided the connection between the walls and
the roof structure. The bales were allowed to settle
under the weight of the roof and then plastered.
Straw bale construction is a composite system
that behaves much like contemporary stressed-
skin panel systems.10 Structural engineers have
only recently recognized that the straw bales and
plaster work together: the bales carry the building’s
compressive loads, while the plaster forms a
ductile skin able to absorb tensile forces. The
plaster also plays an important role in protecting
the straw from fire, although the bales are less
flammable than one might think, due in part to their
density.
Recent developments
Building with wild and cultivated plant fiber
materials today presents challenges as well as
advantages. For many people, there is still no
other alternative for making shelter, but even in
these locations, thatched roofing is gradually
being replaced by corrugated galvanized iron
(CGI) sheeting. Metal roofing is often favored for
its durability, ease of installation, and modern
appearance. Even in places where CGI is more Although, as we have seen, reed and straw can
expensive than indigenous materials, it is frequently last for many decades—even several hundred
the preferred material for roofing, despite the fact years—given the right conditions, environmental
that it rusts quickly and provides little thermal changes have compromised its longevity. A
protection for the building’s occupants.11 Compared recent infestation of white rot mold (a fungus that
to CGI, thatch provides a lightweight method for destroys lignin) dramatically shortened the lifespan
cooling spaces. For thatched roofs in warmer of newly thatched roofs in Germany, with nitrogen
climates, the voids between plant stalks are tight emissions from large-scale agriculture thought to
enough to keep rain out and provide shade, but be the cause.13 These recent complications have,
open enough for air currents to pass through the for the most part, stripped the materials of their
material. In colder climates, the material is bundled most dominant and beneficial attributes, leaving
more tightly, providing an insulative layer by few reasons to use them other than their outward
trapping air within the voids between the stalks. As appearance.
mentioned previously, thatch materials are available Thatch remains, however, an important part
almost everywhere: when a roof is damaged or is of the cultural landscape of many regions, and
lost in a storm, sourcing new material for repairs there are several notable examples that capitalize
is a simple matter. CGI, in contrast, is frequently on this relationship. Both the Yusuhara Marche
imported and can be difficult to procure, especially by Kengo Kuma & Associates and the Enterprise
after a natural disaster such as a typhoon. Centre at the University of East Anglia by Architype
Despite a decrease in use, building authorities have adapted the local vocabulary of traditional
in some countries have worked to modify both
thatch and straw bale systems to bring them in line
with contemporary regulations. For thatched roof
systems, these changes—in addition to problems
stemming from environmental degradation—could
have long-term consequences for the material’s
performance and availability. Reed and grass
thatched roofs are still common to many parts
of Northern Europe and the United Kingdom,
and building regulations in these countries allow
and govern this practice. Contemporary energy
regulations now require airtight, highly insulated
building envelopes; this has altered the function
of thatch as a roofing material. Traditionally
thatch served not only as a layer of enclosure and
insulation, it also allowed interior moisture vapor
to dissipate through the roof. Thatch roofing for
new buildings must be installed on the outside of
the building envelope, which means the material
is no longer exposed to the interior and must
be held off of the roofing membrane to promote
ventilation from the underside. Building regulations
in Germany, for example, require 6 centimeters
of airspace between the thatched roof and the
building envelope. The introduction of an airspace
drastically diminishes the thermal resistance of the
material—so much so that it can no longer serve as
a calculable layer of insulation for building.12
In addition to the challenge posed by airtight
construction methods, reed for thatching has
become increasingly more difficult to source locally.
Pollution threatens supplies in Europe, forcing 2.8 Yusuhara Marche by Kengo Kuma &
builders to look to Turkey and China for resources. Associates.

Plant Materials 33
thatch to fit the demands of contemporary cladding
assemblies. The roof of the Tåkern Visitor Center
by Wingårdh Arkitektkontor [5.1] draws attention to
the surrounding wetlands through its innovative use
of native thatch.
Straw bale construction has followed a different
trajectory. After its gradual decline in the United
States in the early twentieth century, straw bale
construction saw a rise in interest in 1973 after
an essay about the technique was featured in the
book Shelter.14 From the mid-1970s on, the number
of straw bale buildings steadily increased across
the country and many state and local governments
modified their building codes in response to the
trend.
Erected in 1921, the first straw bale house in
France was intended to set an example for post-
World War I reconstruction, but bales were not
seriously considered for building in Europe until the
late 1970s, after a series of straw bale construction
workshops and projects captured public attention.
2.9 Contemporary straw bale construction in Utah, USA.
34 Material Fundamentals
Today, examples of bale buildings can be found
in the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, and several
other European countries.15 Regulations vary
from country to country and region to region: in
Germany straw bales may be used as infill but
not as loadbearing elements, while in Denmark,
Switzerland, and Italy loadbearing straw bale
construction is permitted.16
While not completely straightforward,
building with straw bales is simple enough for
the layperson to master, and the method’s ‘do-
it-yourself’ image appeals to individuals looking
for a low-cost, sustainable way to build their own
home. As a result, straw bale home construction
is often used as a platform for teaching others
about the technique, as well as a way to marshal
local volunteer labor. For this reason, straw
bale construction is likened to earlier building
methods that rely on community participation.
The community building aspect of straw bale
construction was an important part of the Common
Ground affordable housing project on Lopez Island
in the United States [4.3]. There, homeowners
invested ‘sweat equity’ by working with local
builders to construct their future residences. The
DIY nature of the material and the fact that it is
available in almost every part of the world has also
led to straw’s use in diverse locations. Several
humanitarian aid organizations involved in relief
work have turned to straw bale construction as an
economical and efficient means for building large
numbers of homes. The Adventist Development
and Relief Agency, for example, has constructed
more than 600 residences in China using this
method.17 The Pakistan Straw Bale and Appropriate
Building aid organization is also using straw
bales to build seismically resistant housing for
communities in rural Pakistan.
During the last 15 years, straw bale construction
in Europe has been adapted to work with massive
timber systems and to meet stringent energy
standards. Swiss architect Werner Schmidt has
realized several projects constructed from jumbo
loadbearing bales (70 cm x 120 cm x 240 cm) and
cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels. Data shows
that houses built with this system outperform the
current MINERGIE and Passive House standards,
which means these buildings do not require
any additional source of mechanical heating.18
Make Architects also combined straw with CLT
prefabricated elements filled with local straw and
covered with plaster render to form the exterior
envelope of the Gateway Building at the University
of Nottingham. Based on the proprietary system
developed by the company ModCell, this method
has been used for constructing a wide range of
building types. In 2015, the first homes constructed
2.10a Prefabricated CLT and straw elements for the
Gateway Building.
with ModCell panels were sold on the open market
in the United Kingdom [3.5]. The high level of
insulation offered by the panels was part of the
architects’ strategy to reduce the amount of energy
consumed for heating the structures.
When considering future applications for reed
and straw in construction, straw bales paired with
mass timber seems to hold the most promise. The
materials for these assemblies can be sustainably
grown and harvested, locally procured, and have
been tested and developed to meet industry
standards. These systems can be assembled
into stable, highly insulated structures that are
able to meet the stringent energy standards now
set by many countries. Unlike the contemporary
applications of thatch that mainly rely on the
material’s aesthetic value, straw bale is used
for pragmatic reasons. As a result, thatch will
most likely continue to be used only in a few
select instances, while straw could advance by
conforming to mass production systems.
Wood
In many traditional societies, trees were thought to
possess a soul. People venerated trees as sacred
beings and believed that their vital forces remained
in the timber after it was harvested, retained
within the building’s structural organization or
emanating from its surfaces. In Japan, carpenters
left the wood of Shinto shrines untreated in order
to preserve a direct and tactile connection to
the spirit within.19 In some cases, rituals were
performed to convert the ‘wild’ energy of trees
2.10b The Gateway Building at the University of
Nottingham.
Plant Materials 35
into a safe and ‘domesticated’ material suitable
for construction. For Malays, the construction
process and structural system were vehicles
for assimilating wood’s animate properties into
the built work. The traditional practice of ‘one
house, one tree’ prescribes that nine loadbearing
members of a house be hewn from a single trunk
and positioned within the structure to maintain the
same relationship they once held within the tree.
Thus, the power of the living organism became
embedded within the dwelling and mobilized to
protect its occupants from harm.20
Although practices relating wood to its vital
origins are no longer as prevalent as they once
were, the material is still widely accepted and
valued for its natural characteristics. Due in large
part to its global availability and widespread use
in construction and furniture fabrication, wood is
perhaps the most universally recognized building
material today. An appreciation of its visual and
tactile warmth is widely shared by many cultures:
studies have even shown that, given a choice,
individuals prefer wood over other common
materials. The preference for wood has been linked
to positive physiological responses, leading some
to suggest that our predilections for the material
are hardwired in our brains.21
The ‘living’ forces within the material might also
be considered from another perspective. Unlike
other materials, such as stone or concrete, natural
wood is neither stable nor static. In fact, it is the
material’s propensity for movement and change that
has influenced long-established practices in wood
construction. As a tree, wood lives and grows;
after harvest, it continues to change and evolve
as it cures, shrinking as it dries and then swelling
as moisture and humidity levels rise. Craftspeople
have developed many joint types to respond to
this ongoing transformation. Wood also remains
flexible—a significant characteristic that allows
timber structures to sway and shift during a storm
or earthquake, often without sustaining significant
damage. Wood is lightweight, compared to other
building materials. This makes it particularly well
suited to temporary or transportable structures,
as evidenced by early forms of shelter and the
dwellings of nomadic societies.
Wood is also a transitory material. It is
susceptible to destruction by insects, fire, and
moisture. If left unprotected, it will return back
to the soil from which it once originated. Many
measures have been developed to protect wood:
the addition of roof overhangs and stone footings
36 Material Fundamentals
to a wooden structure and the use of heavy timbers
for structural support were all introduced to save
wood from external forces. In some cases, however,
the transient nature of wood has been exploited,
rather than forestalled. The Neolithic builders of the
Durrington Walls settlement in England highlighted
the material’s propensity to decompose by making
it the focus of the monument. Enormous 2-by-1-
meter-wide tree trunks were ‘planted’ in the ground
and left to decay for approximately 160 years, after
which time the voids left by the rotting stumps were
filled with bones and other offerings to the gods.
Archeologists now view the decaying timbers of
the monument as a metaphor for the passage of
life and a memorialization of the dead.22 Despite
its vulnerabilities and inherent instability—and,
sometimes, even because of these—wood has
been harvested, manipulated, and exploited as
a building material by many cultures over many
generations.
Composition and properties
The properties and behavior of wood are
determined by plant cell composition and
structure. The outer layer of wood cells can be
thought of as a ‘fiber-composite’ consisting of
cellulose microfibrils held together by a matrix
of lignin and hemicellulose. Cellulose makes up
about 50 percent of the woody plant tissue and
provides rigidity as well as flexibility; lignin and
hemicellulose work to stiffen and bind the cellulose
microfibrils, creating an elastic microstructure
that is able to resist both tensile and compressive
forces. Cellulose is hygroscopic, giving wood
its high capacity for absorbing and releasing
moisture—a characteristic that brings both benefits
and disadvantages. Wood can be used to temper
indoor humidity; however, radical fluctuations
in moisture content can lead to dimensional
changes and deformation of the material. Certain
decomposing enzymes produced by fungi and
insects also weaken the cellular structure of
wood; fungi attack wood cells containing moisture
(usually when levels reach 20 to 30 percent), which
frequently occurs in areas of buildings that are not
detailed or built to dry properly.
Timber species are generally classified as
either softwood or hardwood, depending upon the
length and shape of the cells. The cellular structure
of hardwood varies and is more complex, while
softwood is characterized by a simple organization
of long, narrow cells. Hardwood comes from trees
with broad leaves. It is most commonly found in
2.11 Wood detailing of the Villa Sørensen by Arne Jacobsen.

Plant Materials 37
northern temperate forests and tropical rainforests.
Hardwood grows at a slower rate than softwood,
which increases the material’s strength and
durability but also its cost. Because of this, builders
rarely use hardwood for structural purposes in
contemporary construction, reserving it instead
for millwork and finishes. Softwood originates in
coniferous forests located mostly in the Northern
Hemisphere and grows much more rapidly than
hardwood. Its simple cellular structure and medium
density contribute to its workability, making it ideal
for lightweight structural framing.
The term ‘wood’ generally refers to any fibrous,
ridged tissue found in the stems and branches of
plants. More specifically, wood cells are produced
by the cambium layer, which grows between the
sapwood (xylem) layer at the heart of the tree and
the innermost layer of bark (phloem). Each growing
season, new cells produced within the growth
layer develop to form part of either the xylem or
the phloem layer—both of which are responsible
for delivering important nutrients to different parts
of the tree. Sap, containing water and sugars
produced by the leaves, travels through the phloem
phloem
cambium
xylem
38 Material Fundamentals
to the branches, trunk, and base of the tree, and
the xylem layer stores and transfers water and
nutrients from the roots up through the plant.
As the tree ages, the cells in the xylem layer die,
forming heartwood layers at the center of the trunk.
Heartwood has long been prized in many parts of
the world for its inherent strength, durability, and
longevity, characteristics that we now attribute to
chemicals (extractives) it contains that are resistant
to decay and toxic to fungi. Today, however, most
wood on the market comes from younger trees,
which do not have well-developed heartwood
cores.
At the larger scale, wood’s properties and
behavior are determined by the tree’s growth and
structure, which varies depending on species, age,
and location. Wood is also an anisotropic material.
Its behavior changes depending on the direction
of the wood fibers, which are aligned parallel to
the tree’s trunk and branches; components cut
following this orientation (with the grain, so to
speak) are stronger than those cut perpendicular
to (or against) the fibers. The direction of the grain
also influences the magnitude of expansion and
2.12 Wood under a microscope at
40× magnification.
contraction a piece of wood experiences due to
moisture fluctuations.
Wood is one of the few building materials
offering both heat storage capacity and reasonable
insulation value, both of which vary based on
the density and moisture content of wood fibers.
Contemporary wood frame construction does not
take advantage of these properties, but traditional
log cabins and newer massive timber systems do,
to some extent. Nevertheless, total reliance on
wood for insulation and thermal inertia within a wall
system requires a significant amount of material
thickness and surface area compared to other
building materials.
Another property that has become increasingly
significant in the last decade or so is the material’s
capacity to store carbon—both as it grows and
during its lifetime as a building component. The
concept of carbon sequestration—the removal
and storage of carbon from the atmosphere—was
first defined in 1991 and has since been accepted
as a means for mitigating global warming. Wood
is composed of about 50 percent carbon by
weight; this stored carbon is released back into the
atmosphere as wood decomposes or when wood
is burned as fuel.
One final characteristic of wood worth noting
is warmth, a haptic as well as visual property
determined by the material’s microstructure.
As wood dries, its cells fill with air; these
voids contribute to the material’s low thermal
conductivity, which slows the transmission of
heat from the body, causing the material to seem
warm to the touch. Wood’s visual warmth appears
to emanate from its fibers as they reflect longer
wavelengths of light, imparting the material with
warmer reddish and yellow hues.23
Traditional methods
As with other material processes, the development
and availability of specific tools informed the
evolution of woodworking practices. Long
before early humans developed the simplest of
implements, they fashioned shelters from dead,
fallen twigs, branches, and bark, which were
flexible enough to be woven into roof structures.
With the development of stone implements and,
later, bronze and copper tools, individuals began
to harvest and work with wood in different ways.
Rudimentary axes or blades became essential in
exploiting live trees for building materials. Growth
was managed by trimming the crown, the new
shoots emerging from the cut were harvested for
fabricating woven elements. Planks of wood were
extracted by splitting them from standing trees
with chisels and wedges. As the need for larger
buildings increased, whole trees were felled and
processed, and other technologies for transporting
more substantial pieces of timber, such as rollers
and levers, were developed.24
People shaped the material either by chipping
away at it with an axe, adze, or chisel, splitting it
with wedges, or charring it with fire. The heat from
fire was used to straighten the wood or bend it into
specific shapes. Wood was either soaked in cold
water first and then held over the flames or boiled
directly, until it became pliable.25 Timber used for
construction might also be modified while it was
still growing. The practice of girdling—removing
a ring of bark around the circumference of the
trunk—was employed during the Middle Ages to
slow growth, thus inducing the tree to produce
a denser wood less prone to shrinkage during
drying.26
With a few exceptions, most traditional building
practices were based on linear systems that
followed the structure and grain of the tree. The
linear nature of the material was expressed in two
distinct typologies: the massive timber wall and
the timber frame. Massive timber wall construction
was traditionally characterized by the use of whole
logs to form both the structure and enclosure of
a building. Builders constructed massive walls
from round, squared, or half round timbers that
were notched or cut on either end and alternately
stacked at right angles. They filled the horizontal
spaces left between the timbers either by cutting
a V-shaped groove into the underside of the
log and pressing it into the wood below it, or
by filling the void with earth or moss. Examples
of log construction can be found in Northern
and Central Europe, China, Japan, and North
America, where it was most common in timber-
rich regions characterized by cold, dry weather.
In these conditions, log construction provided a
robust form of shelter, offering a sufficient level
of insulation. Log construction was not limited
solely to colder climates, however, and historical
examples can also be found in Indonesia, where
it was used for the foundations of old-style Toraja
houses.27
Timber-frame construction was characterized
by a system of interconnected wooden members,
and many variations of this method can be
found globally, from German Fachwerkhaüser
to traditional Japanese minka houses. The
Plant Materials 39
2.13 Log cabin in Kansas, USA.
Magdalénien hut (ca. 12,000 BCE) was an early
precursor of timber-frame construction. This
rudimentary form of shelter was built by leaning
several wooden poles together; the resulting
framework was covered with animal skins or
vegetal material such as straw. Over time this
simple framing system developed to become more
solid and fixed. In place of poles, builders drove
larger wooden posts into the ground, to which
they added a substantial construction of woven
branches, plastered with mud, or solid wood
planking to form an enclosure. Wooden posts were
the constant in early timber-frame buildings, with
other components incorporated to address specific
structural requirements. Horizontal members
connecting the posts both at ground and roof
level, for example, distributed the structural forces
throughout the building. The sill beam prevented
the building from sinking into the ground, whereas
the roof beams carried the weight of the roof and
loads created by wind or snow.
Traditional timber-frame construction
depended on wood-to-wood connections to
40 Material Fundamentals
transfer loads between horizontal and vertical
members. Joints were shaped based on their
location within the structure and the nature of the
forces acting on them. In some cases joints were
also designed to be disassembled; this allowed
for the replacement of a single element or the
dismantling of the entire structure. Butt joints
were the simplest connections, formed simply
by laying two pieces of wood next to each other.
Halved and lapped joints were more complex,
with some shaped to receive tensile as well as
compressive forces. The term halved refers to the
depth of the joint, which is cut halfway through
each member so that they can be slipped together.
A lap joint was formed by cutting the material so
that each piece overlapped the other. The mortise
and tenon joint was one of the most common
connections used in timber-frame construction
and required shaping a tenon at the end of one
member, which would fit into a mortise, or cavity,
cut into the opposing member.
Craftspeople easily adapted timber-frame
construction to accommodate the size and shape
2.14 German Fachwerkhaus.
2.15a Mortise and tenon joint.
of available resources. But in times when settlement
expanded—as it did in Europe in medieval times—
the demand for buildings escalated, causing
carpenters to expedite construction by turning to
more consistent materials. Wood from long, straight
trees with few branches required less work to make
ready for construction, and uniform pieces could
2.15b Half-lap joint.
be used for a variety of applications. The supply
of high-quality timber soon vanished, however, as
forests were plundered. This forced builders to once
again shift their methods to incorporate odd-shaped
pieces of timber in their work.
Only later did managing timber growth and
rationalizing processing become the primary
Plant Materials 41
means for standardizing wood construction. New
systems based on uniform materials emerged in
the United States in the 1800s during the Industrial
Revolution. Balloon and platform framing provided
an alternative to labor-intensive timber-frame
construction, which had been rendered too
expensive to meet the demands of a growing
population.
Recent developments
Unlike earth, or reeds, wood is still highly
valued as a building material in some countries,
and its popularity is growing in others. Wood
remains viable for many of the same reasons
that it was in the past—it is abundant and
versatile. On the surface, wood retains its
appearances as an organic, natural material, but
this impression belies the highly mechanized
industrial processes that now characterize its
production. The largely bespoke, potentially
unstable constructions of previous generations
have been replaced by structures engineered for
consistency, predictability, and efficiency. Timber
quality and size have also influenced building
practices. Old-growth wood is now rare, and
most lumber used in contemporary construction
is sourced from rapidly grown timber of much
smaller dimensions and lower quality than that of
previous eras.
Spurred on by population growth and a
steady rise in per-capita income, the global
consumption of wood products is expanding.
Deforestation, however, continues to threaten
timberland in South America and Africa, although
it has declined in Europe, North America, and
parts of Asia. In China, for example, building
with wood has a long tradition but population
growth in the 1980s caused severe housing
shortages, which resulted in a steady shift
away from traditional materials, such as
wood and earth, and toward prefabricated
concrete systems.28 Large tracts of forest were
converted to agricultural land or cleared for
development in the 1990s, triggering erosion-
related problems such as water and air pollution.
Recent regulations and large-scale planting have
reversed this trend and contributed to a gain in
forest regeneration.29 Interest has once again
shifted toward using timber for construction,
encouraged mostly by its status as a carbon-
neutral material. Still, it will be several decades
before native forests are able to handle the
demands of the Chinese market.
42 Material Fundamentals
Indigenous forms of forest management
may offer viable solutions for sustainable wood
cultivation and production. Some researchers
now contend that successful strategies for
conserving forest ecosystems must also consider
methods for preserving the livelihood of local
communities. A recent study in rural Peru
found that small, family-owned timber farms
contribute to forest biodiversity and conservation,
while the lumber they produce is a significant
resource for construction in rapidly urbanizing
centers of the Peruvian Amazon.30 Another
example of effective, regionally based wood
production can be found in Europe. Although
manual woodworking techniques have been
replaced by more mechanized technologies
and timber is often transported great distances,
maintaining long-established ties between the
material, its place of origin, and local artisans
is still possible—even advantageous—as
contemporary wood construction in the Vorarlberg
region of Austria demonstrates. There, manual
processing by carpenters ended with the rise
of the water-driven mill, but a revival of timber
construction in the 1960s revitalized local craft
traditions and established new connections
between craftspeople and architects. Production
methods may now include computer numerical
control (CNC) technology and prefabrication, but
contemporary woodcraft in Vorarlberg has grown
to become a well-regarded “alternative to global
mass production,” its products “manufactured in
small-scale family owned businesses … fulfill[ing]
the highest expectations in regard to form,
function, and workmanship.”31
In the United States, wood-based
construction has flourished since the 1950s and
now represents the predominant method used
in constructing residential structures. During the
past few decades, however, there has been a
gradual shift from solid members to engineered
products. Most of Europe, by contrast, has
largely abandoned wood construction; except
for Scandinavia, where prefabrication and a
rich supply of timber have bolstered its use.
Despite having a long history with heavy
timber construction, Germany and Great Britain
now rely on concrete as the predominant
material for building. Only in the last decade,
after government regulations requiring the use
of low-carbon materials were enacted, is wood
once again seeing an uptick in use in these
countries.

As the use of wood-based building products
increases, new construction technologies based
on massive timber elements are beginning to
see more widespread use. The economy and
sustainability of massive timber depend on well-
managed, local forest resources; consequently,
these systems are most common in countries such
as Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and Sweden.
Massive timber has the potential to advance wood
construction technology to the same level of use
as other industrially manufactured materials, while
also integrating local resources and traditional
fabrication practices with contemporary production
systems. Additionally, thermal properties that have
been underutilized for decades may now once
again be integrated as an active part of timber
systems.
It may be a stretch to make connections
between contemporary massive timber systems
and traditional log construction, but it is easy
to see that ‘modified’ log construction is a
forerunner of cross-laminated timber (CLT)
construction. CLT is a loadbearing massive
timber system that employs engineered wood
panels, which are fabricated by stacking and
gluing dimensional lumber in alternating layers.
Modified log construction uses prefabricated,
solid wood elements, which have been cut to fit
together precisely (rather than glued like CLT).
This loadbearing system is sometimes used in
2.16 Cross-laminated
timber blocks.
the alpine regions of Switzerland and Germany,
although energy regulations now require an
additional layer of insulation. Haus Walpen,
designed by Swiss architect Gion Caminada in
2002, best exemplifies how a traditional method
like log construction can be adapted over time to
reflect contemporary standards and taste.
Other recent projects featuring wood as a
primary material have also taken new inspiration
from ‘old’ craft traditions and local supply
systems. In order to save on cost, Chilean
architects Gabriel Rudolphy and Alejandro Soffia
capitalized on locally available technology and
labor to construct the Hostal Ritoque [3.2]. The
building follows a modular system based on the
dimensions of rough-sawn pine. In Austria, local
wood gives projects by architect Bernardo Bader
their distinctive character. The material has also
inspired a working methodology centered around
timber harvesting and processing [5.6]. In Japan,
BAKOKO architects have used contemporary
manufacturing methods based on time-honored
methods of wood joinery to achieve the seismically
resistant mortise and tenon connections of the
Onjuku Beach House [3.1]. All three projects are
clear examples of current wood manufacturing and
construction methods in their respective countries
and demonstrate that even in an era of globalized
mass production, wood still retains its aesthetic
and cultural significance.
Plant Materials 43

Bamboo
Rural and also urban, local and at the same
time global, bamboo’s role as a contemporary
material is variable and changing. This extremely
practical resource, nicknamed the “material
of millions,” pervades almost every aspect of
daily life for many people, fulfilling a multitude
of needs on a wide range of scales.32 Bamboo
poles can be rapidly deployed as temporary
scaffolding for fishing nets, used to construct
bridges and walkways, and even provide an
integral component in aqueduct systems found
in countries such as Thailand and China. At the
more intimate scale, the material’s vessel-like
shape lends itself to carrying water and cooking
food, and it is often used as a base material for
cutting tools such as knives and arrows.33 For
centuries, bamboo has served many populations
as a versatile and strong construction material—
from structural framework to woven screens, it
has been utilized for almost every kind of building
component imaginable.
44 Material Fundamentals
2.17 Haus Walpen, modified log
construction.
Bamboo’s versatility and pragmatic usefulness
has long been recognized. During its centuries
of use, the material has acquired symbolic and
spiritual significance for many cultures. In Asia
numerous societies have seen themselves reflected
in the form and traits of the bamboo plant; its
graceful movements, flexibility, and strength have
often been the subject of Japanese and Chinese
paintings and literature. Some early cultures
considered the inner void of bamboo’s hollow to be
the origin of the human race.34 For many, bamboo
is associated with longevity and abundance in
life. Nevertheless, these enduring beliefs have not
hindered bamboo’s marginalization as a building
material, as contemporary preferences move
toward more durable alternatives such as steel and
concrete.
As with other natural materials, few early
bamboo structures survive. The archeological
artifacts that have been best preserved are those
that were plastered or encased in earth. This was
the case in China, where evidence of bamboo’s
earliest use for construction can be found near the
middle valley of the Yangtze River. There, a number
2.18 Bamboo bridge in Vietnam.

Plant Materials 45
of Neolithic houses fashioned from bamboo and
mud plaster were built by the Daxi people.35 Their
discovery suggests that bamboo was one of the
first building materials to be exploited in China.
Bamboo, or guadua, as it is known in Latin
America, has also been used for centuries in
Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Remnants of
the Valdivia civilization in Ecuador may provide
some of the earliest examples of bamboo
construction; bamboo poles were used as
reinforcement for earthen walls dating from 5500
BCE to 3500 BCE. A similar system was also
used to stabilize the ancient earthen structures
of the pre-Columbian city of Chan Chan.36 Later,
during the Spanish colonial expansion, European
chroniclers documented the prevalent use of
bamboo by native societies. The Spanish, who
adopted it for building their own settlement
infrastructure, soon recognized the material’s
practicality for rapid construction.37 Ultimately,
however, it was colonization that led to a rejection
of the plant, as well as the material, and so began
the shift toward other more permanent materials
with less significant ties to the indigenous
population.38
Bamboo, like wood, is susceptible to the
elements. If left unprotected, building components
will last only a few years. Bamboo’s short lifespan
and pervasiveness has, in part, influenced the
ways in which the material has traditionally been
used and regarded by many cultures. When the
material begins to decay, it is simply replaced. An
example of this practice can still be observed in the
Philippines, where most bamboo structures have
a brief lifespan. Rather than replacing individual
bamboo components, an entirely new structure is
often built next to its disintegrating counterpart.39
The cycle of decomposition and replacement has
been the norm for centuries and has quite possibly
contributed to the current view of bamboo as an
expendable, unreliable material.
Despite its weaknesses, bamboo has
impressed and inspired a number of notable
architects and engineers, in some cases even
acting as a bridge between East and West as well
as traditional craft and modern production systems.
Bamboo structures in Manila, for example, are
said to have influenced the development of steel-
frame construction, which is commonly attributed
to William Le Baron Jenney as designer of the
first skyscraper in 1884. Jenney spent several
months in the Philippines as a youth and came
away with a respect for the resiliency of bamboo
46 Material Fundamentals
construction.40 German architect Bruno Taut also
developed a deep appreciation for the material
during his exile in Japan from 1933 to 1938. His
adaptation of bamboo as a contemporary building
material is evident in his design for the Hyuga
Villa in Atami, where he integrated modernist
aesthetics with his own translation of traditional
Japanese architecture.41 Another German architect
fascinated with bamboo’s potential was Frei Otto.
His interest in the material began in 1951, while
studying historical precedents for hanging roofs.
He expanded this exploration during his time as the
head of the Institute for Lightweight Structures at
the University of Stuttgart, where he led research
exploring the limits of bamboo as a lightweight
construction material.42
Composition and properties
Bamboo is a giant grass from the Poaceae family.
The plant’s anatomical structure determines
the material’s mechanical properties. Bamboo
is characterized by its hollow, woody stem, or
culm, which is bisected at intervals by solid
nodes.43 Bamboo rhizomes multiply and spread
underground, and during the rainy season this
root-like system sends up slender shoots, which
grow extremely rapidly—sometimes up to 1 meter
or more per day! The bamboo shoot reaches its
maximum height during the first growing season,
and its diameter remains constant from the
moment it emerges from the ground.
A hard, waxy cortex layer containing silica
protects the outside of bamboo’s internodes, the
hollow stem sections between the nodes. The
cortex acts as a moisture barrier for the plant,
helping it to retain water; this layer also prevents
moisture absorption, impeding the penetration
of preservatives. Because bamboo does not
produce a large amount of foliage, the cortex
layer also contains the chlorophyll necessary for
sustaining the plant’s rapid growth. Bamboo’s
strength depends primarily on the structure and
composition of the ground tissue located between
the cortex and the hollow cavity, or lacuna,
found at the center of the culm. The ground
tissue is a multilayered structure of cellulose and
hemicellulose microfibrils held within a parenchyma
cell matrix. The microfibrils reinforce the plant
tissue, and their distribution increases at the culm
perimeter, providing stiffness where bending
stresses are the greatest. Lignin is also present,
acting as a binder and filler, and is responsible for
the plant’s compressive strength.

2.19 Bamboo clump.
The ground tissue lignifies (stiffens) after the
plant’s growth phase, and continues to mature
and strengthen as it ages. Most bamboos achieve
maximum strength after about three years and
are typically harvested after four to five, although
this can vary from species to species. Bamboo
rhizomes continually produce new shoots
each year, and cutting the older culms actually
stimulates new growth.
As a plant, bamboo offers several advantages.
Bamboo can adapt to poor site conditions, and
its rhizome root system forms a complex network
that is ideal for stabilizing soil, and also promotes
water absorption and retention. The aboveground
culms grow in clumps, which form protective
enclosures for many types of wildlife and can also
aid in mitigating water and wind erosion. Because
of its rapid development and production cycle, a
stand of bamboo can produce more than three
times the biomass of trees grown on the same
area.44 The plant also sequesters more carbon
and produces up to 35 percent more oxygen
than trees.45
As a building material, bamboo has a high
strength-to-weight ratio and functions well in
compression (it possesses twice the compressive
strength of concrete). Roughly the same strength
in bending and tension as structural steel, it
is ideal for resisting seismic and lateral wind
forces, as documented by several instances
of bamboo buildings withstanding typhoons
and high-magnitude earthquakes.46 Like wood,
bamboo is anisotropic: it is several times stronger
longitudinally in tension than in the transverse
direction. Its strength increases as it dries, although
the culm diameter shrinks significantly as moisture
evaporates from the culm cells.47 Bamboo is also a
hygroscopic material, expanding and contracting
as much as 6 percent across its diameter during
seasonal moisture fluctuations. This variation
often causes shifting and loosening of bamboo
structures at the joints.
Bamboo’s hollow form does make it vulnerable
to fire, and it is more flammable at the culm ends
than in the center. However, its high silica content
gives the material some level of fire resistance:
when compared to wood members of the same
diameter, bamboo is more difficult to ignite. It
burns, however, at about the same rate.48
Traditional methods
The bamboo plant’s origins are unknown, but
fossilized remains, together with studies indicating
suitable growing climates, have led scientists to
assume that bamboo may have proliferated in
Southeast Asia during the Pleistocene Epoch (from
2.6 million to 11,700 years ago). Its propagation is
thought to be an archaic example of globalization,
as the species Bambusa vulgaris spread from one
continent to another, possibly in the form of rafts
used by early seafarers.49
In the past, archeologists and anthropologists
believed that stone tools were indicators of human
development; however, this model fails to take
other, less durable materials into account. The
‘bamboo hypothesis’ has been used to explain
the lack of stone tool innovation in Southeast Asia:
prehistoric humans were probably using bamboo
instead. Due to the absence of archeological
remains, assumptions about the material’s
prehistoric use can only be based on ethnographic
studies of modern peoples and on use–wear
experiments of artifacts, which indicate that
stones were likely exploited for cutting bamboo.
Plant Materials 47
Recent studies have also proven that it would
have been possible to shape bamboo knives
capable of cutting flesh by using only a simple
cobblestone.50
Eventually, people fabricated knives from
metal and used them for felling bamboo. Once
the material was harvested, ropes were threaded
through holes cut in the culm ends, and the poles
were bundled and dragged from the forest by pack
animals or by hand. Initially, bamboo was probably
used in its raw state; bamboo’s high starch content
makes it an ideal food source for fungi and insects,
and, if left untreated, it will begin to decay after
just a few years. Over time, people developed
different techniques for preserving the material.
Soaking bamboo in a river or lake became the
most common method for washing starch from the
culm; mud render might also have been applied to
keep insects at bay; after treatment the culms were
left to dry in a protected place outside. In Japan,
curing green culms with smoke from a fireplace
or special chamber became the primary method
for preserving bamboo starting in the sixteenth
century.51
The first bamboo structures were simple
gable-shed or conical-shaped roofs made from
unworked bamboo, fastened together using lashed
connections of rattan or other pliable plant fibers,
and covered with thatch. Later, builders developed
more complex connections, which involved cutting,
fitting, and pinning the poles at intersections. All
of the cuts and joints necessary for constructing a
simple shelter could be accomplished by using the
same tool: a sharp, machete-like knife. Bamboo is
easier to work while still green, and if destined for
woven elements or panels, it was typically cut to
size before drying. Bamboo’s low shear strength
along its length facilitates splitting the culm into
long C-shaped sections, which were often used
for roofing and gutters. The culm could also be
slashed, unrolled, flattened, and dried to form
boards for siding and flooring.
Although numerous types of traditional
bamboo dwellings exist, the raised platform
house was, and still is, the most ubiquitous
typology found in Southeast Asia. Houses are
often built several meters from the ground,
which promotes natural ventilation and offers
protection from both the rising damp and roaming
animals. One example of a traditional raised
platform house, the Philippine bahay kubo, is
made from bamboo (and, in some cases, wood)
and nipa palm leaves. The dwelling’s post and
48 Material Fundamentals
lintel system relies on vertical bamboo supports
set an equal distance apart, either directly on
the ground or on a stone foundation. Bamboo
‘beams’ span between the posts at the top and
bottom of the structure, forming a framework for
hanging infill panels woven from a wide array of
natural fibers. The roof is an important element:
formed by sloping bamboo rafters from the
upper beam to the central ridgepole at a steep
pitch, it protects the dwelling from rain. Bundled
nipa palm leaves or cogon grass is then placed
over bamboo battens attached to the primary
roof structure. Split bamboo planks are laid over
the floor joists, resulting in a smooth, springy
walking surface, porous enough for air and light to
penetrate. An additional woven mat is sometimes
rolled over the floor, which is easily removed for
cleaning.
The entire structure relies on bypass
connections, or specially cut joints, such as the
fish mouth. The semicircular joint is outlined with
the end of the receiving member as a template,
and a chisel or machete is used to chip away the
material. The connection is refined by eye, and
eventually shaved down to fit snuggly against its
opposing member. Bamboo nails are hammered
into holes cut or drilled through both members at a
45-degree angle, and the connection is then lashed
with natural fibers such as rattan. Even though the
bahay kubo is made from lightweight materials,
its use of redundant structural members, braced
frames, and tight spacing between supports can
often insure that it withstands strong winds and
seismic forces.
Another construction technique, called
bahareque, was common (and is still sometimes
used) in certain areas of Latin America; specifically,
in Colombia, Ecuador, and Northern Peru, where
bamboo grew in abundance. Houses built using
this method are also constructed using bamboo
post and beam systems, but rather than covering
the exterior with woven fiber panels (as in the
bahay kubo typology), esterilla, or split bamboo
lath, is attached to the wall framework and filled
with earth. A variation of this system relies on
bamboo panels, which are attached to the interior
and exterior of the framework and then covered
with mud render. The bahareque technique is well
known for its seismic resistance, and has been
used for both rural as well as urban construction.
Examples of two- and three-story bahareque
buildings originally dating from the 1920s still stand
in the Colombian city of Manizales.52
 2.20 Bolo or Filipino
bamboo knife.

2.21 Bamboo shingles. 2.22 Flattening bamboo culms.

Plant Materials 49
 2.23 A contemporary
bahay kubo before
pegging and lashing.

2.24 Bamboo floor. 2.25 Fish mouth joint.

50 Material Fundamentals
2.26 Bahareque construction.
Recent developments
Today bamboo grows on every continent except
Antarctica and Europe. While typically thriving in
tropical and subtropical conditions, between the
latitudes of 50° north and 47° south, the plant
has a potentially greater geographic distribution
than in previous eras due to continuing human
intervention. Because of its wide availability,
bamboo plays an important role in the livelihoods
of millions of people worldwide, and that number is
likely to grow as a result of advances in production
processes and the establishment of globalized
distribution networks.53 Laminated flooring and
plywood make up about 20 percent of the global
market for bamboo. Manufacturing methods
developed in the 1940s have standardized the
material and reduced a number of its long-standing
weaknesses. In order to decrease its susceptibility
to infestation and decay, bamboo is rapidly
processed after harvest: the hard cortex layer is
removed; the culms are sectioned lengthwise and
milled into flat strips. The strips are then boiled in
a solution of borax, kiln dried, and subsequently
glued together to form solid blocks of flooring or
other laminate products. This process requires
a great deal of energy, but it results in a strong,
durable, and uniform material.
Currently, laminated bamboo is widely
used for non-structural purposes, but there
are few standards covering its use structurally.
Consequently, wood standards are often applied in
studies testing the mechanical behavior of bamboo
and several recent experiments have confirmed
that laminated bamboo lumber (LBL) is as strong
or stronger than wood products of an equivalent
size. However, inadequate standards, in addition to
the lack of consistent building codes, will continue
to be major impediments to the standardization of
bamboo and related building products.54
The limits of bamboo-based composites
are also being tested in other ways: research
conducted by the Future Cities Laboratory in
Singapore is studying the behavior of hybrid
bamboo and concrete structural systems. The
program’s director Dirk Hebel makes the case
that bamboo “has the potential to completely
Plant Materials 51

shift international economic relations,” from a
production system favoring wealthy, industrialized
countries to a model reliant on a “raw material
found predominantly in the developing world.”55
Despite the fact that many of the raw materials
used for making steel and cement originate in the
“developing world,” the research does propose
an innovative method for incorporating a natural
material into industrialized building processes.
By injecting the bamboo fibers with epoxy, the
intention is to overcome the inherent tendencies
of the material to expand and contract and to
counteract its propensity for decay. Currently,
systems for incorporating the material as
reinforcement for concrete structural members
remains in the testing phase, but the initial results
appear promising.
Altering bamboo’s composition through
lamination or impregnation might offer new potential
for material applications, but mechanical processing
is often more complex and involved than similar
operations used for wood; it also strips the material
of its cultural associations and perceived value as a
natural material. Whole culm bamboo, when used
as a building material, can evoke both nostalgic as
well as unfavorable associations with rural living
and the countryside. While for some middle and
upper class urbanites in parts of Asia, bamboo has
achieved luxury status, as it represents uniqueness
and authenticity in an era of standardization and
52 Material Fundamentals
2.27 Laminated bamboo.
mass production. Architects such as Mañosa &
Company in the Philippines have created a niche
market for customized, handcrafted buildings made
substantially of whole culm bamboo. A tolerance
for the material’s idiosyncratic nature has its limits,
however, and only the straightest and best quality
poles are typically selected for construction, which
increases their cost considerably—so much so
that bamboo has become, in the words of another
Filippino architect, a “badge of having money to
spend.”56 Conversely, bamboo’s status as the ‘poor
man’s timber’ in rural areas has contributed to its
decline as a local commodity for construction.57
Nevertheless, there is likely a great deal of potential
for the material, both as an industrialized product
and as an important cultural symbol.
An increasing number of architects are
considering whole culm bamboo as a viable
material for constructing a wide array of building
types, from schools to housing. To improve
durability and longevity, most contemporary
bamboo components are pre-treated with
chemicals—usually with boric acid, which protects
the material from fungus and insects. Joints are
also often reinforced, either with solid bamboo or
with cement mortar.
Prefabrication provides another way to
increase the predictability and efficiency of
bamboo construction, and several systems have
been developed in recent years. To control quality

2.28 Bamboo roof structure in vacation house by
Mañosa & Company.
and cost, Vietnamese architect Vo Trong Nghia
employs prefabricated bamboo elements with
spectacular results [5.5]. Prefabricated bamboo
panels have also been developed as an efficient
method for constructing housing in communities
undergoing rapid population growth or enduring
the catastrophic effects of natural disasters.
The Global Housing Program, funded by the
International Network for Bamboo and Ratan and
other aid organizations, has supported several
prefabricated bamboo modular housing projects
in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The aid
organization Base has developed an integrated
business model for the Philippines that supports
the entire chain of production—from farming
to application—for modular bamboo building
components [3.4].
Bamboo is also preferred by architects for its
cultural connections and the potential it offers
as a focus for community engagement and
skills training. Estudio Damgo is the first design/
building program for architecture students in the
Philippines, and all of its projects are built using
bamboo and other locally sourced materials [4.2].
Students undergo extensive training at Bambus
Collabo, a worker cooperative founded by bamboo
craftspeople. Each Estudio Damgo project has
presented a challenge to the public’s perception of
bamboo as a temporary material. Over time, their
buildings have proven to be durable additions to
the community and, as a result, enthusiasm for
bamboo construction in the area has grown. This
way of working creates a culturally sensitive model
for development that foregrounds sustainable
practices.
Bamboo will most likely continue to have a
place in contemporary construction, but what form
this will take still remains to be seen. Lamination
and other processes that standardize the material’s
behavior promise a future of mass-produced,
structural components, but these could be cost-
prohibitive to manufacture. Conversely, whole
culm construction is inexpensive and offers a wide
range of positive economic and social benefits that
manufactured products do not. A growing desire
for authenticity has prompted some to reevaluate
the material, while others continue to reject it for
its associations with rural living and poverty. The
advancement of bamboo construction will most
likely occur in the very locations where it has been
used for centuries, and its future will be contingent
on its acceptance by the construction industry, as
well as the average person.58
Notes
1 Kenneth Frampton, Studies in Tectonic
Culture: The Poetics of Construction in
Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995), 14.
2 George R. H. Wright, Ancient Building in South
Syria and Palestine (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985),
456.
3 Mark Jarzombek, Architecture of First
Societies: A Global Perspective (Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley, 2013), 285.
4 While beyond the scope of this book to
discuss every type of reed and grass used
for construction, it is important to mention
the most common varieties still in use today.
Not covered here are thatching methods
incorporating leaves, shrubs, and vines.
Plant Materials 53
 5 Bamboo is also classified as a grass, but
because it is mainly used for structural
applications it is covered in its own section of
this book.
6 Marwen Bouasker, Naima Belayachi, Dashnor
Hoxha, and Muzahim Al-Mukhtar, “Physical
Characterization of Natural Straw Fibers
as Aggregates for Construction Materials
Applications,” Materials 7, no. 4 (April 2014):
3034–3048.
7 Satoshi Ono and Yukimasa Yamada, “A
Report of Turf Ridge (shibamune) in Japanese
Thatched Folk Houses,” in Vernacular Heritage
and Earthen Architecture: Contributions for
Sustainable Development, ed. Mariana Correia,
Gilberto Carlos, and Sandra C. S. Rocha (Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2014), 290.
8 Robert C. West, Thatch: A Complete Guide to
the Ancient Art of Thatching (Pittstown, NJ:
Main Street Press, 1988), 64–66.
9 M. K. Holme, “Against the Grain,” Metropolis
22 (January 2003): 114–117.
10 Bruce King and Mark Aschheim, Design of
Straw Bale Buildings: The State of the Art (San
Rafael, CA: Green Building Press, 2006), 57.
11 Roxana Waterson, The Living House: An
Anthropology of Architecture in South-East
Asia (Rutland, VT: Tuttle Publishing, 2009), 87.
12 Gerhard Holzmann, Matthais Wangelin, and
Rainer Bruns, Natürliche und pflanzliche
Baustoffe: Rohstoff—Bauphysik—Konstruktion
(Wiesbaden: Springer, 2012), 214.
13 Berit Böhme, “Warum Reetdächer plötzlich so
schnell verrotten,” Die Welt online, www.welt.
de/wissenschaft/umwelt/article119321946/
Warum-Reetdaecher-ploetzlich-so-schnell-
verrotten.html
14 Lloyd Kahn and Bob Easton, Shelter (Bolinas:
Shelter Publications, 1973).
15 For more information on contemporary straw
bale construction in Europe, see http://
baubiologie.at/strohballenbau/category/
baubiologie/strohballenbau-europa/
16 Herbert Gruber, Astrid Gruber, and Helmuth
Santler, Neues Bauen mit Stroh (Staufen bei
Freiburg: Ökobuch, 2008), 19.
17 Ibid.
18 Werner Schmidt, “Lasttragender
Strohballenbau,” lecture hosted by
54 Material Fundamentals
Schönewasser, Riegersburg, Austria, January
16, 2009.
19 Klaus Zwerger, Wood and Wood Joints:
Building Traditions of Europe, Japan and China
(Basel: Birkhäuser, 2012), 17.
20 Waterson, The Living House, 118.
21 Jennifer Rice, Robert Kozak, Michael J. Meitner,
and David H. Cohen, “Appearance Wood
Products and Psychological Well-Being,” Wood
and Fiber Science: Journal of the Society
of Wood Science and Technology 38, no. 4
(January 2006): 644.
22 Mike Parker Pearson, “Earth, Wood and Fire:
Materiality and Stonehenge,” in Soils, Stones
and Symbols: Cultural Perceptions of the
Mineral World, ed. Nicole Boivin and Mary Ann
Owoc (London: UCL, 2004), 76–77.
23 Satoshi Sakuragawa, Yoshifumi Miyazaki,
Tomoyuki Kaneko, and Teruo Makita,
“Influence of Wood Wall Panels on
Physiological and Psychological Responses,”
Journal of Wood Science 51, no. 2 (April 2005):
136–140.
24 Linda M. Hurcombe, Perishable Material
Culture in Prehistory: Investigating the Missing
Majority (Hoboken, NJ: Taylor and Francis,
2014), 17–26.
25 Ibid.
26 Zwerger, Wood and Wood Joints, 17.
27 Waterson, The Living House, 87.
28 Ronald G. Knapp, China’s Old Dwellings
(Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2000),
326.
29 Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Global Forest Resources
Assessment (Rome: FAO, 2010).
30 Robin R. Sears and Miguel Pinedo-Vasquez,
“From Fallow Timber to Urban Housing: Family
and Tablilla Production in Peru,” in The Social
Lives of Forests: Past, Present, and Future of
Woodland Resurgence, ed. Susanna B. Hecht,
Kathleen D. Morrison, and Christine Padoch
(Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press,
2014), 336–347.
31 Ulrich Dangel, Sustainable Architecture in
Vorarlberg: Energy Concepts and Construction
Systems (Basel: Birkhäuser, 2010).
32 Susanne Lucas, Bamboo (London: Reaktion
Books, 2013), 68.
33 Jacqueline Piper, Bamboo and Rattan:
Traditional Uses and Beliefs (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1992).
34 Lucas, Bamboo, 89.
35 Charles Higham, The Bronze Age of Southeast
Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1996).
36 Alexander von Vegesack and Mateo Kries,
Grow Your Own House: Simón Vélez und die
Bambusarchitektur = Simón Vélez and Bamboo
Architecture (Weil am Rhein: Vitra Design
Museum, 2000), 185.
37 James J. Parsons, “Giant American Bamboo
in the Vernacular Architecture of Colombia and
Ecuador,” Geographical Review 81, no. 2 (April
1991): 131–152.
38 Oscar Hidalgo, Bamboo: The Gift of the Gods
(Bogotá, Colombia: [self-published], 2003), 46.
39 Centro Escolar University, Bamboo (Mendiola,
Manila, Philippines: Centro Escolar University,
2000), 17.
40 William Bryce Mundie, “Skeleton Construction,
Its Origin and Development,” unpublished
manuscript, 1932, held in the Ryerson and
Burnham Archives: Archival Image Collection,
Chicago. Digitized version available at http://
digital-libraries.saic.edu/cdm/ref/collection/
mqc/id/63934. Mundie was William Le Baron
Jenney’s business associate.
41 Dana Buntrock, Materials and Meaning in
Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tradition
and Today (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2010),
66.
42 Siegfried Gass, Heide Drüsedau, Jürgen
Hennicke, and Klaus Dunkelberg, Bambus =
Bamboo (Stuttgart: Institut für Leichte
Flächentragwerke, Universität Stuttgart, 1985).
43 Solid bamboo is not discussed here, although
it is also used in construction, mostly as a
reinforcing infill for hollow bamboo joints.
44 Gernot Minke, Building with Bamboo (Basel:
Birkhäuser, 2012).
45 Lucas, Bamboo, 14.
46 Ibid.
47 Hidalgo, Bamboo: The Gift of the Gods, 73.
48 Gass et al., Bambus = Bamboo.
49 Coosje Hoogendoorn and Andrew Benton,
“Bamboo and Rattan Production and the
Implications of Globalization,” in Forests and
Globalization: Challenges and Opportunities
for Sustainable Development, ed. William
Nikolakis and John L. Innes (London:
Routledge, 2014), 167.
50 Ofer Bar-Yosef, Metin I. Erenb, Jiarong Yuan,
David J. Cohen, and Yiyuan Li, “Were Bamboo
Tools Made in Prehistoric Southeast Asia?
An Experimental View from South China,”
Quaternary International: The Journal of the
International Union for Quaternary Research
268 (January 2012): 9–21; Jolee A. West and
Julien Louys, “Differentiating Bamboo from
Stone Tool Cut Marks in the Zooarchaeological
Record, with a Discussion on the Use of
Bamboo Knives,” Journal of Archaeological
Science 34, no. 4 (April 2007), 512–518.
51 Von Vegesack and Kries, Grow Your Own
House, 163.
52 Hidalgo, Bamboo: The Gift of the Gods, 370.
53 Yannick Kuehl, “Resources, Yield, and Volume
of Bamboos,” in Bamboo: The Plant and
Its Uses, ed. Walter Liese and Michael Kohl
(New York: Springer, 2015), 91.
54 Ana Gatóo, Bhavna Sharma, Maximilian Bock,
Helen Mulligan, and Michael H. Ramage,
“Sustainable Structures: Bamboo Standards
and Building Codes,” Proceedings of the ICE,
special issue, Engineering Sustainability 167,
no. 5 (2014): 189–196.
55 Dirk Hebel, “Bamboo Could Turn the World’s
Construction Trade on Its Head,” Ecos
magazine online, http://www.ecosmagazine.
com/?paper=EC14204
56 Filippino architect Rene Armogenia, in
discussion with author, San Jose, Philippines,
July 5, 2015.
57 Hoogendoorn and Benton, “Bamboo and
Rattan Production,” 167; The phrase ‘poor
man’s timber’ is often used in books about
bamboo and by those working with the
material, to describe its contemporary
associations with poverty.
58 For a more detailed discussion of current
efforts to increase bamboo’s acceptance by
the construction industry, see Chapter 7.
Plant Materials 55
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
PART II
MATERIAL
STRATEGIES
Part II examines how changing market forces, social
and cultural needs, and environmental factors
have altered the development and application of
traditional materials and methods in both negative
and positive ways. Each chapter is devoted to
exploring a single aspect of recent developments
and the related case studies demonstrate how
architects, engineers, and builders have successfully
adapted these resources and processes in response
to new and fluctuating circumstances.
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
 3
Bespoke to
Standardized

3.1 Prefabricated rammed earth panels at the Ricola Kräuterzentrum.

Today, most buildings are less an expression of
place than an assembled product, created by
global supply chain logistics and manufacturing
processes. Architects and contractors select
building components from catalogs, with the
process of specification most often informed
by economic constraints. Although some
environmental standards, such as the Leadership
in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
certification program, encourage the use of local
and regional materials, a majority of buildings
are fabricated from resources originating in
radically diverse locations. The demand for
sustainable building products is growing, however:
it is projected to reach a global market value
of $254 billion by 2020.1 The rise in demand
for carbon-neutral materials has precipitated a
revaluing of locally sourced, renewable resources.
The resurgence of mass timber construction in a
number of European countries is an indicator of
this trend.
As new products enter the mainstream market
they are subject to a broad range of requirements,
from meeting fire regulations to addressing
consumer preferences. The process of modifying
materials and methods to fit the demands of the
contemporary marketplace varies, as the examples
that follow show. The construction industry
continually shifts toward greater efficiency, and in
order to remain competitive, traditional systems
must match the reliability, convenience, and
affordability offered by competing mainstream
practices.
Regulation and
Standardization
For early societies, the need to accelerate the
construction process gave rise to prefabricated
or unitized building components. Nomadic
groups devised systems reliant on lightweight,
uniform materials that could be easily assembled,
dismantled, and transported. The growth of the first
urban settlements brought about the development
of the form-molded mud brick, resulting in
stationary, stable structures that could be more
rapidly deployed than those made from hand-
molded masonry.2 With the exception of wood,
however, the systematization of most traditional
materials plateaued, limited by production
60 Material Strategies
methods highly dependent upon technical skill and
craftsmanship. Over time, these methods could not
compete with the mechanized production of steel
and other building materials.
Today, mass production offers the potential to
systematize materials that have remained outside
mainstream production scenarios. The case of
manufactured earth masonry in Germany offers
probably the best example of this to date. One of
the greatest challenges facing a product such as
unfired earth brick is the lack of regulations defining
production; standards promote uniformity from
one producer to another while also assuring quality
and performance. In 2013 the German Institute for
Standardization (DIN) introduced norms that define
the production of loadbearing and non-loadbearing
earth masonry and mortar.3 In addition to the
Lehmbau Regeln (Earth Building Code), these
norms give governing authorities a framework for
assessing new buildings made from standardized
earth products.
As with earth masonry, few standards govern
straw bale construction, making quality control
and regulation challenging. Straw has, however,
reached the mainstream market in the United
Kingdom. There, the company ModCell introduced
their straw cladding panel in 2001 [3.5]. The
product has evolved and is now produced as a
prefabricated, loadbearing panel filled with straw
bales. ModCell, in collaboration with the BRE
Centre for Innovative Construction Materials in
Bath, conducted structural, fire, acoustic, and
thermal transmittance tests necessary to receive
certification under the BM TRADA Q-Mark, a UK-
based certification system for building products. By
meeting certification criteria, ModCell demonstrates
compliance with industry performance standards,
paving the way for industry acceptance.
Cultural Perceptions
Materials, like forms, carry with them cultural
associations. One material may signal or support
certain societal aspirations, whereas another
might disrupt them. Therefore, the developer of
new products must consider these associations
with care. Further complicating matters, cultural
preferences are often less than straightforward.
In Europe and the United States, for example,
ascertaining whether renewable or ‘natural’
materials are preferred for their environmental
performance or solely for their sustainable
image can be difficult. In the case of the Ricola
Kräuterzentrum [3.6], one could argue that the
building’s enclosure, constructed from rammed
earth, constitutes a clever marketing strategy
intended to reinforce the company’s “naturally
good” corporate ethos.4 The relationship between
cultural perception and marketability resides at the
heart of a number of case studies presented in this
chapter.
Some ancient construction preferences and
practices have become so deeply embedded in
a culture that they persist to the present day. In
Japan, for example, heavy timber construction
remains the preferred system employed by the
housing industry. Although refined over the
centuries, its fabrication is highly mechanized,
while some features (such as joint configuration)
remain relatively unchanged. In addition, daiku,
or traditional master woodworkers, are in many
cases still responsible for assembling the timber
framework.
In other cultures, the opposite is true: new
products that rely on traditional materials can
face difficulties in gaining acceptance in places
where, used daily, these materials are undervalued.
Negative associations ascribed to certain materials
stymie efforts to upscale their application,
especially when used in housing construction. This
is problematic, as the rising cost of industrially
produced materials and the complexities of
importation have made low-cost housing out of
reach for many.
The connection between social status and the
outward appearance of one’s house has influenced
the ways in which materials are perceived and
has hindered efforts to revive certain building
practices in several countries. In parts of India,
Pakistan, and Bangladesh, for example, houses
are classified by material; these, in turn, reflect
the social status of the dwellings’ occupants. The
Kutcha house is the most common type among
poorer individuals, because of its reliance on
weaker, cheaper materials. It is constructed on an
earthen foundation and enclosed by walls framed
with bamboo, covered by organic materials. The
Semi-Pucca house is constructed from sturdier
materials—typically a timber frame covered by
woven bamboo mats, or corrugated metal sheets
resting on a brick perimeter wall foundation.
Pucca construction, which uses either masonry or
concrete for walls and foundations, is traditionally
reserved for dwellings occupied by only the
wealthiest families and is regarded as superior to
the other construction types.
The aid organization Base needed to navigate
a similar hierarchy of materials when it developed
sustainable, affordable housing for the Philippine
market [3.4]. Bamboo was (and still is) an important
natural resource on the islands, long integral to
the lives of many Filipinos. More recently, bamboo
has fallen out of favor and has been replaced by
more massive, industrially produced materials.
Local preferences for cement masonry block
and concrete led Base to suppress the outward
expression of bamboo, giving the impression of a
home constructed from massive materials rather
than lightweight framework.
There have been numerous attempts—mainly
by aid organizations working in developing
countries—to address the weaknesses of
traditional building materials. The development
of the compressed earth block (CEB) offers an
interesting case study in this regard. CEB falls in
a gray zone, somewhere between a manufactured
product and a handmade brick, but its uniformity
potentially makes it a competitive alternative to
the ubiquitous concrete block. Many projects
spearheaded by aid organizations were, and still
are, unambitious in terms of addressing the issue
of desirability. Rarely do these non-governmental
bodies involve architects in the development
process, and as a result most of these structures
are not designed to be anything more than basic,
utilitarian shelters. CEB’s identification with this
kind of construction perhaps may explain why
the material’s potential is often underrated by the
construction industry and why it is considered a
non-viable alternative to mainstream construction
materials.
Locally owned enterprises continue to produce
compressed earth blocks in a number of African
countries, albeit in small quantities. It is this
production model that may finally introduce CEB
to a larger market. In Niamey, Niger, for example,
interest in using CEBs has increased. A few
contractors have learned how to make the bricks
and have used them for constructing affordable
housing. CEB makes sense for larger projects
like these, as scaling up production reduces the
cost per unit, making the system competitive with
concrete masonry. Niamey 2000 [3.3], a multi-
family housing complex in Niamey, seeks to shift
prevailing attitudes about earth construction by
integrating the material into homes that Nigeriens
find attractive and want to own.
Bespoke to Standardized 61
Traditional Identity and Rauch’s prefabricated rammed earth panels for
Ricola and ModCell’s loadbearing straw bale panels
Replication for Bristol townhomes repackage ‘old’ materials to
meet the demands of the contemporary regulatory
environment.
The following projects highlight the role of
Whether these materials will lose their
traditional technologies from multiple perspectives
‘traditional’ associations once production becomes
within the contemporary marketplace. The
fully mechanized and the final product becomes
Onjuku Beach House [3.1] and Hostal Ritoque
fully predictable remains an open question; it is
[3.2] illustrate how systems based on traditional
unclear whether these particular examples are
methods have at turns become highly developed
exceptions to a general rule, replicable only in a few
and integrated into mainstream practice or grown
instances or under very particular circumstances.
increasingly underutilized. Long-standing biases
Imagining a potential future trajectory for each
against certain native resources impede a scaling-
system, however, constitutes an important goal
up of production, and the Niamey 2000 and
of this chapter, as is encouraging architects and
Base projects offer two approaches to shifting
builders to take up the mantle and push traditional
cultural perceptions. Regulations and standards
materials to new limits.
also restrict large-scale applications, and Martin

62 Material Strategies
3.1 Onjuku Beach House
Architect: BAKOKO
Location: Onjuku, Japan
Year: 2012
3.1.1 Onjuku Beach House exterior view.
Japan’s culture of wood first began in the forests
once covering the entire archipelago. Timber-
based building practices were refined over
the centuries in response to natural disasters
and continually shifting administrative centers;
adaptable wood systems could be easily
adjusted to accommodate these fluctuating
circumstances. Entire cities made from timber
were constructed for disassembly and transport,
an undertaking that required precise methods
of measurement and fabrication. The linear
nature of the material, combined with a continual
need for flexibility, gave rise to hierarchical,
modular arrangements of structural components,
which formed the basis for standardization and
prefabrication.5 Heavy timber construction was
perfected over many centuries, and this method
still provides the structural framework for most
Japanese homes today.
Current market conditions continue
to perpetuate the traditional Japanese
understanding of buildings not as permanent
edifices but as structures made to be replaced
or removed. In many urban areas, land is so
expensive that development will not increase the
value of a residential lot; in fact, homeowners will
often pay to demolish their house before putting
property on the market. Consequently, houses are
not typically expected to last more than 20 years
on average.
Contemporary post and beam construction is
perfectly suited for this economic environment due
it is flexibility, affordability, and rapid production
time. The Onjuku Beach House demonstrates how
Bespoke to Standardized 63
the post and beam system has been adapted to
an industrialized economy without eliminating the
possibility of customization and the advantages
of employing local labor. The form of the house,
while simple, challenges the modularity of the
traditional tatami grid and reveals possibilities for
modification.6
The house is located in Onjuku, a popular
seaside resort and fishing town about one and
a half hours by train from Tokyo. Designed by
BAKOKO for a Japanese and Australian couple,
the vacation home reflects the clients’ desire to
combine the relaxed attitude of an Aussie beach
shack with Japanese influences. The use of wood,
as a finish and as the primary structure, references
both of these traditions while also providing a
pragmatic and economical method of construction.
The beach house clients were conscience of the
external market forces that could eventually lead
to the demolition of their home; nevertheless they
invested in the project with the hope of passing it
on to their daughter.
The timber structure of the house was produced
using precut technology, an automated system
3.1.2 CNC precut timber members.
64 Material Strategies
of computer numerical control (CNC) machines
that process and shape wooden members with
a high degree of precision. By using this method
of production, individual customized buildings—
previously cost-prohibitive due to the manual
labor required—could be produced cheaply and
on demand. The precut system was developed in
the 1950s as a response to the increasing need
for housing. The system offered the means for
rapidly replicating the interlocking joints typically
produced by well-trained daiku, or traditional
master woodworkers. During the period of
industrialization after World War II, a generation of
daiku masters passed away without having trained
a large number of apprentices, as many young men
had chosen to work in factories. By mechanizing
the production of the most technically demanding
area of the structure—the joint—precut technology
has allowed post and beam construction to
maintain its position on the Japanese market, even
against lightweight wood framing and prefabricated
building components.
Japanese architects are very familiar with
the precut system. Houses built with this
3.1.3 Structural framing plan.

3.1.4 Timber frame

assembly.

Bespoke to Standardized 65

6 1
5
9
1 Genkan entrance 6 changing room
2 storage shed 7 master bedroom
3 kitchen 8 outdoor shower
4 living / dining 9 Tsubo Niwa (miniature garden)
5 hobby room 10 deck
3.1.5 Main floor plan.
process are planned on a 910-millimeter grid, a
module based on traditional tatami proportions.
Standard Japanese plywood and drywall, sized
910 millimeters by 1820 millimeters, also conform
to this system. Here, the architects began by
laying out the beach house on the standard grid.
Once the computer aided design (CAD) plans were
completed, they were sent to a nearby timber mill.
There the plans and sections were redrawn as a
three-dimensional building information model (BIM)
that was used to identify, number, and generate the
cut files for each structural framing member. With a
few exceptions, the joints produced today closely
resemble their traditional counterparts, and rely
on interlocking connections. Some of the square
66 Material Strategies
10
2
3
connections have been rounded in order to facilitate
fabrication by a rotating cutter head. Joints are
precise enough to prevent separation, but a certain
amount of the tolerance allows the framework
to flex slightly in response to wind and seismic
forces.7 Although the system does not depend on
nails or other hardware, Japanese building code
now requires metal fasteners, which provides an
additional layer of seismic protection.
Alastair Townsend of BAKOKO notes that, as
with other Japanese traditions, the application
of technology has maintained the continuity of
certain cultural practices, albeit in a highly altered
form.8 Although mechanizing production reduces
the need for skilled labor up front, it does not
3.1.6 Living room.
preclude daiku or other types of handworkers from
participating in the construction process. During
the construction of the beach house, one daiku
worked full time on the project. Following the
delivery of the timber frame, the daiku coordinated
the assembly of the structure, which included
matching wood members using the numbering
system, hoisting them into place, and hammering
them together using a wooden mallet. The erection
of the main structure took one day to complete
and involved the entire project team, regardless of
their skill level.
In addition to coordinating the construction
of the post and beam structure, the daiku was
responsible for installing drywall, the cedar siding,
and floors as well as fabricating custom casework.
Other areas of customization include the windows
and doors, which were produced locally, and the
atypical form of the house. A deviation from the
structural grid required the addition of a truss-like
outrigger, permitting the top floor to span over
the front porch area without the use of additional
columns.
The characteristically open nature of the
traditional Japanese house responds to hot
and humid conditions by facilitating airflow
throughout the structure. The open plan of the
beach residence takes advantage of these same
principles. Windows on the southern façade can
be opened in the warmer months to capture cool
ocean breezes, and slotted perforations milled into
the wooden balustrade promote air circulation to
the upper level of the house. Conversely, timber
shutters can slide across the entire southern eave,
securely locking down the home to protect it
from high winds and torrential downpours during
typhoon season.
Fully prefabricated homes have been available
since the late 1930s, with many well-established
companies producing them. The use of precut
technology, however, still dominates the Japanese
housing market because it can be customized
to meet individual tastes and needs. The open
frame system allows the infill portion of the house
to take on many forms, which can be fabricated
using different production methods and installed
Bespoke to Standardized 67
by local manufacturers and carpenters working
on site.
The downside to the precut method is that
much of the wood it uses is imported from
countries such as the United States, Australia,
and Finland. While efforts to restore local forests
have largely been successful, the most common
timber native to Japan, sugi, or Japanese cedar,
68 Material Strategies
is not optimal for use as glued-laminated timber,
or glulam, a product frequently employed for
precut members. Research is currently underway
to improve the performance of Japanese cedar
for glulam members so that this abundant, local
resource may once again be used for home
construction.9
3.2 Hostal Ritoque
Architects: Gabriel Rudolphy + Alejandro Soffia Arquitectos
Location: Ritoque, Chile
Year: 2012
3.2.1 View of Hostal Ritoque from south.
Situated at the base of a steep slope, the Hostal
Ritoque overlooks the northern tip of beach
stretching from the mouth of the Aconcagua River
to Punta Ritoque. When architects Rudolphy and
Soffia were asked by their client to design the
beach guesthouse within a limited budget, they
understood the project would require a different
working process than previous undertakings.
Rather than setting out to develop a form, the
architects began by carefully studying buildings
in the area, making note of prevalent materials,
construction types, and the technical competence
behind their execution. From these examples, the
team determined that wood frame construction
would not only meet their expectations in terms of
cost, but the expertise necessary to achieve quality
results could be found in the area.
Steep terrain, Pacific panoramas, and the
threat of earthquakes have all influenced the form
and construction of older buildings along this
portion of Chile’s coast, particularly in the city
of Valparaiso, a major port located to the south
of Ritoque. An influx of timber in the nineteenth
century initiated a shift from loadbearing
masonry to more flexible systems comprised
of slender wood members, which were often
combined with brick infill or simply clad with metal
or wood siding. This change allowed construction
practices to adapt to the demands of the local
environment. The lightweight members could be
transported without difficulty and easily modified
to follow the area’s steep geography. Moreover,
wood framing was inexpensive to produce and
quick to assemble; the system’s flexibility also
Bespoke to Standardized 69
made it well suited for areas prone to seismic
activity.
The introduction of wood framing, with its
inherent repetition and modularity, also marked
the beginning of an important transition from
construction practices dominated by manual
labor to methods based on industrially processed
materials. As industrialization progressed, quality
suffered, and wood subsequently developed a
reputation as a substandard building material.
Concrete now predominates in most urban areas
of Chile, while wood has been relegated to informal
housing and emergency shelters.
Nevertheless, Chile is currently one of the
largest growers and exporters of Pinus radiata,
a tree known for its rapid growth and consistent
quality. Some architects in the country have
begun to reevaluate the advantages of using
wood for construction. Rudolphy and Soffia
resolved to maximize the architectural potential
of this ordinary and inexpensive material by
1 2
1 guest cabin
2 communal living / dining
3 owner’s residence
4 access road
5 parking / public space
3.2.2 Site plan.
70 Material Strategies
investing time (rather than money) into design and
planning. Their methodology was informed by
economic necessity as well as a desire to address
a wider audience through the development of a
compelling, affordable example of wood frame
architecture.
In response to the terrain, the architects divided
the program into five separate living spaces,
arranging the long axis of each perpendicular
to the hillside. Three of the volumes form two-
story guesthouses, which are separated from the
owner’s apartment by a common area defined by
a kitchen, dining room, and living room, as well as
an outdoor terrace. Stairs are suspended between
the solid volumes, allowing access to the raised
living platforms and additional outdoor terrace
space. The architects achieved a sense of privacy
and a visual connection to the water by lifting the
buildings off the ground plane; a strategy that
also protects the living spaces from extreme tidal
conditions.
1 1
3
3.2.3 Exterior view.

Bespoke to Standardized 71
 6

5 1

3 2 8

1 entry 5 kitchen
2 living room 6 laundry
3 dining room 7 technical
4 balcony 8 deck

3.2.4 Plans and axonometric drawings of communal living spaces.

72 Material Strategies
 3.2.5 Wood framing.
The logic of the balloon framing system forms
the basis for the design: each structural bay is
310 centimeters wide, a dimension determined
by the structural capacity of local, rough-sawn
pine lumber. The lightweight framing of the upper
structure is supported by round, heavy-timber
posts that rest on concrete footings. The post
structure was reinforced in both directions by
diagonal bracing, which resists potential seismic
forces.
The number of floors in each guesthouse was
also limited by the size of available members.
After conferring with the structural engineer, the
architects decided that the guesthouse roofs would
not be habitable. The additional load would have
required larger structural cross-sections, thus
increasing construction costs. The team added
a communal deck to compensate for the loss of
exterior space.
Wood planking seamlessly wraps every surface
of the hostel. The smooth horizontal paneling that
lines the interiors reinforces the spatial orientation
toward the ocean. The cladding on the exterior
forms a continuous, rough shell, giving an outward
impression of protection while still maintaining a
sense of lightness. Permeable decking on the patio
Bespoke to Standardized 73
3.2.6 View from guesthouse.
areas retains a sense of continuity with the exterior
walls, permitting water to drain unseen onto a
sloped roof membrane beneath.
The windowless walls defining the long sides
of each volume reinforce the sense of enclosure
between the living spaces; the lack of openings in
this area also conceals a majority of the buildings’
structure, further emphasizing the orientation
toward the water. The opaque programmatic
elements, such as restrooms and storage areas,
are strategically positioned toward the hillside and
are used to conceal the structure without breaking
the visual continuity of the living spaces. When
the structural framing is permitted to surface, it
is carefully revealed on the inside of the exterior
balcony spaces and as a single cross-brace
that marks one window on each floor. The visual
richness of the exposed members occurs at the
threshold between inside and outside—between
the public and private spheres—inviting both
74 Material Strategies
occupant and visitor to engage the logic of the
buildings’ construction.
The final cost of construction was around
$760 USD per square meter. Soffia notes that
cost reductions forced the team to simplify
the design, giving them the freedom to devote
more time on critical detail development. The
refinement of significant details was also informed
by working on site with master carpenters.10 By
focusing attention on systems and construction
methods, the team was able to achieve what
they describe as “technical perfection” with
modest, rough materials. Through the design of
Hostal Ritoque, Rudolphy and Soffia leveraged
craftsmanship and simplicity in order to elevate
the potential of wood frame construction. For the
architects, using common materials and replicable
building processes to achieve a high level of
architectural resolution demonstrates that quality
can be obtained, even in projects of lower cost.
3.3 Niamey 2000
Architect: united4design (Yasaman Esmaili, Elizabeth Golden, Mariam Kamara, Philip Straeter)
Location: Niamey, Niger
Year: 2016
3.3.1 Niamey 2000 from southwest.
Niamey is the capital of Niger and home to
over one million inhabitants. The pressures of
globalization influencing the city’s growth parallel
those affecting other urban centers in West Africa,
but Niamey is only now witnessing the same
degree of development that has proliferated
across the continent. Niger is a landlocked country
with a limited amount of capital for building on
the scale that its growing population demands.
Most industrially produced building materials
are imported into the country, inevitability driving
up the cost of construction. Nevertheless,
several sizable projects have now reached the
planning phase, and Niamey is at a crossroads;
the traditional ways of living and working are
transforming, along with the built environment.
Against the backdrop of globalized
development, native resources that were typically
used for building in Niger—earth and straw—are
now gradually being superseded by cement block
and corrugated metal. The average person no
longer wishes to live in a house made of mud brick
or thatch but strives instead to obtain a home
constructed of clean, modern materials. The desire
for higher social status plays a role in this shift, as
traditional materials carry with them the stigma
Bespoke to Standardized 75
of poverty. The rejection of traditional materials
can be at least partially attributed to their poor
performance over the last three decades. Repeated
drought in the region has led to the scarcity of
wood and plants often used for building. Older
methods of construction have been forgotten or
modified, and the annual custom of repair and
replastering has fallen out of favor, leaving many
earthen buildings vulnerable to the elements.
Lifestyles have changed, and often there is little
time to invest in the labor-intensive construction
methods upon which previous generations relied.
All of these issues have altered Nigerien building
practices, and even minimal modifications
have substantially affected the durability
and performance of natural materials for the long
term.
Earth, however, has long been essential
to several parallel and overlapping building
traditions—especially in the Sahel region, where
Niger is located. A number of different ethnic
groups across the region have influenced and
developed a variety of styles and techniques for
working with the material. Probably the single
most important determinant of earth’s future as
a building material will be its continuing cultural
acceptance.
Historically, Niamey has never been considered
an ‘earthen city’ like its urban counterparts, Agadez
or Zinder. Its existence is brief in comparison, and
the traditional dwellings of its earliest settlements
were typically made of lighter materials, such as
wood and thatch. More permanent structures such
as mosques, as well as the houses of significant
community members, however, were commonly
constructed from plastered mud brick, locally
known as banco. The use of banco was even
mandated by the city government in 1926 after
a major fire destroyed the thatched dwellings of
the area’s inhabitants.11 Since Niger declared its
independence from France in 1960, reinforced
concrete and cement masonry block have steadily
replaced banco and thatch construction. Interest
in compressed earth blocks (CEB) has increased in
Niamey in recent years, mostly because the bricks
offer an affordable alternative to cement masonry
blocks.
At the same time, the demand for housing has
increased in the city, spurred on by population
growth and migration. The proliferation of
the compound—a single, one-story dwelling
surrounded by a perimeter wall—has influenced
much of the city’s growth and character.
76 Material Strategies
While the compound is one of a few housing
typologies found in Niger (as well as many other
countries) it does not provide the density required
to sustain the current level of urban growth.
Niamey has yet to see its first large-scale housing
project, but it is only a matter of time until investors
capitalize on the city’s growing need for living
space.
The deficit of housing alternatives in Niamey
attracted the attention of united4design, an
architecture firm with partners hailing from Niger,
Iran, Germany, and the United States. The team
elected to engage the issue at the local level by
developing an alternative model for multi-family
housing that would increase density while, at the
same time, respect the existing scale of the city
and the privacy afforded by the compound wall.
The architects proposed to house six families on
the same area as a conventional, single-family
compound lot (roughly 1,500 square meters).
The dwellings were designed to extend over two
floors, producing residences unlike most in the
city. Lower- and middle-income accommodations
are not typically two-story structures, but in
a growing urban center such as Niamey, this
strategy becomes increasingly relevant as the
city expands and commuting distances increase.
The living units were closely clustered around
courtyards; this tight organization follows older
housing configurations found in pre-colonial cities
of the region, such as Timbuktu in Mali, Kano in
Nigeria, or Zinder in Niger, which were all dense
urban centers in their day.
Niamey 2000 is named after the neighborhood
where it is located and is currently the only densely
planned housing estate in the city. Local investors
privately funded the project with the goal of selling
the units on the open market to middle-class
families. Local materials and production methods
were used to construct the building and—with the
exception of three members of the design team—
expertise for the project originated from within the
country or neighboring Togo.
At the outset, the team made the strategic
decision to use earth as the primary material for
Niamey 2000. A key goal for the project was to
establish a model for urban development that could
leverage earth-based construction, not only for its
sustainable attributes and its cultural associations,
but also for its potential to become an attractive
and desirable commodity. Compressed earth block
seemed to offer the best method for integrating
earth-based construction with the contemporary
 8
7
9 6
1 2
4
3
1 faada (gathering place)
2 entry
3 guest bedroom
4 living room
3.3.2 Ground-floor plan and longitudinal section.
demands of urban housing. However, despite
modest interest in CEB, the system is still far from
achieving mainstream acceptance.
The architects understood that for CEB
technology to succeed beyond Niamey 2000, the
material must be proven reliable and profitable,
as well as desirable. As a result, the project
became a pilot for promoting CEB technology.
CEB does have a higher standing than mud
brick, while offering many of the same benefits.
It can be produced from local soil and performs
well thermally in arid environments. In addition,
it offers an environmentally friendly alternative
to cement block. Even though CEBs are almost
always processed in small batches, using manual
labor and simple machinery, the blocks have the
appearance of an industrial product, with smooth
surfaces and consistent dimensions. In terms of
cost, once the initial investment for the brick press
5 dining room
6 ventilation shaft
7 kitchen
8 storage
9 outdoor kitchen
is made, CEB can be produced as cheaply as
cement block, another material that is often made
in small batches using rudimentary methods.
CEB construction is not well known in Niger;
most engineers are only familiar with conventional
structural systems based on steel or reinforced
concrete. Due to the complexity of the two-story
construction, URBATEC, the most respected
engineering firm in Niamey, was enlisted to
perform the structural calculations for the project.
The engineers were skeptical of the loadbearing
capacity of the bricks and opted to add minimal
insertions of reinforced concrete to the masonry
bearing walls. The addition of concrete was not
ideal; however, the architects anticipated that by
working with the material and gaining a familiarity
with the capacity of CEB masonry, the engineers
might be more willing to work with an all-CEB
system in the future.
Bespoke to Standardized 77
3.3.3 Compressed earth block construction.

78 Material Strategies
3.3.4 Southeast corner from street.
The architects selected a contractor with
previous experience in producing and building with
CEB. Once pressed, the blocks were cured for a
month before they were used for construction. The
project required double-wythe masonry walls in
most areas, which totaled 30 centimeters in width.
The resultant coursing was not overly complex,
nor did it require exceptional skill; however, the
workers spent more time and effort than they
would have laying concrete masonry. Because of
this, several teams left the job for other projects
requiring less effort. To avoid this complication
on future projects, the architects examined a
few alternatives. Wider blocks would simplify
construction by reducing the number of units;
however, the weight of a block would need to
be considered along with its size. A certification
process could also be instituted, which would give
CEB masons special status, perhaps giving them
an edge over unskilled labor.
Niamey 2000 was used not only to introduce
CEB construction to the building sector, but also
to present the benefits of the material to the
general public. Following local preferences, the
masonry walls are covered with plaster render.
The bricks were left unfinished in select areas,
but even when unseen, the material makes its
presence known as the masonry’s thickness lends
a sense of protection and comfort to the living
spaces and slows the transmission of sub-Saharan
heat. The depth of the enclosure is perceived
through openings in the walls, especially at the
thresholds between the interior and the exterior
spaces. Masonry screens on the main façades
and the staircases hint at the system responsible
for supporting the building. It is through small
clues that the occupants gain an appreciation
for earthen construction. These qualities, along
with the project’s contemporary aesthetic, were
intended to appeal to the local market.
Bespoke to Standardized 79
 3.3.5 Earth masonry vaults.
If left to run its own course, the practice of
building with earth in Niger may continue to
survive for a few more decades, and for the very
poorest individuals living in rural areas, the custom
may never fully become extinct. As the country
continues to grow and more foreign investors
pledge funds for building public as well as private
80 Material Strategies
infrastructure, large-scale housing projects seem
a likely addition to the urban landscape. A few
well-conceived projects in the capital, using local
expertise and production methods, could set a
valuable precedent for building with earth in the
future.
3.4 Base Affordable Housing
Organization: Base
Locations: Iloilo City, Tacloban, and Quezon City (Metro Manila), Philippines
Year: 2015––
3.4.1 Two-story duplex in Iloilo City.
According to the World Bank, almost 200 million
people living in the East Asia and Pacific region
moved to urban areas between 2000 and 2010.
A majority of the population, however, still lives
in rural areas; consequently, the trend of urban
migration is expected to continue for many
decades.12 The constant influx of new residents has
intensified the pressure on municipalities to provide
adequate housing and services for them. In many
cases the lack of support for equitable city growth
has meant that a significant proportion of the
region’s urban poor reside in substandard housing,
which is often vulnerable to damage from natural
disasters such as earthquakes and typhoons. This
situation is further exacerbated by extreme weather
variations brought on by global climate change.
In 2012, the Hilti Foundation established
an initiative dedicated to the development
of sustainable, affordable housing for rapidly
urbanizing Asian cities. Due in part to its particularly
high rate of urbanization and vulnerability to
natural disasters, the Philippines was chosen
as the initial site for the project, and the Base
foundation was formed to carry out research and
development in-country. The organization’s focus
on sustainability led them to closely examine native
Bespoke to Standardized 81
resources on the archipelago. Bamboo seemed to
offer the most potential in regards to availability,
low environmental impact, and cost, while also
generating income for Filipino farmers and
craftspeople. Base’s working methods are founded
on several years of research, which has resulted in
the construction of more than 250 units of housing
on a number of urban sites. An additional 250 units
are planned for the coming years.
Bamboo has been utilized for centuries to
construct houses in the Philippines. Today,
however, its status as ‘poor man’s timber’ has
limited its applications to structures located in rural
areas, where it is used primarily as an enclosure in
the form of woven mats or flattened panels. When
used structurally, the quality of the materials and
the techniques employed for connecting members
can lead to substandard performance—particularly
in typhoon conditions—further adding to bamboo’s
reputation as an unsafe and unreliable material.
In urban areas, bamboo construction is typically
relegated to informal shelters and non-structural
applications.
When the Base team began their research,
the possibility of utilizing bamboo construction for
urban housing had not been adequately studied in
the Philippines. In addition, knowledge related to
the material’s behavior in disaster-prone contexts
was limited. In order to scale up bamboo-based
construction systems for the affordable housing
market, the organization would not only need to
document and understand the technical aspects of
the material but the economic, social, political, and
environmental dimensions as well.
The team began their investigation by studying
native bamboo propagation and construction
practices, as well as local material preferences.
The team also examined case studies in Latin
America and Europe to determine the feasibility of
exploiting forestry products for housing. In addition,
Base consulted with a number of professionals
involved in other affordable housing projects
in the Philippines. Data gathered from these
focused studies later informed the development
and implementation of the organization’s bamboo
housing prototypes.
From their interviews with bamboo builders
and farmers, the team learned that the number of
skilled bamboo craftspeople was dwindling, due
in part to changes in building practices favoring
industrially produced materials such as concrete
block. Bamboo was also falling out of favor
because it was less likely to provide an additional
82 Material Strategies
source of income for farmers, as it had in the past.
These findings underscored the importance of
including skills training and market development in
the construction process.
To better understand local perceptions of
the material, the team interviewed individuals
living in bamboo houses. The results reinforced
assumptions that many people consider steel
and concrete buildings to be safer, more modern,
and easier to maintain than bamboo structures.
Because the material was most likely to be used
out of economic necessity, it was frequently
associated with poverty. Clearly, bamboo’s
image would need to be improved, not only
in terms of its performance and durability but
also in terms of its appearance. Housing made
from bamboo would most likely be rejected if it
resembled a traditional dwelling rather than a
modern one.
The team also reviewed data documenting
the barriers to and opportunities for using forestry
products to build housing. Base drew inspiration
from two examples: bamboo construction in Latin
America and timber frame construction in Europe.
The Latin American example was particularly
applicable as it offered a potential solution for
improving the durability and stability of bamboo
systems in the Philippines. The method, called
bahareque, proliferated in Colombia, Ecuador,
and Peru for many centuries. The system consists
of a bamboo stud framework that is covered
with flattened bamboo, or lath, and then coated
with a protective layer of lime or cement plaster.
Bahareque was used primarily by indigenous
populations for constructing houses, and proved
to be so robust that structures constructed by this
method were found to be less likely to collapse
during earthquakes. Its reputation for exceptional
seismic performance ultimately led to modern-day
testing in 2002 and bahareque’s inclusion in the
Colombian building code.
The case of timber frame construction in
Europe also offered the organization some
important lessons regarding bamboo systems and
construction processes. Timber, like bamboo, is
a renewable resource, and the thinking was that
the same principles that advanced the market for
wood-based building products in Europe could
potentially be applied to the development of the
bamboo building industry in Asia. The recent
increase of wood construction in Europe can
be attributed to a combination of the material’s
low environmental impact and the flexibility of
3.4.2 Cement bamboo frame construction.
timber systems, but demand has also been driven
by cost. Prefabrication has been employed by
the wood industry to reduce time and waste,
as well as improve quality, thus making wood
systems competitive with concrete and steel. By
contrast, the potential of whole culm bamboo as
a marketable building material has yet to be fully
explored.
To round out their understanding of affordable
housing in the Philippines, the Base team
surveyed several individuals from local housing
organizations, as well as homeowners and policy
makers. Architects, engineers, and material
suppliers involved in home construction were
also consulted. From these groups, Base learned
that cost was a major incentive to considering
alternative methods for housing construction.
Using new methods could cause problems for
individuals seeking home financing. Convincing
potential homeowners to invest would mean
proving that the homes were reliable, especially
when exposed to fire or typhoons. Furthermore,
using more bamboo for home construction would
necessitate scaling up existing supply chains in
order to meet the additional demand. Nevertheless,
by building affordable urban housing with materials
grown by rural farmers, Base would assist two low-
income groups often targeted by government aid
programs.
The team used the information gathered from
their initial investigations to define a development
and implementation plan that focused on improving
and verifying the performance of bamboo systems,
upgrading the material supply chain, as well as
strengthening connections with affordable housing
stakeholders. The team adopted certain elements
of the bahareque system that were found to be
applicable for the Philippines, with the addition
of fire- and typhoon-resistant components. To
encourage local assimilation, the team chose to
name the new system “cement bamboo frame”
(CBF). Base selected CBF for development
because houses fabricated with this system could
be finished to look exactly like concrete block
homes—a layer of cement plaster on the exterior
covers the bamboo framework. Plaster protects the
Bespoke to Standardized 83
bamboo, improving durability and fire resistance
as well as reducing the need for maintenance. With
the CBF system, Base could fulfill the demand for
affordable, safe, and durable shelter, while also
suiting the local preference for modern-looking
housing.
Due to differences in the type of bamboo
available in the Philippines, the Colombian code
was found to be inapplicable. Therefore, it was
necessary for Base to conduct testing of the raw
material as well as the CBF construction system,
which was carried out at the Research Institute of
the Philippines. The team used the results from the
material testing to specify criteria for determining
the strength, quality, and treatment methods for the
native bamboo species. The standards developed
during this process would later influence building
performance and cost.
The team also studied the performance of
the CBF construction system. For this, the team
turned to full-size prototypes and digital modeling.
A series of wall sections with connections were
developed, and were evaluated taking cost,
maintenance, and ease of construction into
consideration. House prototypes and digital
modeling proved useful for predicting building
behavior during typhoons and for determining
3.4.3 Prefabricated bamboo elements after installation.
84 Material Strategies
thermal performance. Three full-scale houses
were built in Bicol, one of the most typhoon-prone
regions in the Philippines. The houses suffered
only minor damage after hurricane Glenda, having
withstood 185 km per hour winds.
Beyond improving the CBF system, establishing
a sustainable supply of construction-grade bamboo
was critical to the overall viability of the program. In
the Philippines, bamboo is usually grown in small
quantities on farms scattered across the country.
As a result, Base faced the task of identifying and
developing relationships with a broad network of
bamboo suppliers. The team located farms through
field surveys and aerial mapping, and connections
were made with farmers. The team trained growers
to identify bamboo that met the newly established
criteria for strength and quality. Growers were also
taught by the organization how to properly dry,
treat, and store the bamboo culms. The training
program not only increased the reliability and
quality of the materials, but it also assisted farmers
in establishing a steady source of income based on
the cultivation of structural-grade bamboo.
After testing and establishing a reliable supply
of bamboo, Base continued on to develop three
housing types with the CBF system: a single-story
stand-alone bungalow, single-story row houses,

3.4.4 Home interior.
and a two-story duplex. All three types rely on
conventional reinforced concrete foundations and
are constructed using bamboo stud walls. After
installation, the walls are covered with wire mesh
and then plastered. The houses are constructed
with prefabricated bamboo elements, a method
that allows for large portions of the construction to
be completed under cover, out of the hot Philippine
sun and unpredictable rains. With fewer weather-
related delays, construction time is accelerated.
Working under cover also permits greater control
over the quality of construction and facilitates
worker training and oversight. By centralizing
and standardizing production, Base continues
to expand the skills of native craftspeople, while
bringing bamboo-based construction closer to
industry standards.
The organization’s careful process of
development and implementation resulted in the
successful execution of several housing projects
in diverse locations, such as Iloilo City and the
Bagong Silangan district of Manila. Base works
closely with other Philippine aid organizations, such
as those representing low-income communities
and individuals forced to relocate after natural
disasters. These partnerships insure that the
organization remains responsive to the needs of
potential homeowners. In addition, post-occupancy
surveys are conducted regularly to document areas
requiring further development and improvement.
The organization’s multi-pronged approach has
allowed them to increase production and build
with bamboo on a scale that is unprecedented in
modern times. The hybrid system developed by
the organization brings many advantages, from
supporting the rural economy to providing disaster-
resilient homes.13
Bespoke to Standardized 85
3.5 ModCell Straw Technology
Research: BRE Centre for Innovative Construction Materials, University of Bath
Architect: White Design
Location: United Kingdom
Year: 2001–
3.5.1 Panel assembly.
Crop-derived building materials have long been a
part of the rural landscape of the United Kingdom.
Thatch roofs and traditional cob-style houses
still dot the countryside, attesting to a time
when agriculture was the center of daily life and
commerce. Thatch provided the lightest form of
roofing, which proved useful in areas were wood
was scarce; less weight meant rafters and trusses
could be constructed from smaller elements using
less material. Straw was readily available and
inexpensive, making it one of the most popular
building materials over successive generations.
The threat of fire and the decline in agricultural
activity has resulted in the slow disappearance of
straw and other crop-based materials over many
centuries. From the 1970s onward, these resources
were primarily used for the repair and renovation
of traditional building stock. Straw and hemp, now
commonly referred to as cellulose-based materials,
have surfaced once again as potential construction
materials in part due to their low embodied carbon
and capacity to act both as insulation and thermal
mass within an integrated composite system.
86 Material Strategies
Over the last 30 years, regulatory authorities
in the United Kingdom have introduced energy
policies that require the reduction over time of
the carbon emissions produced by buildings. In
2007, the government announced new regulations
requiring all homes to meet the Zero Carbon
Standard. In order to meet this requirement,
homes need to be designed to mitigate all carbon
emissions produced on site as a result of energy
use. This is achieved both by improving the fabric
performance of the building and by producing low/
zero carbon heat and power on site.14 Although this
policy aimed to reduce carbon emissions caused
by homeowner operations, it did not account for
the embodied carbon associated with the initial
production of the building itself.
As a larger number of buildings are designed
for peak energy efficiency and their related carbon
emissions are reduced, attention is shifting to
the environmental impact of building materials.
Evidence also suggests that higher performing
buildings demand greater levels of material use,
further supporting the argument for low-carbon
products with energy-saving properties. Straw—
and modular straw bale panels in particular—fulfill
both of these criteria, while also offering an efficient
and rapid method of construction. At the same
time, however, a litigious business environment in
many Western countries has produced a risk-
averse construction industry, thus necessitating
the need for building products with established
performance data. This has often hindered the
acceptance of traditional building materials such as
straw and earth, as their performance is frequently
undocumented or not well understood. In addition,
high costs and a lack of technical knowledge
and client familiarity are also primary barriers to
mainstream adoption of these materials.
The development of ModCell, a loadbearing
straw bale panel, highlights the obstacles that
face a new product prior to its acceptance by
the construction industry and the mainstream
marketplace. Over the last decade, the ModCell
system has been the subject of academic
research intent on establishing a credible record of
performance data for the product. ModCell panels
have been used for constructing several mid-sized
buildings in the United Kingdom, which, along
with testing and simulation, has also increased
the technical knowledge of the system’s behavior.
Developed by architect Craig White and engineer
Tim Mander as a cladding panel in the early 2000s,
ModCell was initially conceived to be a super-
insulated product made from low-carbon materials.
The system was later modified to become a
loadbearing wall panel consisting of a straw bale
core supported by a structural timber frame.
The product is now marketed as a prefabricated
building element, which not only addresses the
problems inherent to straw bale construction, such
as time, structural limitations, and predictability,
but also gives ModCell an edge over other
building products on the market. Prefabrication
allows for just-in-time delivery, freeing up space
on the building site and protecting the straw from
inclement weather.
The ModCell “Traditional” prefabricated panels
are constructed using glue-laminated, cross-
laminated, or softwood timber members that act as
the primary structural elements carrying all vertical
loads. The addition of the timber frame increases
the structural predictability of the straw bales and
creates a product with consistent dimensions. The
frame is filled with compressed straw bales that are
stacked in a running bond pattern. Wooden stakes
are driven into the bales at intervals to insure that
the bales remain in position and to connect them
to the frame. The width of the bales determines
the size of the panels and their divisions. A typical
“three-bale” panel measures 320 centimeters
wide and is 260 to 290 centimeters in height,
with a depth ranging from 40 to 48 centimeters;
however, customized panel sizes and shapes are
also possible. The panel is subdivided following the
bale module in order to provide openings, which
are framed to full height. After the panels are filled,
steel rods are installed at the edges of the open-
face frame, forming cross-bracing that, in addition
to the rendered straw infill, helps to resist lateral
forces. ModCell now offers a range of prefabricated
panels that come finished either with traditional
lime render or other materials. ModCell “Core”
panels, for example, use glulam as the frame and
are divided by joists at 60 centimeters center and
filled with straw. The panels are enclosed with
vapor-permeable sheathing and oriented strand
board.
The development of ModCell began at the
University of the West of England and continues
at the University of Bath. The initial round of
research and development included fire, structural,
acoustic, and thermal performance testing of single
panels. The second phase was conducted using
a full-scale building constructed from ModCell
panels. The research team monitored a prototype,
called the BaleHaus at Bath, which they evaluated
over a two-year period for moisture penetration,
sound insulation capacity, air permeability, and
thermal performance. Constructing the prototype
contributed to the team’s understanding of
structural performance as well as assembly
procedures and detailing for an entire building.
The team also used digital modeling to predict
structural behavior and the resulting calculations
were compared against the findings from the
prototype testing, which ultimately validated the
accuracy of the digital models.15
Physical testing and digital modeling provided
ModCell with quality assurance and demonstrated
that the product meets important safety standards.
ModCell is certified by Chiltern International to
meet a 135-minute fire rating. The panels also
received the Q-Mark certificate from BM Trada,
a certification body responsible for assessing
construction products. In addition, the Passive
House Institute has validated and certified the
energy performance of ModCell’s Core Passiv
system, which opens up a new market for the
product. These third-party accreditations validate
Bespoke to Standardized 87
3.5.2 BaleHaus.
the credibility and quality of the ModCell system
under names that the United Kingdom building
industry recognizes. Certification also allows
homebuilders and developers to easily insure and
secure mortgages for construction using ModCell.
Another important step in removing barriers to
ModCell’s acceptance on the commercial market
was accelerating the design and delivery of the
panels. The development of an accurate digital
structural model has streamlined the study of
different panel configurations, thus permitting a
greater variety of building forms and layouts. For
example, the digital model was used to facilitate
the design and delivery of LILAC, a 20-unit
cohousing community in Leeds with five floor-plan
variations.
Also expediting as well as simplifying
production and delivery of the ModCell system
is the “Flying Factory,” which uses local skills,
labor, and materials. This method is based on the
Japanese just-in-time manufacturing and delivery
system called KanBan. A large percentage of
the ModCell panel consists of local straw, as the
88 Material Strategies
resource is abundant and widely available in the
United Kingdom (and many other countries). The
ModCell frame, however, is made from timber that
is usually cut, flat-packed, and imported to the
United Kingdom. The transportability of the timber
frame and the prevalence of straw allow panel
fabrication to occur in close proximity to most
building sites. A common construction scenario
begins by identifying a temporary manufacturing
facility close to the construction site—often a
barn or shed on the farm supplying the straw for
the panels.16 Shortening the transport distance of
the panels lowers carbon emissions and reduces
construction time and cost. In addition, producing
the panels under cover insures a higher quality
product and decreases construction waste.
Working with the construction giant Skanska,
ModCell’s Flying Factory has been used to deliver
a modular school for the Bristol city council.
The method proved so successful that the
school was completed in just 11 weeks—a 50
percent reduction in the time required to build a
comparable school with other methods.
 In establishing creditability and developing
expedited design and delivery methods,
the ModCell system has proven it can meet
the demands of the contemporary marketplace,
provided it can be produced at a reasonable price.
ModCell has recently constructed two market
rate housing developments with the developers
Connolly and Callaghan. In 2014/15, the company
helped to build seven townhouses in the
Shirehampton district of Bristol, which were touted
as the United Kingdom’s first straw bale homes sold
on the open market. The development is composed
of two 2-bedroom and five 4-bedroom units, which
were priced at £220,000 ($330,000) and £235,000
($350,000) respectively.
The exterior enclosure of the Shirehampton
housing was constructed with ModCell panels,
which rest on wooden rails embedded into the
reinforced concrete foundation. Highly insulated,
lightweight wood framing was used for the roof,
floor deck, and interior partition walls. Each unit
took approximately 4.5 days to build, thanks to
ModCell’s efficient prefabrication and delivery
system. Another advantage of the panel assembly
is that it can be clad with almost any material—
for the Shirehampton site, the team selected red
brick for the exterior of the townhomes and tile for
the roof. At Rochester Road, also in Bristol and
completed in 2016, ModCell constructed seven
3.5.3 LILAC cohousing. homes in much the same way as at Shirehampton,

3.5.4 Section showing

ModCell units clad with
brick.

Bespoke to Standardized 89
3.5.5 Shirehampton homes.
save for the façades, which were finished with
plaster render. From the outside (and on the
interior) both projects look like typical homes
in their respective neighborhoods, even though
they are made from what some might consider as
unconventional materials.
Many of the reasons for building with straw
are the same today as they were for previous
generations. The material is plentiful, lightweight,
and offers an excellent level of thermal insulation.
The ModCell system has been designed to take
advantage of these benefits, while mitigating many
of the problems traditionally associated with the
material. The result is a high-performing building
component that could eventually see widespread
90 Material Strategies
distribution. ModCell is currently involved in
planning and implementing over 100 housing units
in addition to a number of schools, community,
office, and commercial buildings. The company
also has plans to expand their market by licensing
their product in other countries. According to
Finlay White, the marketing and operations
director of ModCell, the company views the panel
production process as a model for manufacturing
that can easily adapt to regulatory environments
and resource systems found in different parts
of the world.17 This is an interesting prospect
to consider as it promises a global method of
manufacturing supported by local materials and
practices.
3.6 Ricola Kräuterzentrum (Herb Center)
Architect: Herzog & de Meuron
Location: Laufen, Switzerland
Year: 2014
3.6.1 Ricola Kräuterzentrum from southwest.
Over the centuries, the Swiss city of Laufen has
built a reputation as a center of ceramic production,
due in part to superior mineral resources and its
location on the Bir River. Romans settling in the
area were the first to fire clay excavated from pits.
During the late 1800s local manufacturers began
making bricks, drains, and tiles on an industrial
scale. Today the area is known for its high-quality
ceramic production, mostly in the form of bathroom
fixtures. Laufen’s inhabitants have transformed the
area’s resources and these, in turn, have influenced
the growth and development of the region.
Located on the outskirts of Laufen, the
Kräuterzentrum stands in stark contrast to other
industrial facilities in the vicinity. As an alternative
to the ubiquitous utilitarian shed, the rawness of
the building forms a connection to the region’s
elemental geology. When Herzog & de Meuron
selected earth as a primary building material for
the Kräuterzentrum, the relationship between the
material and the history of the area became an
important part of the project narrative, reinforcing
the notion that the building and its contents have
been produced using indigenous, time-honored
techniques and ingredients. Owing to its growing
reputation as a natural, healthy, low-impact
material, earth also became a way to physically
embody Ricola’s corporate identity as an
Bespoke to Standardized 91
 6

3
4 7

2 5

1 delivery
2 drying
3 quarantine drying
4 support spaces
5 cutting
6 mixing and apportioning
7 storing

3.6.2 Ground-floor plan and longitudinal section.

environmentally responsible company. For Ricola,
the value of these associations, together with
the material’s energy-saving properties, justified
the additional cost related to constructing the
façade.
The manufacturer Ricola is most known for the
production of cough drops containing a blend of
13 herbs, which are cultivated exclusively in alpine
regions of Switzerland. In a move to centralize
production and strengthen public relations, the
firm elected to build a single facility containing
operations for drying, cutting, mixing, and
storing herbs, together with a visitor gallery. This
decision resulted in the largest earthen building
in Europe, which is made with approximately
700 prefabricated, rammed earth elements. The
dimensions of the building and its location within
a seismic zone precluded the use of structural
rammed earth; the material is able to resist
compressive loads but has little to no tensile
capacity. Consequently, the core structure for the
Kräuterzentrum is a reinforced concrete frame that

92 Material Strategies
stabilizes the 45-centimeter thick, self-supporting
enclosure.
The physical properties of rammed earth
support the key operations of herb processing
and storage by regulating interior moisture and
temperature levels, thereby reducing energy
consumption. The material insures a consistent
year-round temperature and humidity level; no
other source of heating or cooling is required in
the storage and drying rooms. In areas requiring
higher temperatures, such as the offices and the
cutting room, a 20-centimeter-thick masonry wall
was added to the inside face of the rammed earth
enclosure, leaving a cavity for 20 centimeters of
insulation. Residual heat from the confectionery
production facility is delivered to these spaces by
way of hydronic tubes installed in the floor and
roof slab.
Earth construction specialist, Martin Rauch,
was responsible for detailing, producing,
and assembling the earth components of the
Kräuterzentrum. Rauch has worked more than a
decade to improve earth construction technology.
His first use of the prefabricated panel system
on a large scale began with the Gugler Printing
Plant, in Austria, constructed in 1999. Traditional
rammed earth construction is typically a labor-
intensive procedure that involves tamping down
successive layers of earth in formwork. Rammed
earth is difficult to execute in inclement weather
and can be damaged by freezing temperatures.
Prefabrication streamlines this process and
removes many of the complications related to
construction on site. In addition, quality can be
carefully monitored, production time is more
predictable, and fabrication does not hinder other
on-site construction activities.
Prefabricated earth panels have been used not
only for Kräuterzentrum but also for the Agricultural
School Mezzana and the Swiss Ornithological
Institute. For Ricola and the Swiss Ornithological
Institute, the panels were produced in an industrial
hall located in Zwingen—roughly 3 kilometers
from the Ricola site—using clay, gravel, and
marl sourced within a 10-kilometer radius. The
production, drying, and assembly of the panels
took roughly one year.
To fabricate rammed earth panels with the
least amount of human labor, Rauch’s company,
Lehm Ton Erde, has developed a machine that
automatically delivers the soil mixture to the
formwork. A mechanical tamper moves along
a track and compacts each layer as the soil
is delivered. Rather than tamping the panels
individually, an entire wall is fabricated at once
and then cut into single units. This accelerates
production and creates the appearance of
a uniform wall surface once the pieces are
reassembled in their final position. The system
can produce panels with a thickness ranging
from 18 to 80 centimeters. Even though this
system automates much of the panel production
process, tamping by hand is still required in certain
instances.18
For the Kräuterzentrum, the panels were formed
by compacting 16 individual layers of soil, which
was stabilized by adding roughly 30 percent local
clay to the mixture. The size and shape of the
panels were modified for atypical situations, such
as the areas adjacent to the round windows, but
the typical panel size was 1.3 meters high by 3.36
meters long, with each weighing roughly five tons.
These dimensions were based on the carrying
capacity of the crane and other requirements
involving transportation to the site.
After drying, the panels were packed, carefully
lifted onto a truck, and transported to the site.
The construction team then assembled panels
using an earth-based mortar. The final step to
achieving the façade’s monolithic surface was
to moisten, fill, and tamp the seams between
elements. The rammed earth was left bare on
the exterior and finished with an earth render on
the interior to insure sanitary conditions in the
production areas. Openings in the walls presented
some interesting challenges, as the material is only
capable of handling compression forces. Tensile
and bending stresses introduced by rectangular
openings for doors required the use of concrete
lintels. A different strategy was used for the larger
openings punctuating each face of the building.
Their porthole form distributes loads through
compression only, thus mitigating the need for
additional spanning elements.
The exterior of the Kräuterzentrum was
designed to be directly exposed to the elements.
For this type of rammed earth construction, the
amount of erosion due to weathering can be
calculated based on several factors such as wall
height and exposure to weather. A light rain shower
will have little effect on the surface of the wall, as
the material has the capacity to absorb and release
small amounts of water. When the panel is exposed
to larger amounts of water—from a downpour, for
example—clay minerals swell, hindering absorption
through the entire thickness of the wall.19 Once this
Bespoke to Standardized 93
3.6.3a Prefabricated rammed earth panels.
3.6.3c Filling and tamping seams between panels.
stage is reached, the residual water runs down the
surface of the wall carrying particles with it. Under
these conditions, larger aggregate will remain
fixed, but finer minerals will erode away over time.
This process is extremely slow and can be further
delayed by the addition of horizontal bands of
stone, tile, or, in the case of the Kräuterzentrum,
trass lime elements placed at intervals of 65
centimeters.20
Even with automated production methods
and standardized practices, the fabrication of
the façade of the Kräuterzentrum still required
a considerable amount of labor and time. In
addition, the loadbearing capacity of the material
was not utilized for the primary structure of the
building. These shortfalls notwithstanding, the
use of earth pushes the boundaries of standard
building practices in a highly industrialized context.
By making earth construction technology more
compatible with contemporary construction
systems and regulations, the Kräuterzentrum has
94 Material Strategies
3.6.3b Panel installation.
3.6.3d Earth render application on interior.
demonstrated the technical possibilities of the
material within Europe, especially for larger-scale
projects. The project marks an important milestone
in the standardization of earth building practices,
one happily made without sacrificing the visual and
haptic qualities of the material.
Notes
1 Matthew Ulterino and Eric Bloom, “Materials in
Green Buildings,” report, Navigant Consulting,
Inc., Chicago, IL, 2013, 3.
2 George R. H. Wright, Ancient Building in South
Syria and Palestine (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985),
351.
3 These standards apply only to manufactured
bricks and mortar with no additional stabilizing
agents, such as cement.
 4 “Naturally good” is Ricola’s current advertising Engineers: Structures and Buildings 168, no. 1
slogan. (2015): 67–75.
5 Thomas Bock and Thomas Linner, Robotic 16 ModCell panels are either fabricated in a local
Industrialization: Automation and Robotic “Flying Factory” or in a central manufacturing
Technologies for Customized Component, unit. ModCell panels used for housing projects
Module, and Building Prefabrication (New must be fabricated in one of three central
York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 99. manufacturing facilities that have undergone
6 The configuration of tatami, straw mats an audit by an ISO certification body. Homes
employed as a floor covering, were must comply with the ISO 9001 quality
traditionally used to determine the size management standard in order to be eligible
and composition of rooms in Japanese for bank financing.
homes. 17 Finlay White (marketing and operations
7 Ibid., 113. director, ModCell Straw Technology), in
discussion with the author via Skype,
8 Alastair Townsend (partner, BAKOKO), in
December 20, 2016.
discussion with the author, Seattle, WA,
October 29, 2015. 18 Otto Kapfinger and Marko Sauer, Martin
Rauch: Gebaute Erde Gestalten & Konstruieren
9 Tomoyuki Hayashi and Atsushi Miyatake,
mit Stampflehm (Munich: Institut für
“Recent Research and Development on Sugi
internationale Architektur-Dokumentation
(Japanese Cedar) Structural Glued Laminated
GmbH & Co. KG, 2015), 119–120.
Timber,” Journal of Wood Science 61, no. 4
(August 2015): 337–342. 19 Martin Rauch, “Fertigbauteile aus Lehm,”
Tec21 Schweizerische Bauzeitung 139, no.
10 Gabriel Rudolphy and Alejandro Soffia
29–30 (2013): 19–21.
(architects), quoted in material provided by
architects, Santiago, Chile. 20 Trass is a type of volcanic ash, which,
when mixed with slaked lime and water,
11 Scott M. Youngstedt, Surviving with Dignity:
forms a concrete-like material. Trass lime
Hausa Communities of Niamey, Niger (Lanham,
elements are water resistant and require less
MD: Lexington Books, 2013), 36.
energy to produce than their cement-based
12 International Bank for Reconstruction and counterparts.
Development/The World Bank, “East Asia’s
Changing Urban Landscape: Measuring a
Decade of Spatial Growth,” report, World
Bank, Washington, DC, 2015, xv.
13 Corinna Salzer, Holger Wallbaum, Luis
Felipe Lopez, and Jean Luc Kouyoumji,
“Sustainability of Social Housing in Asia:
A Holistic Multi-Perspective Development
Process for Bamboo-Based Construction
in the Philippines,” Sustainability 8, no. 151
(2016): 1–26; Corinna Salzer also provided
additional information for this section through
edits and discussions with the author via
Skype, October 20 and November 3, 2016.
14 The Zero Carbon Standard was discontinued
by the UK government in July 2015.
15 Chris Gross, Daniel Maskell, Tim Mander, Peter
Walker, Katharine Wall, and Andrew Thomson,
“Structural Development and Testing of a
Prototype House Using Timber and Straw
Bales,” Proceedings of the Institution of Civil

Bespoke to Standardized 95
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
 4
Local Engagement

4.1 Members of the Women’s Opportunity Center construction team.

 As the previous chapter made clear, the
standardization and mass production of building
components has resulted in great benefits for the
construction industry in terms of increasing speed,
efficiency, and predictability while minimizing
material and labor costs. By contrast, building
with unprocessed, raw resources and employing
manual methods of fabrication or assembly
requires an intense amount of physical labor. This
is generally considered a disadvantage, especially
in industrialized contexts, as returning to older
methods of production defies the established logic
of contemporary construction. There are, however,
certain advantages to be found in the use of raw
resources and labor-intensive working methods,
especially when these involve the collective
participation of the wider community for which a
building is built. In these scenarios, materials are
more than just inert mediums for construction,
and manual processes are less an energy drain
than an opportunity for engagement: both have
the capacity to encourage social interaction and
influence people’s lives in positive ways.
Reliance on domestic resources can increase
the value of those resources and thus the overall
wealth of a region. In addition, time-consuming,
labor-intensive production methods can stimulate
the local economy through the creation of jobs.
Training in the manual trades provides skills that
can be used beyond the duration of a single
project. An expansion of homegrown expertise
has the potential to improve the overall quality of
construction, which, in turn, can positively influence
property values, locally, and in neighboring
communities. In each case, the building process
serves not only as an economic driver but also
introduces an important opportunity for social
expression and self-actualization.
Economic globalization has had a profound
impact on the social aspects of building
construction and maintenance. The substitution of
industrial products for locally produced ones has
initiated significant social transformations, mainly
within traditional societies. Studies of communities
in Kenya and Somalia, for example, have shown
that social relationships once formed during the
materials collection, building construction, and
annual repair processes disappeared after the
introduction of concrete blocks and corrugated iron
to the region. Purchased goods eliminated the need
for the gathering and processing of raw materials,
activities that typically afforded women social
opportunities and independence, as well as control
98 Material Strategies
over materials and construction.1 Introducing
(or reintroducing) practices that capitalize on a
material’s potential to generate social interaction
and exchange may benefit a specific project
but, more importantly, can also provide new
opportunities for previously disenfranchised
groups. During the construction of the Women’s
Opportunity Center in Rwanda [4.4], for example,
women from the local community were trained
and given control of masonry production. They
performed every task, from excavating clay to
molding and drying bricks. The female masons
were so successful in their efforts that they later
established a brickmaking cooperative that
continues to supply masonry components for other
projects in the area.
The creators of Common Ground [4.3], a
workforce housing development in the United
States, also leveraged manual labor to promote
social interaction. Looking for a way to include
individuals with varying skill levels in the
building process, they elected to use straw bale
construction, a method that is relativity simple
to assemble. Working with straw bales allowed
individuals to band together to build their homes,
creating social connections even before the
neighborhood was complete. In addition, the
owners’ investment of sweat equity reduced
construction costs, a significant facet of affordable
housing development.
Communication
In the past, knowledge of materials and
construction was passed down from one
generation to the next. In some societies,
that transfer of knowledge was facilitated by
professional organizations formed around certain
activities, such as brickmaking and masonry. Often
the same individual who planned a project was
also responsible for its construction. This tradition
of master builder is still practiced in Djenné,
Mali, where masons are recognized as important
community figures responsible for maintaining
the city’s infrastructure.2 Djenné’s masons are an
exception, however, and a lack of skilled labor has
resulted in a decline, both in quantity and quality,
of buildings made from local resources, particularly
in sub-Saharan Africa. In Europe, trade guilds still
exist in some regions, but in many industrialized
countries, modern systems have entirely replaced
older methods of construction and the tradition of
passing expertise from generation to generation
has gradually faded away.
This loss of indigenous knowledge and skills
requires architects to rethink their working methods
when communicating their design intentions to
a given workforce. Methods and materials may
be unfamiliar to potential workers, as may the
conventions of construction drawings. To insure
clarity of intention and ease of construction,
some architects have developed communication
strategies dependent on demonstration or
“adaptive constructive logic.”3 When working in
Burkina Faso, Francis Kéré, for example, frequently
creates full-scale mock-ups on the construction
site in order to experiment with and demonstrate
how a material will behave under various
conditions [4.1]. These 1:1 models help to allay
the concerns—of the workers and the community
at large—about the structural soundness and
durability of a construction system, while also
providing an opportunity to train a new workforce in
unfamiliar techniques.
A similar strategy was used to convey best
practices to the villagers of Ma’anqiao in Sichuan,
China, after the devastating earthquake of 2008
[4.6]. Using an entire structure as a demonstration
project, villagers learned improved methods for
building with rammed earth while constructing a
courtyard dwelling. They were subsequently able
to apply these same principles in rebuilding their
own homes. This model was so successful that
the reconstruction of most houses was completed
in only three months. In Ecuador, Al Borde uses
their understanding of material systems to simplify
construction, not only to accommodate untrained
labor but also to eliminate reliance on electricity
and expensive power tools. The architects’ designs
for the Nueva Esperanza school and Esperanza
Dos are based on efficient geometries, which
facilitated construction and encouraged replication
by the Cabuyal community, where the projects are
located [4.5].
Training can also better equip architects
when working with unfamiliar materials such
as bamboo or earth, thus influencing design
decisions and communication methods.
Part of the mission of the Philippine design/
build program Estudio Damgo [4.2] is to raise
awareness about the benefits of bamboo by
using it in the construction of public buildings
in rural communities. Architecture students who
participate in the program receive training from
bamboo carpenters, who teach them enough to
competently design and build with the material
on their own. With their newfound knowledge,
the students are able to effectively inform the
communities with which they work about the
possibilities of building durable, long-lasting
structures made of bamboo.
In the case studies that follow, the architect
plays an important part in (re)establishing
connections between communities and their
immediate resources. The feedback loop, which
develops as the architect observes and responds
to conditions found in the field, informs the
design as well as the construction sequence. The
knowledge gained from this exchange can be
passed on and used by individuals to transform
their environment for the better.
Local Engagement 99
4.1 Opera Village and Center for Health Care and Social Promotion
Architect: Kéré Architecture
Location: Laongo, Burkina Faso
Year: 2013
4.1.1 Bird’s eye view of future Opera Village.
The Opera House for Africa was the brainchild
of the late German film and theater director
Christoph Schlingensief. His initial intention for
the project was to challenge the conventional
notions of a Western cultural institution by building
an intercultural meeting place for local and
international artists. The construction of a world-
class performance venue would bring attention
to Burkina Faso as a center for African film and
theater. During the course of its development, the
project attracted many supporters, but there were
also those who were critical of the idea of building
an opera house in one of world’s poorest countries.
Even Francis Kéré, the Burkinabe architect
responsible for designing the project, was skeptical
at first.4
In September 2009, Burkina Faso faced the
worst flooding it had experienced in 90 years,
causing thousands of families living in and around
100 Material Strategies
the capital city of Ouagadougou to lose their
homes. This disaster changed the course of the
project: the initial site selected for the building
had been washed away, and the task of providing
shelter for flood survivors seemed more pressing,
and appropriate, than constructing an opera
house. Schlingensief responded to the catastrophe
by proposing that Kéré develop a housing
prototype. This request inspired the architect
to expand the opera from a single building to a
central gathering space at the heart of an entirely
new community, which would later be called
the Opera Village. The village would provide not
only housing but also a school, a medical clinic,
vegetable gardens, a restaurant, and artists’
workshops. The enterprise would be self-sufficient,
run by locals, and serve surrounding communities
as well as Opera Village staff and visitors.
Together, Kéré and Schlingensief envisioned a
4.1.2 Center for Health Care and Social Promotion from northwest.
growing community where connections between
the arts and everyday life would be accentuated
and celebrated.
For the new proposal, Schlingensief and
the team settled on a five-hectare site located
approximately 30 kilometers northeast of
Ouagadougou, near the village of Laongo. Donated
by the local government, the land for the project
was selected primarily for its bowl-shaped form,
which spatially reinforced the desire for a central
gathering place. Although Kéré had planned
the performance theater as the anchor of the
village, the school, cafeteria, sound studio, and
living quarters were the first to be constructed.
Subsequent construction included artists’
residences, offices, and the clinic. As of 2016, the
project’s sponsors have constructed 16 buildings
on the site and fundraising for the performance
theater is underway.
The Center for Health Care and Social
Promotion was positioned on the periphery of the
Opera Village in order to minimize disturbances
caused by daily activities and to take advantage
of unobstructed views of the landscape. The
800-meter facility opened in 2014 and was
designed to meet the medical, obstetric, and
dental care needs of roughly 5,000 individuals
living in the surrounding areas. The design of
the Opera Village takes its cues from the cellular
organization of traditional Burkinabe compounds,
which are configured to expand and contract
with the needs of their inhabitants. The clinic
follows this same modular organization, with the
examination rooms, inpatient wards, and staff
offices arranged in clusters surrounding a series
of inner courtyards. Each courtyard promotes
airflow to adjacent examination rooms and also
provides shady waiting areas for patients and their
visiting families. This is an important feature given
the fact that temperatures can reach 50 degrees
Celsius during the dry season. From the exterior,
the seemingly impenetrable volume is punctuated
by a haphazard array of concave apertures. From
the interior, the same openings frame various
views from a standing, sitting, or lying position
and also permit controlled daylight to enter the
compound.
As with most of Kéré’s previous projects built
in his home country, the clinic was constructed
using primarily local materials and labor; the
project’s remote location and limited budget made
the decision to use native resources a logical
Local Engagement 101
 4
7

11

6
12 10

13

8 9

1 2

3 6

1 main entrance 8 waiting room

2 reception 9 maternity / gynecology ward
3 examination room 10 dentist
4 inpatient rooms 11 storage
5 courtyard 12 pharmacy
6 staff rooms 13 warden’s quarters
7 staff quarters
4.1.3 Ground-floor plan.

102 Material Strategies

4.1.4 Building section.

one. Other than cement and metal (for the roof,

1 2 window frames, and reinforcement), only native
materials sourced directly from the site were used
3
4 in construction. For centuries, earth has been
an important building material in the region, and
Kéré makes a point of connecting back to this
tradition. At the same time, he also recognizes
that older practices require updating in order
to meet contemporary needs. To this end, the
5 architect uses compressed earth block (CEB)
as a stand-in for traditional mud brick. Like its
predecessor, CEB can be produced on site from
local soil, but the blocks are stabilized with cement
and formed by a mechanical press, resulting in a
more durable, uniform product that requires less
6
maintenance.
The region is rich in laterite, a soil that hardens
when exposed to air, making it particularly well
suited for unfired bricks. Its high iron oxide
content gives the earth masonry of the clinic its
particular ocher shade. Initially blocks for the
5 clinic were purchased locally, but once workers
received training they produced their own blocks
8 on site. Hard-crust laterite deposits are also
common to the area, and the external walkways
7 and courtyards were paved with blocks that were
excavated, cut while fresh, and left to gradually
harden over time. In the courtyards, eucalyptus
9 branches line the underside of the metal roof.
The eucalyptus tree produces oils that repel
insects, making it less prone to termite infestation
1 rain gutter: double layered sheet metal 1mm (a problem common to sub-Saharan Africa). The
2 truss: steel rebar
3 lost formwork with corrugated metal S15 100 mm
use of eucalyptus can be justified in this timber-
4 reinforced ring beam 30 x 30 cm poor region because it is not indigenous, offers
5 double layer wall: hollow concrete block,
waterproofed + compressed earth block 30 cm little shade, and requires large amounts of water
6 window unit, reinforced concrete
7 floor exterior: compacted earth, laterite blocks +
to thrive.
cement mortar The exterior of the clinic maintains a simple
8 floor interior: compacted earth, concrete slab, screed,
cement mortar, slip resistant tiles 15 x 15 cm profile, with the roof terminating abruptly at gutters
9 stone footing installed along the outer walls. The omission
4.1.5 Exterior wall section. of an overhang is meant to discourage animals

Local Engagement 103

4.1.6 Interior courtyard.
from gathering under the shade of the roof, but it
also leaves the exterior façades exposed to the
elements. This detail precipitated the need for an
external layer of concrete block, which shields
a secondary layer of compressed earth block
from rain. The mass of both layers regulates the
internal temperatures by absorbing heat during the
daytime. In the courtyards, the CEB is exposed but
protected by a roof overhang.
Involving the community in the construction of
local infrastructure has been an important part of
Kéré’s working method. Construction in Burkina
Faso currently suffers from a lack of skilled labor,
creating a need to train new workers for each
project. Kéré views local participation not only as
a cost-saving measure but also as a means for
capacity building.5 Many trainees have leveraged
the skills gained by working on Kéré’s building sites
to find gainful employment elsewhere. By allowing
the community to “build their own infrastructure,”
Kéré’s method places the construction process
squarely in the hands of those who stand to gain
the most from the project.6 Individuals are more
104 Material Strategies
inclined to take ownership of a structure they built
themselves, and their construction experience
prepares them to perform future building
maintenance and repairs.
The German non-profit Grünhelme (Green
Helmets) oversaw the construction of the clinic
and organized the efforts of more than 80
individuals from five neighboring villages. Like
Kéré, the Grünhelme team also places importance
on community participation and inclusion. At
the project outset, the team visited each village
to discuss the project with community leaders
and extend an invitation to individuals interested
in helping to build the clinic. As construction
progressed, appointed representatives visited the
site on a daily basis and reported back to their
respective communities on the project’s status.
Workers were paid a daily wage for their efforts
as well as receiving specific skills training in the
areas of carpentry, metalwork, and bricklaying.
After demonstrating proficiency on the construction
site, workers were awarded an official certificate
attesting to their participation and contribution

4.1.7 Members of the construction team.
to the project. The certificate, much like a letter
of recommendation, gives future employers a
reliable way of assessing an individual’s knowledge
and skills.7
The Opera Village was designed as a gathering
place for a community that did not exist when
it opened in 2010. Schlingensief described the
future growth of the project as “slow and organic,”
and it has indeed gradually attracted people over
time.8 The village has hosted programs such as
the Mobile Cinema and workshops led by national
and international artists. The school is currently
the most successful piece of the project, with over
250 students enrolled. The number of children
increases each year, and a classroom addition is
currently in the planning phase. Word of the clinic
has spread to neighboring communities: expectant
mothers are taking advantage of medical services,
and the dental facility has become particularly
popular. As the village continues to develop,
many of the clinic’s construction workers have
found employment on site, especially in the
area of brick production. Local materials and
the skills necessary to build with them are
unlimited. Founded to promote cultural exchange,
today the Opera Village offers much more to its
neighboring communities.
Local Engagement 105
4.2 Dungga Daycare
Architects: Estudio Damgo, Department of Architecture, Foundation University
Location: Barangay Malaunay, Valencia, Philippines
Year: 2013
4.2.1 Students constructing the daycare roof.
Situated along the banks of the Okoy River,
the mountainside village of Malaunay is
home to approximately 500 families. Unlike
other rural communities in the Philippines,
Malaunay is relatively new and its population
is growing. Agriculture has traditionally been
the mainstay of the local economy, but with
the construction of a geothermal power station
nearby, opportunities for work in the region
have expanded. The demand for childcare has
increased along with these new developments:
most parents in the village did not themselves
attend preschool but are eager for their children
to have access to early education programs.
The need for facilities became even more
acute after a storm flooded the only daycare
in the area and preschoolers were moved to
106 Material Strategies
a makeshift structure adjacent to the local
elementary school.
Building a new daycare facility for the village
of Malaunay was the first project undertaken
by Estudio Damgo, a design/build program led
by senior architecture students at Foundation
University in Dumaguete City. Founded in 2012,
Estudio Damgo was modeled after design/build
courses in the United States and was organized
to offer students one semester devoted to design
and a second to construction. Despite its foreign
origins, Estudio Damgo’s singular reliance on
bamboo unequivocally links the program to the
Philippines. On Negros, where the program is
located, bamboo is abundant and has been
used for building houses and other structures for
centuries.
 Bamboo is Estudio Damgo’s material of
preference for a number of reasons. It provides a
quick and inexpensive method of construction and
is a rapidly renewable resource. More importantly,
the Estudio Damgo team considers bamboo
construction to be an environmentally sound and
culturally relevant alternative to Western-inspired
environments, such as office buildings and
shopping malls, which are currently on the rise in
the country. Unlike the lightweight structures native
to the area, newer buildings are not suited for the
tropical climate and typically require the addition
of mechanical systems for cooling. By establishing
a dialog with project stakeholders, Estudio Damgo
aims to inspire the local community to think
differently about their surroundings.
Many dwellings on Negros are still made
from bamboo and nipa palm thatch, but these
are usually owned by families with lower
incomes, whereas the more affluent live in homes
constructed from concrete block. The shift away
from traditional construction practices based on
bamboo and other lightweight materials began
with colonization; the use of stone was mandated
as the Spanish sought to permanently establish
their regime on the islands. The contemporary
landscape of Negros perpetuates this dichotomy
with a mix of solid concrete schools, churches, and
homes (often enclosed by a compound wall) and
open, airy, plant-based structures.
Current attitudes toward bamboo have also
been shaped by the material’s diminishing reliability,
due in part to a decline in practical knowledge
about its characteristics and construction
practices. Bamboo structures are often quickly
constructed using temporary connections, which
greatly reduces their reliability during high winds
and typhoons. Treatment methods used to prevent
insect infestation and increase fire resistance are
also not widely practiced.
Given these long-standing biases, it is not
surprising that concerns were voiced when the
scheme for the Dungga Daycare was initially
presented to community stakeholders. As local
confidence in the project was crucial to its success,
the Estudio Damgo team addressed concerns
by discussing how the life of the building could
be extended through the treatment of bamboo
against insects, proper detailing, and structural
redundancies. The team pointed to an 80-year-
old bamboo structure in nearby Bacolod City to
underscore the material’s longevity. In addition, the
team also described the advantages of bamboo
through the use of perspective drawings, which
illustrated how the structure could be configured to
successfully integrate the building with the adjacent
surroundings.
To insure the quality and durability of the
bamboo structure, the team invited area experts
to participate during design development and
construction. Rene Armogenia, a local architect
with experience in bamboo construction, acted
as the primary consultant on the structure. In
addition to tapping him for technical advice, the
students carefully studied his built work, using
one of his bamboo truss designs as a model for
the daycare roof structure. The truss structure
was subsequently adapted for the site’s exposure
to high winds by adding additional supporting
members. A local engineer reviewed the truss
configuration with students and basic rules of
thumb were developed to determine if the structure
would be strong enough.
In preparation for construction, the Estudio
Damgo students completed a series of workshops
led by craftspeople and farmers from the
Philippines Bamboo Foundation (now known as
Bambus Collabo). The 2.3-hectare bamboo farm
and work collective hosts a bamboo nursery and
artisan studio for producing furniture and other
handicrafts made from the plant. On the farm,
students learned about bamboo growth, care,
and harvesting. They observed native species and
studied the advantages of each in construction, as
well as treatments for reducing flammability, mold,
and insect infestation. Craftspeople demonstrated
joinery and lashing techniques and also assisted
the team with mocking up one of the trusses for
the daycare roof. The training on the farm prepared
students for speaking with community members
about the material and also imparted enough
technical knowledge for the team to confidently use
newly acquired skills during construction.
The design of the daycare developed in dialog
with the community. Information gathered from
surveys and small group discussions informed
the team’s design process. The final design—a
48-square meter, freestanding classroom—is
located behind the neighborhood elementary
school. In form and materiality, the building is
subtly inspired by the nearby bamboo and nipa
huts and is meant to provide preschoolers with a
familiar environment reminiscent of home. Folding
bamboo screens on the north side of the structure
open up to mountain views and allow for increased
air circulation on hot days. The west elevation
Local Engagement 107
4.2.2 Dungga Daycare from northwest.

4.2.3 West elevation.

108 Material Strategies

 5
1

1 main entrance
2 sliding doors
3 classroom
4 covered seating
5 water collection tank
6 enclosed play area
7 stage (existing school)

4.2.4 Floor plan and transverse section.

Local Engagement 109

4.2.5 Daycare interior.
facing the school is protected by a low overhang
and consists of alternating open and closed panels
made from vertical, whole or sliced bamboo poles.
Constructed primarily from concrete block, the
east side of building is mostly solid, protecting
the structure from the prevailing winds. Raised
concrete footings provide a solid base for the
structure, elevating the bamboo out of reach of
surface water and damp. A rammed earth bench
on the east side of the building spans between the
footings, offering protected exterior seating under a
deep thatch overhang.
The difference between the light, airy character
of the daycare structure against the heavy rigidity
of the school further emphasizes the suitability of
bamboo construction for this particular environment.
The daycare remains cool, while the school—with its
masonry walls and thin metal roof—tends to heat up
on the hottest days. The school’s façade is mostly
closed to the surrounding landscape, affording
students almost no view to the outside. The
daycare’s bamboo screens, by contrast, allow for
110 Material Strategies
filtered views and daylight, even when the structure
is closed.
Surveys and interviews conducted since
Estudio Damgo handed over the building to the
Malaunay community in March 2013 indicate
an increase in student attendance. The space is
used for monthly parent–teacher meetings and
also hosts a meal program organized by the city’s
Department of Social Welfare and Development.
The community has embraced the structure,
maintaining it while also adding new improvements
to the school grounds. After three years, the
building remains in excellent condition, showing
only minimal signs of weathering.
After the success of the Dungga Daycare, the
Estudio Damgo program has continued to grow.
Students have designed and built two additional
projects (a multipurpose hall for relocated flood
survivors of typhoon Sendong and a floating marine
sanctuary guard post) and have recently completed
a fourth building (a visitor information center for the
city of Dumaguete). The students themselves were
responsible for raising funds for each project, using
crowdsourcing and other initiatives. With each
project, the program has gained more visibility and
public support.
Estudio Damgo advances traditional
construction methods using materials native to the
island, but, more importantly, it connects soon-to-
be architects with the general population, raising
awareness about the profession and the potential
rewards of a collaborative design process. Over
the long term, this model will hopefully serve as a
springboard for graduates to find and fund local
projects, rather than having to seek work in Manila,
or even further afield in Dubai.
Local Engagement 111
4.3 Common Ground Neighborhood
Architect: Mithun
Location: Lopez Island, Washington, USA
Year: 2009
4.3.1 Common Ground Neighborhood.
Lopez Island is located off the northwest coast
of the United States and is part of the San Juan
Island archipelago. The island is a popular vacation
destination, and an increase in second home and
rental sales has caused housing prices to escalate
over the last 20 years. Local residents Sandy
Bishop and Rhea Miller were part of a small group
who started the Lopez Community Land Trust
(LCLT) in 1989 after experiencing a steep increase
in real estate prices in that year. LCLT was initiated
on Lopez because it offered a sound strategy for
maintaining affordable housing for working island
residents.
Like many community land trusts, LCLT is a
non-profit organization that purchases and retains
ownership of land, develops housing on the
property, and sells the units at an affordable price
with an equity cap on resale, assuring perpetual
affordability. LCLT acquires land and construction
112 Material Strategies
funding through a combination of bank financing,
public and private grants, down payments, and
donations from the community. Before purchasing
a share in the cooperative, each prospective LCLT
homeowner must demonstrate they have lived on
the island a minimum of two years, have limited
financial assets and a regular income. Initial shares
in the cooperative are purchased with sweat equity
and a cash down payment. LCLT has developed six
affordable housing neighborhoods with a total of 40
housing units.
The Common Ground Neighborhood is
LCLT’s largest and was designed as a mixed-
income, net-zero energy development, which
consists of 11 homes—all situated on a portion of
a seven-acre parcel less than a mile from Lopez
Village. Common Ground was fully occupied in
2009 and is part of a growing development, which
includes the LCLT office, seed library, two rental
 1
6
2 4
3 5
1 entry
2 kitchen / dining
3 living
4 flex space
5 bedroom
6 shed
7 garden
6
2 4
3 5
1
apartments, and two other smaller cooperative
neighborhoods.
At the outset, LCLT established several goals
for the Common Ground Neighborhood regarding
the environmental, energy use, affordability, and
community participation. Mithun, a Seattle-based
firm with expertise in architecture, planning, and
landscape design, was hired to assist the Common
Ground stakeholders in achieving their objectives.
In order to reduce energy and water use, the team
at Mithun designed the homes to be as compact as
possible; the architects also carefully considered
solar orientation, natural ventilation, sun shading,
and insulation. Renewable energy in the form of
a 33 kW photovoltaic array and evacuated-tube
solar hot water systems also offset energy use, and
a rainwater catchment system collects water for
washing machines, toilets, and landscape irrigation.
5
4.3.2 One- and two-bedroom
flex units.
The neighborhood is bounded to the north by a
forest, and an open meadow to the south; the
architects took advantage of the gentle slope of
the land between these areas to direct surface
water into rain gardens, which filter and treat
runoff. Homeowner awareness and participation
was also an important part of achieving project
goals. A metering system allows homeowners to
monitor their weekly water and energy usage; a
user’s manual and training help residents to actively
participate in reducing their energy and water use.
Thus far, four of the eleven homes have achieved
zero net energy consumption.9
Common Ground homeowners were required
to work together on the construction of their
neighborhood, but the cooperative nature of
the trust also contributed to a strong sense of
community between individuals. In addition to
Local Engagement 113
1 Homes sizes are small to reduce energy and
resource use.
2 Overhangs calculated for heat gain in winter
and shading in summer.
3 Vegetated trellis for shading at
lower windows.
4 Super insulated roof and walls.
5 Straw bales at north, east and west
walls for insulation, resource use, and 12
interest in natural building by interns and
local community.
6 High efficiency, operable windows for solar
performance, natural cooling and ventilation.
5 10
Solar shades on window interiors.
7 Insulated night/light shades at windows.
8 Concrete floor as thermal mass.
9 Energy star appliances and compact
fluorescent lighting.
10 Low flow plumbing fixtures.
11 Solar hot water heating.
12 Rainwater catchment for toilet flushing,
washing machines, and stormwater control.
4.3.3 Energy systems.
the homeowners’ own sweat equity investment
in the project, over 60 college students and
young apprentices also helped to build homes.
Anticipating novices on the building site, the
architects considered strategies for simplifying
construction. Standard wood frame construction
combined with straw bale infill seemed to meet
this requirement well. Even though straw bale
construction originated in the state of Nebraska, it
is not common in the United States. However, straw
bale construction (loadbearing and non-loadbearing)
is permitted in a few jurisdictions, mostly in the
southwestern part of the country, where the climate
is hot and dry. Only a few examples of straw
bale homes exist in the Pacific Northwest, where
questions regarding its suitability in a maritime
climate have typically limited its application. These
concerns did not deter LCLT, as some members
had built straw bale homes 20 years prior and were
convinced of their durability and thermal properties.10
Straw is still plentiful in the Northwest and bale
construction, an inexpensive way to improve energy
performance, further encouraged its use.
The team relied on lightweight, wood framing
to construct the homes at Common Ground. Straw
114 Material Strategies
2
4
7
11
3
6
9
8
bales were used as infill for areas requiring the
greatest level of insulation and thermal mass—on
the north and most of the east- and west-facing
walls of the homes. To infill these walls, the team
stacked 18-inch-wide straw bales, starting from
the base of the framing and ending at the topmost
member. Instead of pinning the bales together, poly
webbing was used to bind them. After binding,
the bale walls were compressed by tightening a
series of cargo tie-down straps and then rendered
with layers of earth and lime plaster. The portions
of the homes not enclosed with straw bales
were sheathed with plywood, filled with blown-
in cellulose insulation, and protected with an
airtight barrier and cedar shingles. High-efficiency,
operable windows located on the south-facing
walls were installed to promote solar heat gain in
winter and natural ventilation in the summer.
A few years after construction, the residents of
Common Ground came to appreciate their close-
knit community even more when they discovered
moisture damage in some of the homes. Neighbors
came together and resolved to find a solution,
and after consulting with a number of straw bale
experts, they invited a moisture performance
4.3.4 Straw bale construction crew.

specialist from England to assess the situation in

person. The group learned that their plastering
methods, in addition to insufficient roof overhangs,
were responsible for the moisture penetration.
The lime plaster used on the straw bale portion of
the homes had not cured properly, and residents
were advised to replace it with traditional lime
putty plaster.
The community worked together to repair the
damage and to make preventative modifications to
their homes. The group identified the walls affected
by moisture and drilled ventilation holes to allow
them to dry; afterwards a new finish coat of plaster
was applied. All exterior walls were covered with a
wash finish made from traditional lime putty, and
new overhangs were added to vulnerable areas.
The moisture problems have since dissipated, and
residents of Common Ground remain enthusiastic
about their homes. The DIY nature of straw bale
construction allowed novices to participate in
construction, but this also opened the door to
mistakes. Although rectifying these required the
council of experts, the community still carried out
the repairs on their own.
Common Ground is a unique model of
cooperative living that can only reach its financial
and environmental goals through community 4.3.5 Straw bale wall foundation.

Local Engagement 115

4.3.6 Straw bale plaster finish.

participation. From straw bale walls to solar maintenance. Residents of Common Ground have
arrays, each of the project’s systems demanded a shown their willingness to engage in and learn from
substantial amount of time and effort to understand the process of constructing community, even when
and install, and continue to require upkeep and there are problems along the way.

116 Material Strategies

4.4 Women’s Opportunity Center
Architect: Sharon Davis Design
Location: Kayonza, Rwanda
Year: 2013
4.4.1 Demonstration farm at Women’s Opportunity Center.
The Women’s Opportunity Center (WOC) was
conceived as a hub for economic development and
social exchange for women living in the Kayonza
district of Rwanda. Designed by the New York-
based firm Sharon Davis Design, the 2,200-square-
meter campus advances the mission of the
organization behind its inception—Women for
Women International (WfWI)—by supporting female
survivors of conflict and war. Through education
and skills training, WfWI assists women in their
efforts to become economically self-sufficient.
The WOC offers courses in financial literacy,
agri-business, early childhood development, and
health. Rwanda’s economy is based primarily on
subsistence farming, and creating new ways for
generating income is important in a country with
few natural resources. The center’s marketplace
was designed to showcase new businesses and
the demonstration farm provides a space for
subsistence farmers to learn about transitioning
to larger-scale agriculture. The center also
encourages community interaction: individuals can
gather and socialize while sharing a meal from the
communal kitchen or relaxing in one of the many
outdoor seating areas.
In much the same way that the programmatic
‘modules’ of Kéré’s Opera Village are assembled to
form a ‘village,’ the primary unit for the WOC is the
brick, which is used to form spatial arrangements
inspired by traditional settlements. The curvilinear
Local Engagement 117
 10

8
9
1
7

6
4 5

1 2
3

1 entry / guard 6 staff lodging

2 marketplace 7 kitchen
3 rentable marketplace 8 classroom cluster
4 administration 9 gathering space
5 guest lodging 10 demonstration farm
4.4.2 Site plan.

masonry walls are a nod to the local craft of
weaving and simultaneously define both interior
and exterior spaces. The bricks used to construct
the buildings of the WOC are an important link
back to indigenous construction methods and have
proved to be a significant learning tool for local
women. Prejudice toward building with traditional
materials is common; however, Rwandans view
fired brick as a ‘modern’ material. Accordingly, it
is also considered expensive, even though brick
is often cheaper than other industrial materials,
such as concrete and concrete masonry blocks.
The Rwandan government actively promotes the
use of concrete and other manufactured materials

118 Material Strategies

4.4.3 Brick production. 4.4.4 Brick form.

through the national building code, which also

bans the use of mud brick and thatch. Because
many Rwandan workers do not possess the skills
required to build with newer materials, foreign
construction firms are often contracted, while local
labor is hired to complete unskilled tasks. This, in
addition to high import costs, makes construction
with contemporary materials out of reach for most
individuals.11
Producing the brick for the WOC locally
lowered the cost of construction and also offered
women in the community an opportunity to learn
marketable skills. It is not uncommon for women
to work on construction crews in Rwanda, but they
often fill only minor positions, such as bringing 4.4.5 Brick kiln.
water and laying mortar. WfWI encouraged the
recruitment of women, and many that were hired
performed in positions of greater responsibility on called slop molding. An excess of moisture in the
the construction site, working in brick production mix resulted in poor quality bricks, so the team
and even becoming masons on the project. proposed to use a dryer, more precise process,
Both men and women were trained not only as called sand molding. The clay mix for this method
masons but also as steel workers and carpenters. is formed into a wedge shape and covered with
Approximately 200 women learned brickmaking sand (or another dry releasing agent, such as
techniques, and from this group 30 were selected ash) before it is placed into the mold. To increase
to join the WOC brick production team. At the peak the precision of the brick, the team introduced a
of production, the team made an average of 20,000 metal mold with a bottom. The brickmaker would
bricks a week, providing the roughly 450,000 units fill the mold with clay and then remove excess
required for the final design. material from the top with a bow cutter. At the
Bruce Engel, an architect from the office start of production, the team located high-quality
of Sharon Davis Design, organized the brick clay close to the site and prepared stations for
production line, which took almost a year to tempering, molding, drying, and firing nearby.
establish with the help of a local crew. The team Workers excavated clay by hand from a pit, which
began by evaluating bricks already produced they softened by adding water and tempered by
in the area, which were made by placing a wet leaving the mixture in underground tanks for a few
clay mixture into a rectangular form, a method days. The clay was then mixed and kneaded before

Local Engagement 119

 4.4.6 Coursing plans.

120 Material Strategies

being shaped and placed into forms. Because the
production site was located on a wetland, the team
opted to build a temporary kiln made from stacked,
unfired bricks, a process which they repeated after
each firing.
The publication Village-Level Brickmaking,
issued by the German development agency,
Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit,
proved an important resource for the project.12
Engel attributes the superior quality of the WOC
brick to the steps outlined in the manual, as well as
to the team that executed them. The team found
the publication’s illustrations to be particularly
helpful for training the workers. With just a few
changes to the typical production process, the
WOC bricks far exceeded the quality of the typical,
locally made bricks: tests verified a compressive
strength close to that of concrete.13 To account
for seismic conditions, the team developed a
special brick with a void to accommodate rebar.
This, in combination with the curved shape
of the buildings and the quality of the brick,
allowed for the omission of reinforced concrete
structural members. The brickmakers formed the
units to be roughly two times longer than their
width (200 millimeters x 95 millimeters), which
allowed for the construction of loadbearing walls
using alternating courses of headers and running
bond stretchers. Headers were removed in several
areas to create perforated screens and vents,
which filter daylight and promote ventilation of the
interior spaces. 4.4.7 Classroom interior.
The demands of the project and the architects’
expectations raised the bar on construction at the of high-quality bricks has opened up the local
WOC and, as a result, the level of craftsmanship market for the material. Relying on seemingly
was high. The quality of the WOC buildings has small modifications in building practices, the
caught the attention of officials both locally and WOC project demonstrates the potential found
in the capital, Kigali, creating a demand for WOC in returning control over production methods and
construction workers on government job sites. construction processes to communities. In areas
Some of the female workers from the WOC project where reliance on outside labor and imported
have also continued on to form a brickmaking materials is growing, this strategy is crucial to
cooperative called Katwico. The introduction equitable development.

Local Engagement 121

4.5 Esperanza Series
Architects: Al Borde (David Barragán, Pascual Gangotena, Esteban Benavides and Marialuisa Borja)
Location: Puerto Cabuyal, Manabí Province, Ecuador
Year: 2009, 2011, 2013
4.5.1 Esperanza Dos.
Puerto Cabuyal, with its population of around 150
individuals, is the only settlement for 30 kilometers
along a remote stretch of the central Ecuadoran
coast. Settlers first came to the area about 80
years ago, but the community remains isolated
from the rest of the country and was only recently
connected to the power grid. A majority of the
population did not attend primary school and
remains illiterate; however, the mild weather and a
communal lifestyle make it relatively manageable
for residents to sustain their families by fishing
and farming. The Nueva Esperanza, or New Hope,
school was the first of three projects to be realized
by the architects of Al Borde and the community
of Puerto Cabuyal. An addition to the school,
Esperanza Dos, was constructed two years later on
a sandy slope behind the first structure.
Although many of the Cabuyal residents did
not attend school themselves, they were strongly
in favor of their children receiving an education.
Not long after Felipe Gangotena moved from the
capital Quito to join the community, he was asked
to fulfill the role of village teacher. Recognizing
122 Material Strategies
that the resident’s informal lifestyle should shape
his teaching pedagogy as well as the children’s
learning environment, Gangotena enlisted the help
of his cousin, a founding member of the four-person
architecture firm Al Borde, based in the Quito.
Bartering is the principal means of exchange
in the area, which meant that funds for both
the school and the addition were very limited:
the Nueva Esperanza school and Esperanza
Dos were built for $200 and $700, respectively.
In response to these budgetary constraints, the
architects developed strategies for leveraging
other, non-monetary resources, such as volunteer
labor, indigenous materials, and time. Working
with these assets required that the architects
dispense with conventional construction methods
based on skilled labor, plans, and accuracy.
Although the school and addition were built with
the same materials and techniques traditionally
employed by locals, the team exploited these
more effectively through their use of an “adaptive
construction logic”—a simple system that can
be modified to accommodate the unpredictable
4.5.2 Diagrams of structural system.

Local Engagement 123

variables of land, labor, and materials.14 The
systems developed by Al Borde could better
accommodate unskilled labor, made efficient
use of materials, and permitted expansion over
time. The architects developed a system for each
project from a series of physical study models. In
lieu of construction documents, the final model
from this process was used to communicate the
design to the construction team.
For Esperanza Dos, the architects arrived at
a system based on a series of tripod modules
fashioned from lashed wooden poles. The tripod
as a structural form is lightweight and stable,
and when several modules are connected, they
mutually reinforce one another structurally. The
independent nature of the tripod allowed for
maximum flexibility during construction; the
team could discuss and make decisions after the
placement of each unit and the ultimate size of
the building could be determined in the field. The
team was also able to easily modify the height of
the structure and adjust it in relation to the steep
slope of the site.
4.5.3 Tripod construction.
124 Material Strategies
The tripods were placed roughly 4.5 meters
apart and connected at their vertices by a
ridgepole. The areas between were filled with
smaller vertical poles, and layers of split bamboo
lath were nailed over the top. The entire structure
was then covered with overlapping layers of cade,
or palm thatch. Construction was a collaborative
effort completed by members of the local
community, Al Borde, and volunteers recruited
by the architects. Labor hierarchy and scheduling
were dispensed with, and construction followed an
organic progression more in tune with the lifestyle
of the community. Work distribution occurred
naturally, with each team member mastering
a preferred task over time. Eventually experts
emerged within the group and these individuals
shared their acquired knowledge with the rest of
the team. Time was not particularly important and,
despite the lack of a deadline, construction was
completed quickly due to the strong commitment
of the participants.
Members of the Cabuyal community
immediately occupied Esperanza Dos once
 complete, and gradually added floors and other
amenities based on their needs. The architects
began to understand the full ramifications of their
working strategies after an extension was added
without their help, and newly constructed homes
in the area began to show influences from both
Esperanza projects. By introducing an incremental
construction system and a collective working
process, the community could continue to build
without outside assistance. Even so, Al Borde
was again invited by the Cabuyal residents to help
them realize additional public amenities, such as a
residence for visiting teachers and a kindergarten.
At this juncture, the architects decided that the
community would be better served if they learned
how to develop projects independently. The
residents already possessed the skills necessary
for building their own proposals and were clearly
ready for experimentation.
La Ultima Esperanza, or Last Hope, project
provided a platform for teaching the Cabuyal
residents basic design principles. Al Borde led
a series of monthly four-day design workshops,
which were attended by 16 students, ranging in
age from 14 to 72. As university faculty, the Al
Borde team felt qualified to teach the group, but
their pedagogical parameters were adjusted to
4.5.4 Interior of Esperanza Dos.

4.5.5 Community workshop.

Local Engagement 125

better reflect the abilities of their new students. The
team had observed that the Cabuyal residents were
very aware of their immediate surroundings and
also had a good understanding of local resources
and construction techniques. Where guidance
was needed was in analyzing and synthesizing
abstract ideas and translating these into physical
form. Puerto Cabuyal’s isolation meant that the
group’s design process remained uninfluenced
by preconceived ideas, and students began by
making an exhaustive investigation of different
project variables. The kindergarten—one of the
group’s initial design projects—began with a careful
investigation of the children in the community,
and the results were then translated into physical
models. Using the same materials and working
methods as the previous Esperanza projects, the
126 Material Strategies
community built the kindergarten based on their
design proposal.
For the first two Esperanza projects, the
architects developed physical strategies in
response to the unpredictable conditions of site,
labor, materials, and time. These systems lent order
and efficiency to the construction process but
also flexibility. Simple, ubiquitous materials were
tailored according to an open logic, allowing for
improvisation and unplanned decision-making. La
Ultima Esperanza introduced yet another strategy
for negotiating unforeseeable circumstances,
but instead of offering a physical solution, the
architects proposed a participatory process. As
a result, the Cabuyal community is able to meet
future needs without sacrificing their self-sufficient
lifestyle.
4.6 Ma’anqiao Village Reconstruction
Architects: Edward Ng, Jun Mu, Li Wan
Engineers: Tiegang Zhou, Hua Yang
Location: Ma’anqiao Village, Sichuan Province, China
Year: 2011
4.6.1 Ma’anqiao after 2011 earthquake.
The Great Sichuan Earthquake of 2008 devastated
many rural communities located in some of the
poorest and least developed areas of China.
Thousands were buried beneath the rubble of
collapsed buildings and millions lost their homes
to the power of the 8.0-magnitude earthquake.
According to Chinese government officials and
other experts, the immensity of the damage
could mainly be attributed to poor construction
techniques. Newer masonry buildings were often
erected using little or no reinforcement and the
construction of rural buildings, typically made
from earth, no longer followed best practices used
by previous generations. In order to assess the
damage and cope with the subsequent housing
crisis, the Ministry of Housing and Urban–Rural
Development of China (MHURD) initiated a series
of reconstruction projects in Sichuan Province.
While MHURD relied on concrete and masonry
for a majority of their projects, they found these
materials to be lacking when applied in rural
areas, mainly due to cost and difficulties related to
transport.
Ma’anqiao, one of the poorest villages in
the earthquake zone, became the focus of one
such post-disaster reconstruction effort. Unlike
the other initiatives, a team of architects and
engineers (from the Chinese University of Hong
Kong and Xi’an University of Architecture and
Technology) led the planning and reconstruction
of the village. The team was interested in finding
ways to lower the cost of rebuilding by using
traditional earth-based construction techniques
together with the rubble from destroyed buildings.
Damage to Ma’anqiao’s rammed earth homes and
agricultural structures was extensive, which meant
that the team would need to focus their efforts
on designing more seismically resistant earth
structures. The circumstances found in Ma’anqiao
were similar to many other rural areas affected
by the earthquake; the village would serve as a
demonstration project, not only for the Ma’anqiao
community but also for other municipalities and
beyond.
Characterized by a subtropical monsoon
climate, Ma’anqiao is located in a steep, isolated
valley divided by the Chenghe River. Most of the
village’s 1,200 inhabitants belong to one of
the two primary ethnic minorities in the region,
the Dai and Yi. Ma’anqiao families live mainly
in two-story courtyard dwellings consisting of
plastered earthen walls protected by timber roofs
covered with terracotta tiles. When faced with
reconstructing their homes after the earthquake,
the villagers questioned the rationality of
rebuilding with these materials. Many felt that
concrete and bricks would be safer and more
reliable than traditional methods. Transporting
supplies to the remote village, however, would
be difficult and expensive. Additionally, the
Local Engagement 127
4.6.2 Ma’anqiao after reconstruction.
cost of labor and materials had doubled due to
reconstruction across the region and, as a result,
the government subsidy allotted to each family
would only suffice for building a small house, if
made of concrete and brick. Traditional homes
in Ma’anqiao had always accommodated the
needs of the agrarian community: in addition
to family living quarters, they included space
for agricultural storage and livestock. For the
Ma’anqiao residents, a smaller dwelling meant
having to fundamentally change their way of living.
With these obstacles on the horizon, turning once
again to local materials seemed the only feasible
solution, but only if safer construction methods
could be found.
Working with the Ma’anqiao community,
the university research team began the
reconstruction process by examining the
damaged rammed earth structures and by
interviewing elderly craftspeople in the area.
From the information gathered during this
128 Material Strategies
investigation, the team ascertained that older
buildings were more seismically resistant than
newer ones. Over the years, practices had
gradually changed and older methods had been
forgotten, resulting in poor seismic performance.
Reintroducing better building practices became
a priority for the team, but restoring the
community’s faith in earth construction was
equally important: without the villagers’ support,
the project could not remain sustainable over the
long term.
To address these concerns, the team proposed
building a prototype house that would aid them in
the development and dissemination of seismically
resistant construction methods. Rather than relying
on drawings for communication, members of each
family would learn the new techniques during
the construction process. The prototype’s design
followed the configuration of a typical Ma’anqiao
home, but changes were made based on data
gathered both in the field—from observations of
4.6.3 Constructing the house prototype.
physical damage—and in the laboratory—from
tests studying the seismic behavior of rammed
earth walls. Structural improvements included
reducing spans and floor-to-floor heights, adding
wooden columns and bamboo ring beams, and
refining connections between the foundation, walls,
and roof. To increase wall strength, the team added
lime to the earth mix and instituted a standardized
ramming procedure to insure uniformity of each
wall element. The team also proposed to enhance
the quality and strength of walls by switching the
traditional wooden rammer for a metal one and by
reinforcing the corners of wooden formwork with
steel angles.
The team’s improvements found during the
construction of the prototype formed the basis
for a set of guidelines that could be used by
the villagers when rebuilding their own homes.
After conducting interviews with 33 families,
the team developed 12 different house plans
that responded to family size, damage to the
existing home, and other site conditions. The
proposals introduced functional changes that
increased the thermal performance and hygiene
of the traditional courtyard home. Techniques for
building homes prior to the earthquake minimized
the number and size of openings so as not to
degrade the structural integrity of rammed earth
walls. As a consequence, homes were often hot
inside, even though the earthen walls had some
capacity to regulate indoor temperatures. The
new schemes outlined strategies for making
larger, more structurally sound openings either
by carving round holes into the dried wall or by
incorporating metal buckets or wooden frames
into the formwork. The team also identified the
space between the roof rafters and the tops of
walls as a place to promote passive ventilation.
The architects also discovered an ideal form for
the houses. Using thermal simulation studies, the
team found that a pitched roof with a garret for
agricultural storage was the best configuration
Local Engagement 129
 1 ventilation opening 9 earth and straw plaster
2 lath 10 timber purlin
3 wood blocking 11 short column
4 ring beam 12 wood rafter
5 timber column in wall 13 roof tile
6 wood floor framing 14 window frame
7 wood dowel in wall 15 lintel
8 bamboo reinforcement
4.6.4 House improvements.

for insulating the living spaces from radiant solar
heat.
Two months after the earthquake, the
villagers began to rebuild their homes. Using
the design schemes as an optional reference,
inhabitants modified the plans according to their
particular needs and budget. These, along with
the technical guidelines and training from the
prototype construction, formed the basis for
the village reconstruction efforts. Participation
was strong and the new methods so effective
that the rebuilding was complete after just three
months, at a quarter of the cost of conventional
brick and concrete construction. The use of non-
local materials was minimal: approximately 90
percent of the construction materials used were
either locally available resources, such as stone,
earth, and wood, or recycled from the rubble of
destroyed buildings. The design changes made to
the openings and form of the buildings also had
positive results. Post-reconstruction monitoring
confirmed that the new homes were several
degrees cooler than the older ones.
After completion, MHURD published
information on the entire reconstruction effort
in a manual and distributed it to rural villages in
Western China. Even after the success of the
Ma’anqiao reconstruction, the team continued

130 Material Strategies

4.6.5 Reconstructed homes.

4.6.6 Ma’anqiao village center.

Local Engagement 131

to develop strategies for maintaining the
village and its community over the long term.
Many villages in China are shrinking as their
inhabitants leave in search of a better life in the
city; consequently, the long-term sustainability
of these rural communities depends on elevating
the quality of rural living conditions. To address
these concerns in Ma’anqiao, the villagers,
with the architects’ assistance, made several
improvements to the community infrastructure. A
bridge connecting the village to other settlements
in the area was constructed, as well as a village
center. The center offers important public
amenities, such as a clinic, kindergarten, library,
shop, and guest rooms, and also provides a
place for community gatherings and education
workshops. As with the prototype and home
construction, building the center served as a
model and demonstrated that even larger, more
public buildings could be achieved using earth as
the primary material.
The success of Ma’anqiao’s reconstruction
can be attributed to the team’s methodical and
thorough approach to the circumstances found in
the field. The team informed its decision-making
process with a rich set of sources, stemming
from research and testing, field observations, and
personal interviews with the community. As a result
of their structuring of the work, the community
continues to build in a manner that is familiar,
uncomplicated, and once again safe, restoring
their self-reliance. Rather than allowing disaster
to destroy their way of life, residents of Ma’anqiao
enjoy dramatically improved conditions—more
healthful and comfortable than they were prior to
the earthquake.15
Notes
1 Nicole Boivin, Material Cultures, Material
Minds: The Impact of Things on Human
Thought, Society, and Evolution (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2008), 162–164.
2 The “Old Towns of Djenné” site was inscribed
to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1988. In
2016, the site was added to the List of World
Heritage in Danger. Tourism is an important
economic driver for the area but the number of
visitors has dropped significantly in response
to the threat of terrorism and insecurity in the
132 Material Strategies
region. The fate of Djenné’s masons is now
unclear, as many of the town’s residents can
no longer afford to have their homes plastered
and maintained.
3 Quote from material provided by the office of
Al Borde, Quito.
4 Francis Kéré, “Operndorf für Afrika; wie eine
Idee zum Architekten fand,” Die Zeit 22, no. 12
(2009): 52.
5 Jakob Schoof, “People Come First: Interview
with Francis Kéré,” Daylight & Architecture
Magazine by Velux 20 (2013): 2–12.
6 Ibid., 7.
7 Till Gröner (managing director, Grünhelme),
interview with author via email, April 20, 2016.
8 Kéré, “Operndorf für Afrika,” 53.
9 The homes have received Zero Energy Building
certification, according to the standards
established by the International Living Future
Institute.
10 Sandy Bishop (executive director, LCLT),
interview with the author via phone, October 8,
2015.
11 World Bank, Informal Housing: Reducing
Disaster Vulnerability through Safe
Construction (2012).
12 The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) is now known as
the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ).
13 Bruce Engel (Sharon Davis Design),
interview with the author via phone, August
19, 2015.
14 Information from material provided by the
office of Al Borde, Quito.
15 Jun Mu, Edward Ng, Li Wan, Tiegang
Zhou, and Jie Ma, “Practical Study of the
Ecological Rebuilding of Earthquake-stricken
Villages in Southwestern China,” Conference
Proceedings Passive and Low Energy
Architecture (2011): 213–218.
 5
Materials and Place

5.1 Cutting wood for Haus am Moor in Vorarlberg, Austria.

Generations of architects and builders have
exploited the associations between materials
and local culture, history, and terrain to achieve
a variety of ends, from representing the natural
environment in built form to expressing national
identity. Sometimes, the physical substance itself
conveys meaning; at other times, the material’s
manner of production becomes the signifier.
The associational value of materials seems to
be strongest when the material retains evidence
of its origins. “When the materials of places are
quarried or made locally,” historian Richard Weston
observes, “they are often interpreted as suggesting
that feeling of belonging or dwelling.”1 Stones,
for example, were considered by many cultures
to embody the fundamental qualities of the local
terrain; individuals used the connection between
material and place to establish claims to and
relationships with the land.2 Similarly, the “traces
of labor” left behind in a material, associated
with manual craft, bring an awareness of and an
appreciation for the individuals responsible for
their making.3 Place manifests within the working
process, and mastery of a particular medium
begins with an acute understanding of local
conditions.
Traditional and Global
In an era of globalized, market-driven development,
the relationship between materiality and place
is complex. Rather than directly convey an
understanding of their making, buildings often
obscure their origins in their use of manufactured
products. Composed of resources mined and
formed in distant locations, buildings today
represent global realities that are almost impossible
to comprehend.
Incorporating the appearance of traditional
materials in contemporary architecture can
heighten our awareness of our immediate
surroundings. Doing so might be interpreted as
mounting “resistance” to global development;
however, an alternate reading suggests that the
foregrounding of local materials is as much a part
of the globalization phenomenon as it is a reaction
against it.4 For instance, indigenous resources
have frequently been appropriated by the tourism
industry to create ‘authentic’ environments for
mass consumption. As stand-ins for ‘culture’ or
‘nature,’ these materials transform buildings into
134 Material Strategies
‘destination’ architecture that closely approximates
the local context without actually engaging it.
The large-scale production and exportation of
handmade goods has also weakened long-
standing associations between manual processes
and place. As a global commodity, manual craft
is today rarely identified with the actual people
responsible for executing it within a particular
geographic location.
Materiality of Place
The first three projects featured in this chapter—
all visitor centers—explore how materials can
draw attention to different aspects of a location’s
natural and cultural history. Far from replicating
local conditions, architects incorporated materials
in a way that invites new interpretations of and
perspectives on the immediate context.
In the case of the Tåkern Visitor Center in
Sweden [5.1], connections between the building
and the region’s landscape take precedence.
The building is thatched with reeds harvested
from a nearby farm, which establishes a visual
relationship between the visitor center and the
wetland of Lake Tåkern, a significant national
landmark. At the Jianamani Visitor Center in China
[5.3], stone embodies both mundane and religious
associations. Assembled by local stonemasons,
the building’s masonry cladding shares the same
source as prayer stones used at a neighboring
religious site. The resulting stonework resembles
typical structures of the Tibetan Plateau, but its
origins are considered sacred. In the city of Al Ain,
located in the United Arab Emirates, earth was
reshaped to transform the historic Al Jahili Fort
into a tourist center and event venue. As both a
fixed and malleable medium, earth performs a dual
role: in retaining important features of the fort it
maintains historical continuity, while in seamlessly
integrating new additions, it adjusts to present-day
requirements.
Each of the three visitors’ centers contains
some problematic aspects that might call into
question the authenticity of its response to place.
For both the Tåkern Visitor Center and the Al
Jahili Fort, the architects employed resources and
processes with some historical precedence in their
respective locations, yet economic necessity and
the disappearance of indigenous expertise required
the recruitment of craftspeople from outside
the country. By contrast, a local team realized
the Jianamani Visitor Center; however, regional
seismic conditions precluded the use of native
stone for more than a small portion of this project
(a majority of the building’s core structure consists
of reinforced concrete). All of these projects
could be considered compromised. Another way
to view them, however, is as first steps toward
innovating new systems, which will eventually
integrate mainstream practices with native forms of
construction.
Embedded Practices
Knowledge—of excavating, harvesting, and
treating natural resources, and of forming and
connecting materials—was (and in some cases
still is) as much a part of a location’s culture
and history as are the resources and materials
themselves. In the three final projects featured in
this chapter, architects turn to older, more direct
forms of construction that have persisted to
the present day. By taking advantage of small-
scale production facilities still in the business
of processing raw materials, each was able to
precisely control aspects of cost and quality on the
job while at the same time boosting the regional
economy.
There are both challenges and benefits to
engaging indigenous expertise. In Vietnam, for
example, knowledge of bamboo construction is
limited to rural areas, and even there, only a small
number of individuals still know how to work with
the material. Architect Vo Trong Nghia, responding
to the lack of skilled builders available for the
construction of the Wind and Water Bar [5.5],
brought experts from his home village to train
construction workers in the city. This specialized
workforce subsequently went on to construct
a number of remarkable bamboo projects in
various locations. Like Vo Trong Nghia, Bernardo
Bader is closely involved with the process of
construction. Bader attributes the superior quality
of his projects to the strong relationships and trust
he has established with local craftspeople and
builders. The artisans’ expertise is evident in the
finely finished wood surfaces of the Haus am Moor
project in Austria [5.6].
As the case studies in this chapter indicate,
materials that retain ties to place—in their physical
appearance and also in their making—allow
architects and observers to think more critically
about their immediate environment. This process
may not be as straightforward as it once was,
and may raise doubts, but it does offer new
perspectives at a time when more individuals feel
less rooted and connected to place than ever
before.
Materials and Place 135
5.1 Tåkern Visitor Center
Architect: Wingårdh Arkitektkontor
Location: Glänås, Sweden
Year: 2012
5.1.1 Visitor center on Lake Tåkern.
The Tåkern Visitor Center is located on the shore
of Lake Tåkern in the South Swedish Highlands.
The surrounding wetlands, which appeared in the
mid-1800s after local officials drained water to
free up farmland, attract a wide variety of birds;
so many, in fact, that Tåkern has become one of
the largest and most well-known areas for bird-
watching in Scandinavia. The lake’s significance
as a protected wetland led to its inclusion in the
Naturum Visitor Center network, a series of public
facilities located at significant environmental and
cultural sites across Sweden. Publicly funded and
regulated by the Swedish Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), the centers are conceived as
gateways, intended to inspire the general public
to visit the countryside by providing information
about the environment and the impact of humans
136 Material Strategies
on natural and cultural ecosystems.5 In a move
to strengthen the network’s long-term appeal,
architecture design competitions were held for
each of the 28 centers built since the Naturum
network was founded in 1973. The Tåkern Visitor
Center also began as an invited competition, in
2007, and the Stockholm-based firm Wingårdh
proposed the winning scheme, which was
completed in 2012.
A stand of trees to the south provides a
protective enclosure and backdrop for the
main entry of the building, which visitors reach
on foot from the parking lot. Upon entering
the center, visitors learn from the exhibits about
Tåkern’s history, both natural and man-made,
while looking out onto the expanse of wetlands
and water beyond. Outside, visitors can stroll
5.1.2 Main entry.

5.1.3 Exhibit space.

Materials and Place 137

 5

6
4

7
3

1 entrance
2 reception
3 laboratory
4 staff room
5 office
6 exhibition area
7 auditorium

5.1.4 Floor plan.

between the center and a bird-watching tower,
which are joined to the rest of the site by a
series of walkways oriented toward views of the
lake and the surrounding terrain.
The center’s most visible material—thatch—
connects the building to the adjacent marshland,
while also referencing human intervention
in the local landscape. Stråtak, as straw or
reed thatching is called in Swedish, is one of
the oldest materials used for making shelter.
It was the most prevalent roof type there until the
early 1800s, when clay tile, produced on a large
scale, began to replace it as a way of mitigating
the threat of fire. Thatched roofs are still evident
in many areas, however, and have recently
experienced a resurgence of popularity.

138 Material Strategies

 Increased reliance on stråtak in Sweden has
encouraged an influx of thatchers from other
countries, such as Holland and Denmark, who have
introduced faster, more fire-resistant methods of
construction. A few small Swedish thatching firms
still exist, but larger companies from Eastern
Europe, such as Poland, who benefit from cheap
labor and an abundant supply of reeds, dominate
the market. Consequently, it was a Polish firm
that thatched the Tåkern Visitor Center; however,
the thatch itself was sourced locally. Lake Tåkern
is only 1 meter deep, making it a perfect habitat
for growing large quantities of reeds. Material
that was harvested in the spring was purchased
from a farm across the lake in the village of
Väversunda. The limestone paving at the entry was
also sourced nearby, from a local stone quarry.
The wood used for the glulam frame and interior
finishes is untreated pine and spruce originating
from native forests.
The architects incorporated some traditional
construction methods, while modifying other
aspects to suit the design. To insure that water
sheds at the proper rate for the material to remain
dry, a traditional thatch roof should be pitched to
5.1.5 Thatch façade of visitor center.
slope at least 45 degrees: this will prevent rot and

glazed skylight

glue laminated construction

200-250mm reed

technical space

wood panel

recessed luminaire

massive wood floor

5.1.6 Section detail.

Materials and Place 139

5.1.7 Thatch installation.
protects the material so that it will only require
replacement approximately every 70 years. The
ridge of a traditional thatch roof requires careful
consideration, as it must provide a weather-
tight cap that sheds rainwater to both slopes. To
achieve this, the ridge is protected by a layer of
thatch that is wrapped to form a saddle over the
topmost layers of reed or straw. The form of the
center’s roof is similar to a traditional one, but
it appears to have been twisted and folded by
unseen forces. Its asymmetrical form and steep
pitches were a challenge to resolve, requiring
extensive study by the architects using physical
models. The overall height of the building is 10
meters, but the roof pitch caused the height of the
exterior walls to vary from 7 to 1.2 meters. The
architects substituted the traditional roof ridge
with a more durable, glazed skylight that runs the
length of the building and illuminates the spaces
below.
140 Material Strategies
Thatch not only connects the building with the
surrounding context, the material also provides
an additional layer of natural insulation—28
centimeters of thatch corresponds to 10
centimeters of conventional insulation. Thatch
is a combustible material, but contemporary
construction methods have eliminated the main
cause of fire in thatched structures. Rather than
leaving the underside of the material exposed,
as was the practice in older structures, thatch is
now installed on top of ridged sheathing, which
prevents an interior fire from spreading to the
roof. The sheathing of the visitor center was first
covered with roof felt and then a 28-centimeter
layer of thatch bundles, directly secured to
the panels using metal screws and wire. The
thatcher prepares the reed bundles beforehand
while maintaining a consistent size and degree
of tautness when binding the stalks. The ends
of the bundles are hand-cut, lifted into position,
and attached with the stem end of the plant
oriented in the optimal direction for shedding water
(usually downward). Each successive course of
material covers the attachment hardware of the
layer below it, thus preventing moisture from
penetrating the substructure. After the bundles are
attached, the thatch is combed into position; this
finishing process organizes the individual stalks
and gives the material its unified appearance.
While appearing continuous, the roof can still
be repaired by replacing individual reed bundles
without impacting the rest.
In her classic children’s book of 1906, The
Wonderful Adventures of Nils, Selma Lagerlöf
described Lake Tåkern’s reeds as growing so
thick that boats could not pass through them:
“if the reeds shut the people out, they give, in
return, shelter and protection to many other
things.” One year after the book’s release, the
Swedish government approved plans to drain
Lake Tåkern completely dry.6 Fortunately the
project was never funded, and the wetland habitat
was preserved for all to enjoy to the present
day. The area’s popularity is still growing, and
in its first year of operation alone, more than
100,000 people visited the Tåkern Visitor Center.
Without human intervention, Tåkern would
not have become an attractive habitat
for such a large number of birds, and without
its abundant wildlife, the lake would have
eventually been converted to farmland. At
Tåkern, a balance has been struck between
natural and artificial ecosystems: the visitor
center reveals this equilibrium, not only
through its exhibits but also through its
design.
Materials and Place 141
5.2 Al Jahili Fort
Architect: Roswag & Jankowski Architekten
Location: Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
Year: 2008
5.2.1 Al Jahili Fort courtyard.
The Al Jahili Fort, located in the center of Al Ain,
is the largest defense fortification in the United
Arab Emirates and its appearance on the 50 Dirham
note affirms its status as a significant landmark in
that country. The fort is part of a larger system of
historic oases—defined by palm groves, irrigation
systems, and buildings—that were the genesis of
the city, which was founded in the fifth millennium
BC. Until the 1960s, the city maintained much of
its original character, but after the discovery of
oil, Al Ain, like other Emirati cities, began to grow.
Unlike Abu Dhabi or Dubai, however, Al Ain still
retains many of its historic mud brick structures
and, as a consequence, it is considered to be the
most authentic city in the UAE and has become a
popular vacation destination.
142 Material Strategies
The Al Jahili Fort most likely began as a single
mud brick watchtower built by Sheikh Zayed
Bin Khalifa in the 1890s to protect a falaj, or
underground canal, which was connected to the
older irrigation network of the Al Ain Oasis. Over
time, a larger fortification was constructed, but
the fort was eventually abandoned in 1940 (after
the falaj ran dry) and fell into disrepair until it was
occupied in 1955 by the Trucial Oman Scouts, a
paramilitary force under British command. During
that time, several new buildings were added to the
complex and areas that had suffered from storm
damage were rebuilt with materials considered at
the time to be more durable than earth masonry.
The character of the fort’s remaining earthen
walls was also substantially transformed by the
application of military whitewash. Al Jahili was
restored in 1986; the inner courtyard was cleared
and a new entry gate was added to the outer
fortification wall.7
In 2003, the Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture
and Heritage (ADACH) began to implement a
comprehensive plan for preserving and promoting
the cultural heritage of Al Ain. As part of this vision,
the Al Jahili Fort was reconceived as an information
and visitor center, connecting the historic oasis
with the contemporary city. ADACH wished to alter
the existing fort as little as possible and therefore
hired the German firm Roswag & Jankowski
Architekten for their expertise in earth construction
and preservation.
1 information center
2 temporary exhibition hall
3 Mubarak bin London exhibition
5.2.2 Site Plan.
The fort stands apart from the Jahili Park,
where it is located, on a tract of sandy, dry land
that protects the mud brick structure from the
humidity of the surrounding greenery. The fort’s
entry gate faces the street and is flanked by two
L-shaped buildings containing the information
center and exhibit spaces. An arcade wrapping
the interior of the entry courtyard serves as the
main circulation route for the galleries and other
amenities and also provides a thermal buffer. The
north wing of the complex accommodates an
exhibition devoted to the life and work of Wilfred
Thesiger (known locally as Mubarak bin London),
who traveled the Arabian Desert with Bedouins
in the 1940s and is known for his photographs
Materials and Place 143
documenting life in the region before the oil boom.
The south wing houses the visitor information
center, bookshop and café. Connected to the
north wing by the arcade, it is used for changing
exhibitions and events.
In order to maintain the historic character
of the original and meet the requirements of a
contemporary exhibition space, the architects
proposed to heighten the qualities of the existing
structure while subtly integrating modern
additions. The renovation was carried out using
mostly recycled materials from the fort—mud
brick, palm timbers, and earth plaster—wherever
possible. The roof of the fort had originally
been constructed using quartered palm trunks
5.2.3 Reinstallation of timber beams.
144 Material Strategies
spanning roughly 2.7 meters. The rafters were
pitched to allow for drainage and enclosed
with palm frond matting covered with earth.
During the renovation, the architects discovered
that the original structure was heavily infested
with termites. This material was removed and
about half of it was treated and reinstalled in
the building. The rebuilt roof was externally
insulated, sealed with a bituminous gravel-coated
sheeting to protect against rain, and then covered
with an earth mortar to maintain its original
appearance.
The original walls of the fort were constructed
by placing sun-dried mud bricks directly on
the sandy terrain, with no foundation. New wall
5.2.4 Base layer application of clay plaster.
alterations were made with masonry and mortar
formed out of mud reconstituted from existing
bricks and finished with a fine clay plaster. The
rammed earth floors were restored and covered
with a protective layer of wax, and a raised rammed
earth terrace was added on the exterior to extend
the arcade space into the courtyard, which was
restored to its former appearance. To complete
the restoration work, more than 50 artisans from
India—trained by the non-profit Hunnarshala
Foundation—were brought to the site.
The handworked plaster and rammed earth
floors, combined with the roughness of the palm
wood ceilings, give the spaces warmth and
individuality; their detailing is crisp and restrained.
The architects minimized visual disruptions from
new fixtures and materials: they integrated switches
and ventilation grilles within the casework and
concealed new additions, such as the glulam lintels
and concrete structural elements, under plaster.
Plaster also covers the hydronic radiant cooling
system. Even if it cannot be seen, the system’s
presence can be felt—especially on the hottest
days, when temperatures can reach 50 degrees
Celsius. The system works in tandem with the
90-centimeter-thick earthen structure to maintain a
constant indoor temperature of 24 degrees Celsius,
minimizing the need for air conditioning and thus
reducing the building’s energy consumption.
As Al Ain is beginning its own period of
accelerated urbanization, it has become even
more critical to maintain the city’s historic
infrastructure. Earth is at the heart of Al Jahili’s
renovation, uniting the building with the surrounding
terrain; the material’s transformative qualities
were well suited for reshaping the fort to
Materials and Place 145
 2.6 1.2

2.1
1.1
2.3
45° C 22° C

2.5

2.2 2.4

Construction
1.1 sun filter glass
1.2 thermal insulation

Environmental Systems
tempering / cooling
2.1 wall cooling system
2.2 central chiller unit
ventilation
2.3 air intake supply
2.4 air handling unit
2.5 fresh air outlet in furniture
2.6 waste air intake behind picture
5.2.5 Environmental systems diagram.

5.2.6 Cooling system installation. 5.2.7 Café and arcade.

accommodate its new functions. Earth’s
malleability is commonly regarded as a
weakness, but in the case of Al Jahili, the
plasticity of the material was advantageous for
modifying interiors and concealing necessary
technical additions. The conversion and
restoration of the Al Jahili Fort demonstrates
a forward-thinking strategy that seamlessly
integrates old and new technologies, as well as
resources.

146 Material Strategies

5.3 Jianamani Visitor Center
Architect: Atelier TeamMinus
Location: Yushu City, Qinghai Province, China
Year: 2013
5.3.1 Visitor center exterior.
The Chinese city of Yushu, home to more than
120,000 inhabitants, was once part of Kham, one
of three regions traditionally defining Tibet. At
3,600 meters above sea level, the city stretches
along a T-shaped river valley carved into the
Tibetan Plateau. Winters are harsh and summers
are cool, the area’s subarctic climate and high
altitude producing temperatures ranging from
–7 degrees to 12 degrees Celsius. Qinghai
Province, where Yushu is located, is on the
most active fault zone in this part of China. The
7.1-magnitude earthquake that struck the region in
April of 2010 changed the development of the city
forever.
Almost every building in Yushu was damaged
or destroyed by the earthquake, leaving more
than 2,000 people dead and 100,000 survivors
homeless. The Chinese government’s response
was swift and reconstruction began soon after
emergency relief efforts were underway. Even
before the end of the year, construction had
started on almost 300 projects in the region, at
a total cost of $770 million. By 2013, more than
$7 billion had been spent and reconstruction was
declared complete. The speed and robustness of
the official recovery effort seemed to validate the
views of some critics that the disaster had been
turned to the advantage of the government, which
Materials and Place 147
used it to demonstrate support for ethnic unity,
while also accelerating its plans to modernize
the Tibetan areas. As part of this vision, Yushu
would be recast as a hub for ecotourism, with
the Jianamani Visitor Center serving as a cultural
gateway to the city.
Jyekundo, as Yushu is known in Tibetan, is an
important religious center and a destination for
thousands of pilgrims annually. Multiple shrines
and thousands of stones left by the faithful mark
Gyanak Mani (also known as Jianamani), a key site
on the city outskirts, which has been recognized
by Tibetan Buddhists as a sacred place since the
eighteenth century. After the founding of Gyanak
Mani, inhabitants deemed white stone from the
sacred mountain Dosloa to be particularly pure,
and so began the tradition of excavating and
engraving mani stones near the site. Mani stones
are considered by Tibetan Buddhists to embody
the speech of Buddha and are often inscribed
with the phrase from Avalokiteśvara’s mantra “Om
Mani Padme Hum.” The ritual of leaving mani
stones at significant sites is practiced widely in
the Tibetan regions, where it is seen as a means of
communicating with the deities of that particular
place.8 The act of placing a mani stone, either
singly or stacked together to form mounds or long
walls, is believed to encourage the protection,
health, and good fortune of the bearer or, more
frequently, honor a deceased family member.
During China’s Cultural Revolution (1966–
1976), pilgrims were no longer permitted to
visit Gyanak Mani; the structure on the site was
gradually dismantled and the material reused
to construct roads and buildings in Yushu. Over
time, restrictions were eased, and the pile grew
to become the largest collection of mani stones
(more than 2.5 billion) in the world. After the 2010
earthquake, the power of Gyanak Mani became
even more tangibly evident when the local
community focused on restoring the monument
before rebuilding their own homes. Interestingly, the
mani stones that had previously been confiscated
during the Cultural Revolution also began to
resurface in the rubble during this time; teams of
elderly citizens organized to save the material and
add it to the pile. Their efforts were so successful
that Gyanak Mani is now larger than it was before
the disaster.9
The Jianamani Visitor Center was
commissioned along with six other public
reconstruction projects and was strategically
positioned near Gyanak Mani. The location and
148 Material Strategies
purpose of the center challenged the Beijing-
based architecture firm, TeamMinus, who had
limited knowledge of local culture and religious
practices. As the project architect Brian Zhang
admits, simply extracting cultural elements from the
place was difficult, and the team proposed several
schemes before finally landing on a design that the
community would accept. It was this incremental
process of trial and error that contributed to the
team’s understanding of Tibetan culture and
ultimately allowed them to propose a sensitive
solution, despite being outsiders to the area.
Initially, the team approached the project
as they would any other—with the mindset that
they were specialists hired to solve a problem.
The team soon learned that this approach would
not succeed within the given context, and so
they turned instead to local experts for a more
nuanced understanding of the people and the
place. An architect from Yushu advised the team
on architectural preferences and construction
methods in the region, which led the architects
to consider how they might combine local
materials with contemporary methods. Although
their initial scheme was rejected, from this failure
the team learned of the community’s desire for a
connection between the visitor center and Gyanak
Mani, which subsequently became the impetus
for the project. Strong associations were created
between the visitor center and the religious site
through visual connections, symbolic references,
and materiality.
In developing the final scheme, the team
consulted with a prominent Tibetan historian
specializing in mani stone history, who explained
that Gyanak Mani was just one of many significant
sites forming a sacred landscape around the city,
which consisted of the mani stone quarry, hot
springs, a temple, and other important geological
features.10 The team confirmed that most of these
places were visible from the building site and
subsequently proposed a wooden roof deck with
viewing platforms oriented toward these special
locations. The organization of the platforms also
favors circulating in a clockwise direction, following
the Tibetan Buddhist tradition of circumambulation.
The platform stairwells surround a square stone
core, which contains functions that serve both the
community’s needs as well as those of visitors.
A post office, public restrooms, shops, a clinic,
and exhibition space are all organized around a
courtyard that delivers light and air to the center of
the building.
 Buddha Worship Field

Geni Xibawangxiu Mountain

Leciga Cuochike

Janamani
Naigutan Stones

Dongna Zhunaitalangtaicileng

Rusanggongbu Mountain
Zhaqu Valley
Tontian River

Lazanglongba
5.3.2 Diagram of significant sites surrounding the Jianamani Visitor Center.

5.3.3 Mani stones.

Materials and Place 149

 2

3
1

1 workshop
2 office
3 security office
4 exhibition space
5 courtyard

5.3.4 Ground-floor plan.

In addition to establishing visual ties with
religious sites in the vicinity, the building also
connects to place through its use of materials. In
order to meet seismic requirements, the architects
specified a conventional reinforced-concrete
structural system; however, two teams of Tibetan
stonemasons were responsible for constructing
the building’s façade, following traditional
methods. The material for the façade was sourced
from the same location as the mani stones. Mani
stone processing and carving is central to the
local economy, and the original quarries are still
functioning, making material plentiful and easy to
access. Religious practice dictated, however, that
only the raw stone, without inscriptions, could be
used for building construction.

150 Material Strategies

5.3.5 Stone masonry.

5.3.6 Viewing platform.

Materials and Place 151

 Given the high altitude of the site, trees are
scarce. The team opted to construct the viewing
deck with materials collected from ruins around the
city. Reusing the irregular sized members proved
challenging, so the team constructed 1:1 mock-ups
to study different connection methods that would
be easy to execute in the field.
The stone field of Gyanak Mani has been
described as a “city of memory, a city of
faith” that has been built over centuries and
152 Material Strategies
will continue to be erected for generations to
come.11 The perpetual process of Gyanak Mani’s
making inspired the design of the Jianamani
Visitor Center; however, rather than growing and
changing over time, the building remains fixed.
Much like a single mani stone left at the site, the
building stands as a conduit, connecting visitors
to an array of significant locations, allowing them
to understand and visualize their relationship
with the sacred landscape surrounding the city.
5.4 Bry-sur-Marne Social Housing
Architect: Eliet & Lehmann Architectes
Location: Bry-sur-Marne, France
Year: 2010

5.4.1 Courtyard elevation.

Materials and Place 153

During the post-World War II period, French
architect Fernand Pouillon specified the use of
stone masonry in a number of social housing
estates in Paris and Marseilles. His work was
informed by a deep understanding of construction
and of economic constraints. The architect
selected stone construction for its durability and
power to elevate public housing by evoking the
“monumental tradition of French architecture.”12
Pouillon proved that it was possible to standardize
and rationalize stone masonry construction so
that it could remain competitive with modern,
prefabricated systems. The Paris-based firm
of Eliet & Lehmann is among a small group of
French architects that have once again returned to
solid stone construction in recent years. In
its design and execution of social housing in a
suburb of Paris, the firm maintains Pouillon’s
ideals and tests their viability in the twenty-first
century.
The project began as a competition entry
submitted to the French social housing agency
Immobilière 3F. Building economical multi-
family housing in the Île-de-France region is
challenging, and minimizing construction costs
without sacrificing quality was a high priority for
the project team. In order to reduce long-term
expenses related to building maintenance, the firm
gave special attention to detailing and execution
from the outset; the decision to use solid stone
masonry also gave the architects tight control
over production costs. Much like the French
master builders of previous eras, Denis Eliet and
Laurent Lehmann have developed a thorough
understanding of construction, beginning with
its origins, be they in the stone quarry or the
manufacturing plant. Lehmann explains, “Each
material, when it reaches the building site, has
already experienced a long history of successive
transformations. This complex process, craft
or industrial, responds to specific rules that are
derived from the nature of the material, its method
of extraction, existing tools, and local economic
conditions. These rules determine the possible,
the doable.”13 By controlling the principles behind
production, the architects have realized 16 low-
cost housing units constructed almost entirely from
solid stone—an unusual move today, given that the
cost of the material typically limits its use to thin
veneers.
The apartment building is located in a
neighborhood characterized by its mix of small,
single-family homes and low-rise apartment
154 Material Strategies
buildings. Keeping with the scale of the area and
using the length of the parcel to their advantage,
the architects divided the program onto two
apartment blocks and positioned them back-to-
back on the 12.5-meter-wide plot, so as to create
a ground-level parking court and garden between.
The apartment blocks are five stories high with a
pair of one- and two-bedroom units per floor; each
is joined by a small lobby served by an elevator and
a central stairwell.
The richness of stone and wood in select areas
offsets the ordinariness of standard interior finishes
found in the apartments and shared spaces. The
apartments access generous balconies constructed
entirely of wood; the material transforms the quality
of light entering and warms the white walls of the
living spaces. The balconies are located on the
exterior-facing façades of the complex, while stone
is visible on the side and courtyard elevations.
Because of its high price, stone is not commonly
used for affordable housing, and the material
lends the project an unexpected sense of solidity
and luxury, although the cost of construction was
€2,000 per square meter (roughly $200 per square
foot), which is only slightly more expensive than
reinforced concrete.
The building methods used also associate
the project with the regional tradition of stone
masonry construction. To keep transport costs
low, limestone originating from the Noyant quarry,
located 100 kilometers from the Bry-sur-Marne
site, was selected for the exterior walls of the
building. The underground quarry was opened in
the eleventh century and the excavated material
has since been used to construct houses, castles,
and churches in the area. Noyant is located in
the Paris Basin, a geological region defined by
sedimentary deposits that formed when a shallow
sea covered most of Northern France roughly
50 million years ago. Gothic churches are still
the most prevalent stone structures found in the
region, and their locations correspond almost
exactly with the limestone formations beneath
them.14
Stone masonry construction requires advanced
planning. The exact position and size of the
blocks must be determined early on in the design
process and are effected by the constraints of
extracting, finishing, transport, and assembly. The
smallest openings in the façade, the bathroom
windows, determined the vertical height of the
coursing; the module for the finished stone was
94 by 55.4 by 25 centimeters, with an average
 2 5
4
3 5

1 main entry
2 living / dining
3 kitchen
4 balcony
5 bedroom
5.4.2 Main floor plans and longitudinal section.

Materials and Place 155

 weight of 140 kilograms. The architects’ repetition
of the same module throughout the project
minimized cutting time and waste at the quarry,
ultimately reducing cost. They also saved money
by using platbands to span openings. Traditionally
employed by the Romans, platbands are an
efficient way to bridge square openings with
smaller pieces of material, rather than relying on
solid lintels made from concrete or stone, which
are often more expensive.
The stone for the apartments was quarried at
an average depth of 23 meters below grade and
then transported to a nearby production workshop,
where craftspeople cut and shaped it into blocks.
Precision during the cutting phase insured rapid
assembly of the blocks during construction. The
finished materials were labeled, stacked onto
pallets, and packed with straw for protection
during transport. After delivery on site, the masons
checked the layout plans and the stones were
lifted into their assigned positions by attaching
the crane hooks to specially prepared holes in
the blocks. Plaster mortar was applied to edges
of the blocks to hold them in place. The stone
masonry is loadbearing and works together with
the reinforced concrete foundation, floor decks,
5.4.3 East elevation.

5.4.4 Noyant quarry.

156 Material Strategies

 BÂTIMENT 1

Niv

Niv

Niv

Niv

Niv

Niv

Niv

Niv

niveau d’implantation niveau d’implantation

coupe 2-2

5.4.5 Section and elevation detail.

Materials and Place 157

5.4.6 Cut stone.
and stair core. The 25-centimeter-thick masonry
walls were designed with horizontal and vertical
slots that permit the floor decks and vertical
structure to interlock with the stone. To prevent
thermal bridging at these points, a loadbearing
insulation element was installed at each external
junction between the concrete slab and the stone
façades. A 10-centimeter layer of ridged insulation
was also installed on the inner surface of the walls.
Because of these measures, the project meets the
French “Très Haute Performance Énergétique” (Very
High Energy Performance) standard, which signifies
that the building uses 20 percent less energy than
required by national energy regulations for new
construction.
158 Material Strategies
5.4.7 Stone assembly.
Lehmann describes building with stone as an
archaic and precise process: archaic, because
the material is still sourced from the same
centuries-old quarries, and precise, because
contemporary development requires speed and
efficiency.15 In France, production methods have
been altered enough to remain competitive with
mainstream construction methods. Practical
experience and advanced planning from the
side of the architect is also necessary in order
to achieve efficiency and economy with stone
masonry systems. To build in this way, observes
Lehmann, requires the ability to reconcile
tradition with “the materialist condition of the here
and now.”16
5.5 Wind and Water Bar
Architect: Vo Trong Nghia Architects
‫ޟ‬
Location: Thu Dầu Mô·t, Bình Du’o’ng Province, Vietnam
Year: 2008
5.5.1 Wind and Water Bar exterior.
Vietnamese architect Vo Trong Nghia’s
considerable body of work includes many
buildings constructed from bamboo: so many,
in fact, that his office quite possibly holds the
world record for the most bamboo structures
designed by an architect. Aware of growing
concerns for the environment in his country,
the architect has exploited the benefits of this
widely available and rapidly renewable resource.
Building with bamboo can lower energy costs,
and many of Nghia’s projects rely on natural
ventilation strategies that integrate evaporative
cooling with lightweight bamboo structures. In
Vietnam, the material is still strongly associated
with rural living, and the architect uses this
connection to his advantage when working
in newly urbanized contexts: the work quite
literally brings the countryside to the city,
evoking connections to nature and the traditional
Vietnamese lifestyle.
The Wind and Water Bar sits adjacent to
the Wind and Water Café, Nghia’s initial project
made from bamboo. The bar was the second
bamboo building designed by Nghia, but it
was the firm’s first all-bamboo structure. The
landscaping surrounding the café and bar provides
‫ޟ‬
a green oasis in the fast-growing Thu Dầu Mô·t,
a satellite of Ho Chi Minh City and an important
industrial hub in Bình Du’o’ng province. The bar
is positioned at the entry of the Wind and Water
complex and, unlike the open-roofed café, the
bar is enclosed by an inwardly focused thatched
dome—a shape that is well suited for its function
as a venue for musical performances and
Materials and Place 159
 3 2 4

1 entrance
2 hall
3 stage
4 bar 1

5.5.2 Plan and section.

160 Material Strategies

community gatherings. The 10-meter-high dome
appears to float in the center of an artificial lake,
which is in reality a concrete basin holding about
30 centimeters of water. Large stepping-stones
lead over the water, through the entrance portal,
and on into a central space, which is defined by
a bar on one side and a stage on the other. Light
enters through deeply framed windows located at
the base of the structure and through a 1.5-meter
oculus at the top of the dome. This configuration
of openings works in tandem with the building’s
form to naturally ventilate the space. As hot air
rises and exits, cool air is pulled over the surface
of the lake and into the space through the lower
openings. Even though the average outdoor
air temperature is about 35 degrees Celsius,
the temperature inside remains a comfortable
25 degrees throughout the year.
The bamboo for the project was sourced locally
and is of a species native to Vietnam. Tam Vong,
also known as ‘iron bamboo,’ is extremely strong;
the first few feet of the plant are solid, while the
rest of the culm develops an exceptionally thick
outer wall. The material is inexpensive, and its
sturdy form can withstand drilling and hardware
installation without splitting. Prior to construction,
the culms used for the dome were harvested and,
while still green, flamed with a torch and bent along
a template to insure a consistent curvature for each
section. The application of heat loosens the culm
fibers, which augments bending and stabilizes the
deformation. To prevent decay and repel insects,
the bamboo was then soaked in a mud bath for
several months and subsequently smoked and
dried.
The dome’s form was dictated by the bending
properties of the material, and the height of the
space was achieved by splicing bamboo segments
together. The structure of the dome consists of
48 prefabricated units, each of which spans 15
meters and was designed taking the forces within
the structure into account. At the base, where
loads are greatest, more culms were used; the
number of members decreases as the structure
ascends to the top of the dome. Straight members
intersect the arch at critical points, triangulating
forces and bringing loads down to the foundation.
Where members overlap, they are connected by
a bamboo dowel and bound with rope. Pegging
and lashing is the traditional way of making
connections and the team found this method to
be more cost-effective and less visually obtrusive
than using metal connectors. A non-traditional
connection was used at the junction between the
bamboo structure and the foundation, however:
each unit was tied to a steel pipe T-connector
embedded in the reinforced concrete footing. The
building was enclosed by attaching split bamboo
laths to the outer structure of the units and then
covering the substructure, first with a woven rattan
5.5.3 Bamboo
framing.
Materials and Place 161
5.5.4 Roof structure
mat and then with protective layers of rattan peel
thatch. Rattan peel is a byproduct of the furniture
industry and has an expected lifespan of about
20 years.
Prior to construction, a mock-up of one unit
was constructed and tested for strength. The team
used the mock-up to refine connection details and
as a tool for training the construction team to work
with bamboo. At the time, there were no bamboo
construction specialists in the area, so Nghia
brought knowledgeable farmers from his home
village to train the construction workers. Once the
mock-up had been developed, the sections were
fabricated in a staging area located on the site.
Systematizing the unit assembly allowed for a
greater level of accuracy, reduced problems with
irregular culm dimensions, facilitated installation,
and shortened construction time to just three
months. All of these efficiencies, together with the
low cost of bamboo and the use of offcuts from
construction for furnishings and fixtures, made the
project extremely economical, despite its bespoke
construction methods.
162 Material Strategies
5.5.5 Foundation connection.
The Wind and Water Bar is representative
of many projects by Vo Trong Nghia. Its scale
and function fulfill contemporary needs, but
its form and substance recall another time and
place. Vietnam is one of the fastest urbanizing
countries in the world, and green space in and
around its cities is quickly disappearing along with
rural ways of life. As urban areas become more
dense and polluted, there is a growing desire to
reconnect with a simpler lifestyle more closely
associated with the natural landscape. Bamboo is
valuable in this regard; even after it is processed
for construction, it retains its plant-like qualities,
imbuing spaces with an organic character that is
difficult to match with modern materials.
In his work Nghia has also had to confront
the challenges to working with the material on
a larger scale. Consequently, he has developed
construction methods that make financial sense
within the contemporary marketplace of the rapidly
developing country. To meet these requirements,
the architect has combined older construction
methods with newer techniques, such as
 5.5.6 Bar interior.
prefabrication, in order to achieve less expensive,
more reliable bamboo structures. Nghia’s bamboo
structures could be dismissed as a nostalgic
revival, but within the logic of their highly efficient
construction is a potentially radical agenda. By
combining a rapidly renewable resource with
streamlined fabrication, Nghia has reconfigured
one of the oldest forms of construction to keep
pace with the speed and cost of contemporary
development.
Materials and Place 163
5.6 Haus am Moor
Architect: Bernardo Bader Architekten
Location: Krumbach, Austria
Year: 2012
5.6.1 Haus am Moor east elevation.
Vorarlberg is located in the westernmost corner
of Austria and shares a border with Germany,
Liechtenstein, and Switzerland. Despite being the
country’s second smallest province, Vorarlberg has
earned a global reputation for the superior quality
of its contemporary architecture. During the last
three decades, this alpine region has become a
model for collaboration between artisans, industry,
and architects, continuing a place-based building
culture founded on craft traditions. The revival
of wood construction can be attributed to this
unity between the building trades, as well as to
an abundant supply of timber in the region. Along
with tourism and agriculture, the timber industry
is a primary driver of economic development;
164 Material Strategies
consequently, the number of trained carpenters
in Vorarlberg is higher than anywhere else in
Europe.17
Even though Vorarlberg is now highly
industrialized, timber used in construction
continues to be harvested locally and processed
by family-owned businesses in rural villages. The
Haus am Moor (House on the Moor), located on the
outskirts of the small community of Krumbach, was
constructed in this way, and much of the project
was built by Bernardo Bader and his architectural
team, working in close relationship with carpenters
and other members of the construction team.
The house spans the transition between forest
and farmland, connecting to both natural and
 8

7
1

9
3 4
5
10

1 entrance / patio
2 entry
3 dining room
4 kitchen
5 pantry
6 living room
7 studio
8 garage
9 bedroom
10 master bedroom

5.6.2 Plans and transverse section.

Materials and Place 165

man-made landscapes through materiality and weather-resistant barrier, and clad with larch
form. Bader describes the house as “baum und board-and-batten siding on the exterior and with fir
dach” (tree and roof), its solid profile seemingly paneling on the interior. The roof was constructed
carved from a tree, and its pitched roof alluding to with the same prefabricated system and then
barns dotting the countryside. From the exterior, clad with standing seam copper sheets. Wood
the form of the house is deceivingly simple, but visible on the interior was planed smooth prior
the play between single- and double-height to installation and treated with a UV protective
rooms on the interior creates a rich array of spatial finish; the exterior remained unfinished and was
experiences. The house’s elongated north–south left to weather. Fir was also used for the flooring,
orientation serves to create a clear division which was made by incorporating six different
between the village and the domestic sphere of the plank lengths, varying between 40 centimeters to
living spaces. The Tenne, a breezeway commonly 5 meters.
found in traditional farmhouses, passes through In addition to the forest, the surrounding moor
the volume, forming the main entry on the east, also became an important material source. When
or public, side of the house facing the village and the basement and foundation were excavated,
a private deck extending toward the meadow a large quantity of clay was discovered. The
and forest to the west. The addition of room- material was transported to a local brick factory
height sliding doors at the ground level allows the and formed into 60-centimeter-thick blocks
breezeway to be used either as an extension of with channels. After air drying and installing
the indoor living spaces or as a covered portion the blocks, tubes for the hydronic heating
of the deck. This space also serves to divide the system were inserted into the channels and the
garage and office from the main body of the house, finished floor was installed on top. The blocks
creating a semi-detached studio apartment to
the north.
The house was constructed using a combination
of timber framing for the structural elements, such
as the roof and walls, and reinforced concrete
for the core and slabs. Wood for the house was
sourced from the client’s own stand of timber
located near Schwarzenberg, about 15 kilometers
from the site. The architect, together with a local
forester, selected 20 spruce and 40 silver fir trees,
which were felled in December during the phase of
the new moon. According to traditional folk wisdom,
the ideal time to harvest timber is in early winter,
when the moon is barely visible. Scientists have
confirmed the validity of this practice: lower sap
levels during this period have a beneficial effect on
the drying and durability of wood.18
After harvest, the wood was delivered to a
nearby sawmill, where it was cut into planks and
left to dry for several months. For the construction
of the house, no engineered products were used,
and every piece of lumber was exploited. This
was accomplished by using scraps and lower-
quality wood for less visible applications and by
incorporating varying widths of lumber in certain
areas. The structure’s highly insulated walls were
constructed using prefabricated panels consisting
of diagonal tongue-and-groove spruce boards
installed over a timber framework. After delivery
and installation on site, the panels were filled
with cellulose-fiber insulation, covered with a 5.6.3 Panel installation.

166 Material Strategies

5.6.4 Studio interior.

Materials and Place 167

5.6.5 Foundation excavation.

5.6.6 Heating system installation.

168 Material Strategies

provide thermal mass for distributing warmth,
generated by a ground source heat pump, to
spaces on the first floor. Radiators warm the
bedrooms on the upper floor. While the house
is mechanically ventilated during the winter
months, a combination of cross- and stack-
ventilation help to keep the living spaces cool in
the summer.
Bader notes that the close ties between clients,
architects, and craftspeople are responsible
for the strong sense of Baukultur, or building
culture, in his region. For him, building is not
solely about materials and form but also about
a way of working that is sensitive to clients and
craftspeople alike.19 This is not a hasty process,
and as a result the House am Moor took a little
over one and a half years to build. Bader observes,
“When building, we take our time.”20 With time
comes quality and, in this case, economic and
environmental advantages associated with the
careful use of local resources.
Notes
1 Richard Weston, Materials, Form and
Architecture (New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press, 2003), 101.
2 Carolyn Dean, A Culture in Stone: Inka
Perspectives on Rock (Durham, NC: Duke
University Press, 2010), 6–7.
3 David Leatherbarrow, Architecture Oriented
Otherwise (New York: Princeton Architectural
Press, 2009), 81.
4 Kenneth Frampton, “Towards a Critical
Regionalism,” in The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays
on Postmodern Culture, ed. Hal Foster (Port
Townsend, WA: Bay Press, 1983), 19.
5 Swedish Environmental Protection Agency,
Naturum Visitor Centres in Sweden: National
Guidelines (January, 2009), 3.
6 Tomas Carlberg, “Om Berg, Sjön Tåkern Och
Ett Säreget Naturum,” Fauna Och Flora 108,
no. 3 (2013): 10–15.
7 Peter Sheehan, “‘In the Interests of the General
Peace’: The Architectural Development of
al-JahilĦ Fort and Its Part within the Policy of
Shaikh Zaˉyid Bin KhalĦfa,” Liwa: Journal of the
National Center for Documentation & Research
4, no. 7 (2012): 37–57.
8 Monia Chies, “Post-Earthquake Death Rituality
and Cultural Revitalization at the Tibetan
Pilgrimage Site of Gyanak Mani in Yushu,”
Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni 80,
no. 1 (2014): 318.
9 Ibid.
10 Brian Zhang Li, “On Continuum,” lecture
delivered at Syracuse University, School of
Architecture, Syracuse, NY, April 15, 2013.
11 Fang Wang. Geo-Architecture and Landscape
in China’s Geographic and Historic Context
(Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2016), 102.
12 Adam Caruso and Helen Thomas, eds., The
Stones of Fernand Pouillon: An Alternative
Modernism in French Architecture (Zurich: Gta
Verlag, 2015), 9.
13 Eliet & Lehmann Architectes, exhibition
catalog, Matière à Construire (2011), 5.
14 John James, “An Investigation into the Uneven
Distribution of Early Gothic Churches in the
Paris Basin,” Art Bulletin 66, no. 1 (March
1984): 15–46.
15 Laurent Lehmann, “Architecture, Entéléchie,
Poésie,” Pierre Actual (September 2014): 29.
16 Ibid.
17 Andreas W. Voigt, “Die leise Renaissance
eines faszinierenden Baustoffs,” Die Welt, April
16, 2016, www.welt.de/finanzen/immobilien/
article154420287/Die-leise-Renaissance-
eines-faszinierenden-Baustoffs.html
18 Ernst Zürcher, “Lunar Rhythms in Forestry
Traditions: Lunar-Correlated Phenomena
in Tree Biology and Wood Properties,”
Earth, Moon and Planets 85/86 (2001):
471–473.
19 Bernardo Bader, “Getting Things Done:
Evolution of the Built Environment in
Vorarlberg,” interview by Wolfgang Fiel,
Hittisau, Austria, February 2, 2014.
20 Bernardo Bader (architect), from material
provided by the office of Bernardo Bader
Architekten, Dornbirn, Austria.
Materials and Place 169
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
 6
Primitive to Performative

6.1 Earthquake-resistant construction at the Aknaibich Preschool.

In the past, materials used for construction retained
properties intrinsic to their fundamental origins.
Builders often capitalized on these essential
qualities by using them to regulate environmental
forces. They selected materials for their capacity to
react to and modulate climatic conditions, such as
airflow, humidity, and temperature. Massive stone
walls, for instance, were incorporated in ways that
allowed them to store and radiate the sun’s warmth
in winter and slow heat transmission in summer.
In some cases, environmental conditions
caused materials to behave in undesirable
ways. Builders developed systems to regulate
these responses. This type of adaptation can be
observed in traditional timber structures found
in many parts of the world, where connections
between construction elements have been shaped
to allow for dimensional changes caused by
variations in moisture content.
Whereas previously buildings accommodated
and even exploited these types of reciprocal
exchanges between materials and their
environment, today construction codes emphasize
permanence and rigidity. Non-conforming materials
are generally considered weak and therefore
undesirable. The demand for consistency and
standardization has resulted in the homogenization
of materials, restricting their performance to a
few predictable behaviors.1 Altering a material’s
composition or structure to increase consistency
reduces its capacity to interact with the environment
and may eliminate beneficial properties. For
example, the addition of cement to raw earth used
in rammed or mud brick construction increases
the material’s resistance to water absorption—a
good thing under certain circumstances. This also,
however, makes reusing the material or returning it
to its original state very challenging.
While the need to control and predict material
behavior is often necessary, there are times when
eliminating this constraint can open up new
possibilities. Projects in this chapter highlight
interactions and exchanges between material
systems and the immediate environment, used
to far-ranging effect. Haus Rauch in Austria [6.3],
for example, demonstrates a different attitude
toward the contemporary notion of permanence.
Constructed from soil excavated from the site, the
building’s walls were not stabilized with cement or
other additives; the house has been designed to
“simply crumble apart at the end of its lifetime.”2
Soil is the product of erosion, and this same
process acts on the exterior façades. The flow
172 Material Strategies
of water is hindered only by the introduction of
ceramic tiles. Here, the inevitable has been allowed
to slowly wear away the building’s surfaces, albeit
over a long period of time.
Materials and
the Environment
Some of the case studies featured in this chapter
demonstrate how local resources can be mobilized
in response to certain climatic conditions. Bamboo,
for example, grows well in tropical regions, and
its slim proportion and great strength make it
an attractive option for constructing light, airy
structures suited to hot, humid climates. The
Pani Community Center [6.2] demonstrates the
strength of bamboo and its capacity to form a tall
and slender, yet stable, canopy. The lightweight
structure encourages natural ventilation and offers
sun and rain protection in Bangladesh’s subtropical
climate. At the opposite end of the spectrum is the
Kargyak Learning Center [6.1], located in one of the
highest inhabited regions on the world. The village’s
extreme altitude makes heating during the winter
months difficult, so a “micro Trombe wall” system,
relying on the thermal properties of stone and mud
brick, was introduced. These resources constitute
the only building materials typically available in
this remote part of India; sourcing them on site
eliminated the time and expense of transporting
them, allowing much of the construction to take
place during the short Himalayan summer season.
In addition to tempering the ambient
environment, materials can direct and regulate the
flow of water. Thatch made with overlapping layers
of grass, leaves, or reeds has long been used as
a method for shedding rainwater from buildings
in many parts of the world. The undulating roof
of the Thread artist residency [6.6] combines the
water-resistant qualities of local grass with an
optimized form to collect water in the drought-
prone Tambacounda region of Senegal. In addition,
the cellular nature of the compact grass bundles
forms an effective barrier against the sun, while the
orientation of the stalks helps to guide warm air up
and out of the main spaces of the building.
Materials also can be marshaled to provide
protection against the greater forces of nature,
such as earthquakes and typhoons. Bamboo
performs well in the face of both; the plant’s fibrous
composition provides structural stiffness and
strength but also allows the material to bend and
return to its original form without damage, even
in extreme conditions. Many houses in Southeast
Asia take advantage of bamboo’s high bending
strength and have been known to withstand
typhoon-force winds, even when more modern
structures made from man-made materials do not.
Using the strong and slender profile of the plant
for support, traditional bamboo dwellings lift living
spaces off the ground, away from the damp earth
and seasonal flooding. Unlike industrially produced
materials, which are generally imported, the plant
is ubiquitous to the region, which makes sourcing
and replacing broken elements easy after a storm.
In this way bamboo offers a structural as well as
ecological resiliency that few man-made materials
can match.
Severe weather patterns brought on by climate
change have heightened the vulnerability of many
communities throughout the world to flooding
and storms and have led to great loss of life and
property. Homes constructed from earth and
plant-based materials are especially vulnerable
to unusually harsh conditions. In addition, severe
drought caused by global warming has also
threatened the quality and availability of certain
materials, such as bamboo, reed, and grasses,
exerting further pressure on traditional modes of
building. Addressing these problems is difficult,
especially as native building expertise becomes
a thing of the past. H&P Architects accounted for
the lack of skilled craftspeople when developing
their design for the Blooming Bamboo Home [6.5].
Taking its cues from the platform house found
in many parts of Vietnam, the structure offers
protection against storms and flooding. The home
can be constructed by almost anyone because it is
based on a rapidly deployable, flexible system of
modules made from inexpensive, readily available
resources such as bamboo.
At times, a construction system may rely on the
properties of a single material, but there are also
cases when two or more materials are combined
to address the variety of conditions found at a
particular location. Systems such as rammed earth
and earth masonry, for example, might be well
suited for maintaining comfortable temperatures
in arid environments, but they are less than ideal
in areas prone to earthquakes. Over the centuries,
various materials have been paired with earth to
increase its low tensile strength. One of the oldest
techniques relies on bamboo strips to secure brick
coursing, whereas another method of seismic
reinforcement incorporates horizontal timber
tie-beams in rammed earth and earth masonry
construction. Wood members unify the behavior of
earthen walls and add enough flexibility to improve
a structure’s capacity to withstand lateral forces.3
The reinforcement strategy used at the Aknaibich
Preschool [6.4] presents a modern interpretation of
older applications. Morocco’s arid climate led the
architects to enclose the building with three layers
of unfired earth masonry to keep the building’s
temperature comfortable, but their choice also
left the building vulnerable to earthquakes. To
solve this problem, a 12-centimeter reinforced
concrete ring beam was incorporated between
the brick coursing at three different levels. A
minimal insertion of cement and steel improves
the structural performance of the building without
undermining the behavior of the earth construction.
As many individuals in Aknaibich are abandoning
local practices for newer methods, the architects
devised a way to instead merge traditional and
contemporary applications.
Rather than deploy one element to perform a
single function, as do many building assemblies
today, the examples presented in this chapter
illustrate how employing simple systems, made
with a few materials, can accomplish many
things. This strategy is most effective when the
fundamental properties and behaviors of the
resources at hand are well understood and utilized
to their fullest capacity, even if their augmentation
with newer technologies and systems is required.
Primitive to Performative 173
6.1 Kargyak Learning Center
Architects: arch i platform (Anne Feenstra, Himanshu Lal, Sneha Khullar, Kushal Lachhwani)
Location: Kargyak, India
Year: 2012
6.1.1 View of learning center and Kargyak village.
Kargyak is a small village located on the Kurgiak
Chu River, which runs between the rugged
Zanskar and Himalayan mountain ranges. At lower
elevations, the mountain valleys offer an abundance
of water and a relatively mild climate, creating an
environment hospitable to settlement. The terrain
and weather are still severe, however, as no valley
is lower than 3,500 meters. Settlements are only
accessible on foot, and inclement conditions hinder
safe passage to and from the village six months out
of the year, thus requiring it to be self-sustaining.
Ladakh, the region where Kargyak is located,
is a Tibetan Buddhist enclave situated in the
predominantly Muslim and Hindu state of Jammu
and Kashmir. Agriculture is the primary source of
sustenance for the Ladakhi people, but a recent
shift toward tourism and modernization has begun
to alter the way of life for many in the region. The
same is true for the community of Kargyak. Despite
their isolation, many families now value formal
education and wish to send their children to school.
Until recently, only older children, strong enough
to cross the mountain passes, could pursue their
studies in the cities of Manali and Srinagar, three
days’ travel from Kargyak. After completing their
education, most choose to live in the city rather
than return home. Meanwhile, the youngest
children work the land with their parents until they
are old enough to leave.
While the desire for education is not the only
cause of rural–urban migration, the limited number
of schools in the area has contributed to this trend.
174 Material Strategies
As an acknowledgement of the lack of education
infrastructure in Kargyak, the local administration
initiated plans to build a standard school facility
in collaboration with Blueland, the Czech NGO
responsible for funding and managing construction
for the building. Rather than build a government-
sanctioned concrete school, the organization
invited Dutch architect Anne Feenstra and his
New Delhi-based team to assist with the design
and construction of the project. The client asked
the team to design a facility that could function
year-round and serve at least 40 children not
yet old enough to make the trek to the city. The
new school was situated below the local Gompa
(temple), on the west-facing slope overlooking the
valley, within a short walking distance from Kargyak
and neighboring communities.
The remote nature of the project and
Feenstra’s experience planning similar structures
in Afghanistan led the team to carefully examine
construction techniques and materials close to the
site. Timber is scarce in the region, but loose stone,
mud, and straw are plentiful, and these materials
are frequently utilized in Ladakhi construction.
Buildings are typically constructed with earth
masonry walls composed of river sand, clay, and
straw, resting on dressed stone foundations. Each
material serves a different purpose within the
structure. Stone provides a solid damp course for
the lower portion of the house, where the animals
are kept; mud brick, which offers greater thermal
resistance, is typically used for the upper living
spaces. Stone is more difficult to move and build
with than mud brick, so it is used only where it
is needed the most. Wood is also used sparingly
and is usually reserved for structural applications,
for example to support the roof or bridge window
and door openings. Typically flat, roofs consist of
large timber beams spanned by smaller joists. The
structure is enclosed by laying small branches in
rows on top of the roof members and then covering
them with an insulative layer of compacted earth
and grass or straw. The roof and the rest of the
structure are usually rendered with clay plaster
containing kaolin, chalk, or gypsum, which
produces a clean, white finish.
The team noted that all of the structures in
Kargyak were self-built and required frequent
repairs. Roofs in the village were especially
vulnerable to water damage due to lack of
drainage; recent changes in the weather pattern
had increased incidences of waterlogging from
sudden and intense downpours. In addition, most
structures were not constructed to withstand a
major earthquake.
6.1.2 Collecting stones.
The team developed a scheme based on
local building practices but introduced several
modifications to address the shortfalls observed in
the field. A reinforced strip footing was added to the
school’s stone foundation in order to meet seismic
requirements. The building’s curvilinear form and
positioning of its inner walls to buttress the exterior
enclosure further reduced the possibility of damage
from an earthquake. The roof was made in the
traditional way, with layers of mud and straw, but
was sloped in two directions at a 5 percent pitch to
insure adequate roof drainage.
The most significant modification of local
building practices was the introduction of a double
wall system for the school’s enclosure, which the
team developed in response to Kargyak’s subzero
temperatures and the vulnerability of mud brick
construction to weathering. Sixty centimeters of
stone masonry protect the exterior of the building,
while an air gap and a 30-centimeter masonry
wall insulate the interior. The layers work together,
both as thermal storage and as further protection
against seismic forces. The architects also utilized
Primitive to Performative 175
 6.1.3 Exterior of Kargyak
Learning Center.

6.1.4 Construction site.

176 Material Strategies

the thermal storage capacity of the earth masonry to
augment other heat sources, such as heat gain from
windows, body warmth, and the stove used in winter.
The masons positioned brick panels behind sections
of the school’s south-facing glazing. The cavities
between the glass and brick collect heat during the
day and can be opened during the cooler evening
hours to introduce stored warm air into the interior.
Workers also fashioned yak felt, another traditional
material commonly found in Ladakh, into curtains to
protect glazed areas from heat loss to the exterior.
Yak felt curtains were also hung between interior
thresholds to retain heat within individual rooms.
The height of traditional Ladakhi living spaces
are usually minimized to reduce the need for

6.1.6 Diagram of wall heat capture system.

6.1.7 Diagram of under-floor heating system.

heating; the team followed this practice by

6.1.5 Diagram of wall construction.
limiting the interior height of the classrooms to
2.4 meters. The building’s thermal performance
was also improved by the inclusion of a hypocaust
(under-floor) heating system, which Feenstra
had seen previously in Afghanistan.4 The system
seemed ideal for the conditions found at Kargyak

Primitive to Performative 177

and was installed in the floor of the north-facing
classroom. When fuel is burned in the fireplace, the
system connected to an exhaust chimney siphons
off smoke and heat through underground channels
to warm the classroom.
The team shaped the building in response to
external forces and internal requirements. During
their initial observations of the village, they noticed
that corners of buildings had been worn away by
the wind. The absence of corners in the school not
only makes it more aerodynamic but also creates
interior spaces that are conducive to gathering
in groups. Kargyak receives roughly 300 days of
sunshine each year, consequently daylight and
solar heat gain were important for determining
the location, size, and form of the windows. Local
practice is to avoid harsh southern light, but the
school’s windows were positioned to maximize
southern exposure to increase access to warmth
and daylight. The infiltration of daylight through the
meter-thick walls was also increased by chamfering
the sides of the deep openings.
The local climate and terrain not only influenced
the design of the school, but it also informed the
construction process. Construction was planned
for the warmer months and extended over a two-
year period. With limited good weather, the team
lost little time in gathering and producing building
materials. Resources close to the site were used
wherever possible and, in instances where this
was not feasible, materials were transported by
mule from the town of Manali over the Shingo-La
mountain pass. The trip took three days in both
directions, and the size and weight of goods were
178 Material Strategies
limited by the carrying capacity of the animals.
Many items were downsized for transport. For
example, the steel reinforcement for the foundation
was precut and bent, and glazing was reduced.
The roof beams, which were too heavy to carry by
this method, were transported in winter over the
frozen Kurgiak Chu by sledge.
During the planning phase, the team invited
feedback from local residents, and during
construction, the community’s participation was
encouraged by paying workers for their efforts.
The design team, volunteers from Blueland,
and several local residents worked together to
complete the project with the help of a few skilled
masons and carpenters. The finished building is
modest and unassuming, and even though its
form and construction do not fully conform to
local conventions, it blends harmoniously with
the landscape and the village. The community
has also taken complete ownership of the
school; its simple, open layout and comfortable
interiors encouraged them to adapt the spaces
to serve a variety of purposes. Project architect
Kushal Lachhwani notes that in addition to
being a school, the building has also served as
“a common cooking area, a community center,
a storage house for food and tools, a two-
room guest house, a police station, temporary
medical camp” and more.5 Having survived
several winters since its completion, the Kargyak
Learning Center confirms that, with a few minor
modifications, mud and stone can still be relied
upon to withstand some of the most severe
conditions on earth.
6.1.8 Floor plan.
6.2 Pani Community Center
Architect: SchilderScholte Architects
Location: Rajarhat, Bangladesh
Year: 2014
6.2.1 Northwest corner Pani Community Center.
Rivers cut through the alluvial plane of northern
Bangladesh’s Kurigram District, providing fertile
soil for the cultivation of rice and wheat. While
forming the basis of the region’s agricultural
economy, however, rivers also pose a serious
threat by flooding during the monsoon season,
destroying crops and houses every year.
Rebuilding places a huge burden on an already
impoverished population. Often the only way for
families to survive is to sell their land and move
to urban areas. Natural disasters and illegal
land appropriations have displaced millions of
Bangladeshi people, many of whom are ethnic
minorities. Displaced individuals struggle to make a
living, and their children are often unable to attend
school. Without access to resources or education,
it is difficult to break the cycle of poverty.
In 2013 the Pani Foundation, a Dutch aid
organization, proposed funding a technical
school in the city of Rajarhat. The center was
intended to support the needs of the area’s
landless population by providing educational
programs, childcare, and social engagement.
Gerrit Schilder Jr. and Hill Scholte, the founding
principals of the Rotterdam-based architecture
firm SchilderScholte Architects, answered an open
call by the foundation to design the 910-square-
meter complex that would offer skills training to
men and women. At the new center, men would
learn how to fabricate bamboo bicycles, and the
women could become proficient in sewing and
working with textiles. The trainees could also earn
money by selling their wares in the shop on the
ground floor of the complex. While parents were
Primitive to Performative 179
working or training, their children would have the
opportunity to attend school on the premises. The
center would also serve as a social hub, offering
disenfranchised members of the community a
place for gathering and fellowship.
Based on observations made at the site,
the architects determined that climate and the
availability of materials (and the relationship
between the two) were critical to the design and
execution of the building. Bangladeshis have
long relied on perishable materials, such as mud,
bamboo, grass, and jute, in constructing their
homes; more durable materials, such as stone
and burnt brick, were traditionally reserved for
religious buildings. It was only during British rule
(1757–1947) that housing constructed from brick
was introduced. Today, many prefer corrugated
metal and masonry, but these are only employed
when funds are available.6 With these preferences
in mind, the architects selected bamboo and brick
for the primary structure of the building. Even
though bamboo is generally viewed as an inferior
material, the architects decided that the center
could serve to showcase the plant’s potential. The
6.2.2 Plaza.
180 Material Strategies
team worked to maximize the structural efficiency
of both bamboo and brick; more significantly,
the architects utilized the properties of each
to enhance the thermal performance of the
building.
Northern Bangladesh experiences its rainy
season from June to September. During this time,
temperatures can reach upwards of 30 degrees
Celsius, while winter temperatures remain between
10 and 15 degrees Celsius. In response to these
conditions, the architects proposed combining the
lightness of bamboo with the mass of masonry.
The strength of the bamboo structural system
permitted the roof of the building to be raised to
a height of more than 6 meters. This arrangement
reduces the accumulation of heat at the lower
levels by promoting cross ventilation in and around
the enclosed amenities while providing shade.
The masonry portion of the structure regulates the
climate and daylighting of the enclosed spaces.
On hot days with lower nighttime temperatures,
the thick walls serve to keep interiors cool.
Narrow openings and small windows in the walls
promote airflow and also filter daylight entering the
6.2.3 Classroom south elevation.
interior. In winter, it rarely freezes, but nighttime
temperatures can still be quite cold. For this
reason, the architects suggested adding shutters
to the windows (although these have not yet been
implemented).
To avoid flooding during the rainy season,
houses in Bangladesh are typically raised on stilts
or constructed on mounds of compacted earth.
Following this practice, the community center was
constructed on a U-shaped masonry plinth raised
approximately 30 centimeters above the ground.
Much like a traditional Bangladeshi courtyard
house, the enclosed spaces are arranged around
a central yard: the shop and workshop define the
northern corner of the complex and the classroom
and lavatory structures form the south side.
Local skills and expertise shaped the design
of the center. A contractor from Rajarhat was
charged with overseeing construction, and laborers
from within 25 kilometers of the site were hired to
complete the project. The architects communicated
with the construction team through an interpreter,
but also through a physical model, so as to convey
their design intentions without needing to rely on
drawings or text. The architects also simplified
the building assembly and details so that the
contractor could more easily communicate them to
the team. The straightforward nature of the design
also gave workers the freedom to innovate and to
suggest modifications during construction.
After the foundation was dug by hand and the
masonry strip footings were laid, workers installed
the bamboo columns. For column fabrication, two
long culms were used for the main length of the
member, and shorter extensions were added to
either end and secured with a threaded metal rod.
Each column was connected to the foundation
by mortaring the end of the extension into the
masonry footing. In areas where the columns are
freestanding, workers joined their midsections
with a bamboo tie-beam in order to prevent the
members from buckling. In cases where the
columns were located next to masonry walls, the
center tie-beam was extended into the brickwork,
serving also as a ceiling rafter for the interior
spaces. This connection provides lateral support
Primitive to Performative 181
 1 2

5 6

1 store
2 workshop
3 storage
4 work area
7 7
5 plaza
6 courtyard
7 classroom

6.2.4 Ground-floor plan and longitudinal sections.

for the bamboo framework and prevents roof uplift.
The corrugated metal roof, which echoes the shape
of the plinth, rests on bamboo rafters attached to
the 5- by 5-meter grid of bamboo columns.
The masons laid the brickwork using a running
bond pattern for the shorter, non-loadbearing
walls and an English bond for the longer walls,
where additional support for the ceiling rafters
was needed. The alternate coursing of stretchers
and headers was modified on the south façade
of the building to form a series of U-shaped
brick piers separated by vertical openings. To

182 Material Strategies

 2-11 D C B A

slope = 2 degrees notch rafters corregated panels on top!

stainless steel cable

0.12" as wind bracing

cap nut M12 screw thread rod M12

coupler
bamboo column
6.1" narrow to 5"

ceiling joist 5"

420
cap nut M20 screw thread rod M20
both ends cap nut M20
split bamboo screw thread rod M20
net reinforcing
500

brick
800
860

6.2.5 Bamboo
column details.

6.2.6 Work area.

Primitive to Performative 183

 6.2.7 Brick pier
construction.

6.2.8 Classroom
interior.

184 Material Strategies

pour the concrete floor plates, formwork was
installed on top of bamboo rafters spanning
between the north- and south-facing walls. After
completion, the masonry volumes were finished
with plaster and painted in certain areas. The
interior spaces were painted light blue, a color
known to repel flies. Bright yellow paint contrasts
with the natural color of the plaster to animate
the courtyard façades and the classroom window
openings. An additional layer of bamboo poles
was added to the shop and workshop block as a
reference to the bamboo bicycles produced on the
premises.
The architects have combined ordinary
materials common to Bangladesh—bamboo and
fired brick masonry—in a way that maximizes
their structural and thermal capacity. The bamboo
roof protects the brick structure from sun and
rain, while the masonry provides a ballast for the
bamboo framework. The interaction between
these two systems creates a protective yet inviting
environment for its occupants.
Primitive to Performative 185
6.3 Haus Rauch
Architect: Roger Boltshauser, Boltshauser Architekten
Builder: Martin Rauch, Lehm Ton Erde Baukunst GmbH
Location: Schlins, Austria
Year: 2008
6.3.1 Haus Rauch west elevation.
Haus Rauch hugs a grassy slope overlooking
Schlins, a small town in Austria that lies at the
foot of the Rätikon mountain range. This section
of the Eastern Alps was formed when tectonic
forces caused fossilized ocean beds to fold and
rise, leaving behind layered deposits of sandstone
and clay. Today, Haus Rauch reveals the hidden
geological processes of the region within the
horizontal layers of its walls. Raw subsoil from the
site, which forms the basis for 85 percent of the
building, was minimally altered during construction.
The use of straightforward techniques, such
as ramming, forming, and firing, as well as the
reduction of artificial stabilization, reinforcement,
and cladding, have resulted in a house that
interacts directly with the forces of nature rather
than opposing them.
186 Material Strategies
Martin Rauch, a native of Schlins, has been
building and fabricating with earth since 1983.
His attention to the material was inspired by
traditions found not in his homeland but in Africa,
where he spent time as an aid worker as a young
man. Today, as a master craftsman, Rauch is
testing the limits of what many consider to be the
most rudimentary of building materials. Through
progressive innovation he aims to challenge local
as well as global perceptions of earth-based
construction. Having channeled many years of
experience into building his own home, Rauch
demonstrates that a highly efficient three-story
house made from earth is entirely feasible.
Construction for the house began with digging
out the foundations. The team transported the
excavated material to a nearby work yard, where
6.3.2 Rammed earth with tile inserts.
it was first sifted to remove larger stones; these
stones were later used to form the cellar vaults of
the house, as well as to build walls throughout the
neighborhood. A second pass through the sieve
removed particles larger than 3 centimeters in
diameter; this material served as aggregate for the
floors and stair treads, and as backfill. After sorting
and mixing the remaining material, cast tests
were used to determine what portion was suitable
for construction. Half of the excavated soil was
returned to the building site, and the other half was
transported to Rauch’s workshop, where it was
incorporated into products such as prefabricated
wall elements, and fireplaces.
The house rests on a continuous, unreinforced
concrete footing made from a mixture of cement,
trass lime, and aggregate. Loadbearing rammed
earth walls were positioned directly on top
of the footing. The walls were constructed in
layers, or lifts: the team erected slip formwork,
filled it with earth, and tamped the material with
pneumatic backfill tampers. The spacing between
the formwork was set at 45 centimeters, which
allowed room for working and also resulted in
a wall thickness that fulfilled the structural and
thermal requirements of the house. After reaching
a compacted height of roughly 8 centimeters,
another layer of loose earth was added to the
formwork and tamped. Ceramic tiles were laid
against the exterior edge of the formwork every
third layer. After the layers of compacted earth
reached the top of the formwork, it was removed
and reinstalled at the upper part of the finished
wall section and the tamping process would begin
again.
At the junctures between the floors and the
walls, reinforced, trass-lime ring beams were
poured along the loadbearing walls. The beams
support the horizontal structure of the house and
stabilize the walls at each floor level. The upper
floor structure was fabricated using tightly spaced
timber beams, rough-milled on three sides. After
installation, the unfinished surface of the wood was
leveled with a mixture of cork and trass lime, and
then topped with a rammed earth floor. This form of
construction, known locally as Dippelbaumdecke,
Primitive to Performative 187
6.3.3 Wall construction.

6.3.4 Longitudinal section.

188 Material Strategies

 Trass lime ring beam
with reinforcing

Rammed earth 45 cm

Mud brick erosion protection

Reed insulation

Earth plaster 3 cm
with wall heating
6.3.6 Heating system installation.

6.3.5 Exterior wall detail.

was common to southern Germany and Austria

before the 1900s and was selected for the house
because of its exceptional strength and favorable
acoustic properties. In addition, earth is highly
compatible with the wood, which, because of its
lower moisture content, is able to extract excess
humidity from the timber floor structure.
The below-grade portions of the foundation and
walls were covered with 10 centimeters of foam
glass insulation and waterproofed with bitumen.
The roof of the building was insulated with 20
centimeters of reed matting, covered with sheets
of oriented strand board, and sealed with bitumen.
A layer of crushed pumice was installed over the
waterproofing and covered with ceramic tiles.
The exterior of the building was left unfinished; an
insulating layer of reed matting was installed over
interior surfaces and rendered with an earth plaster
finish. 6.3.7 Reed insulation installation.

Primitive to Performative 189

 Other than the roof membrane, and the areas
in contact with the ground, the surfaces of the
house were left bare or finished in a fashion
that allow them to freely transmit humidity and
warmth to adjacent spaces, so as to maintain
consistent and comfortable indoor temperatures
year-round. The house relies on natural ventilation
in summer, and in winter, heat is distributed
via a hydronic system of tubes installed under
the plaster in the walls. Heat for this system is
generated by three sources: the solar hot water
collectors on the roof, a pellet burning stove, and
a wood-fired oven. The house’s rammed earth
floors also warm the living spaces by absorbing
and emitting solar radiation entering through large
openings to the exterior.
Another area of interaction between the house
and the environment occurs on the exterior, where
the raw, rammed earth of the façade has been
left to weather. The walls rely solely on naturally
occurring clay for stabilization; over time, water
running down the vertical surfaces will loosen and
wash away soil particles. Ceramic tile inserts break
the flow of water, slowing down the process of
erosion to the point of insignificance. The ceramic
pavers on the roof also regulate water, but in a
different manner. Produced in Rauch’s workshop,
the 4-centimeter-thick pavers were made with
a lime and clay mixture containing additional 6.3.8 Interior walls finished with clay plaster.
moisture, which vaporized during the firing process,
leaving behind small pores in the ceramic. During as active constituents in calibrating and reacting
a rainstorm, water seeps through the pavers and is to environmental processes in and around the
absorbed by the layer of crushed pumice below, or building. The house’s rammed earth walls temper
in instances when the amount of runoff is too great seasonal cycles and alter the interior climate
to be retained, it drains to the waterproofing layer through their capacity to absorb and release
and flows out behind the house. By controlling the moisture and warmth. On the exterior, water
movement and evaporation of water on the roof, interacts with the building’s surfaces, wearing away
this system reduces runoff and helps to keep the small amounts of material over time. Rauch refers
house cool in summer. to this as “controlled erosion,” a process that will
The materials used to construct Haus Rauch eventually return the building to the site, where it
were not treated as inert substances but rather once originated.7

190 Material Strategies

6.4 Aknaibich Preschool
Architect: BC architects + MAMOTH
Location: Aknaibich, Morocco
Year: 2014
6.4.1 Aknaibich Preschool west elevation.
Aknaibich, like many other communities in the
province of Agadir, is in transition. Its inhabitants
are leaving their agrarian way of life to seek work
in the city. Migration and urban development are
changing the character and structure of the village:
tightly spaced alleys confined by compound walls
of rammed earth and mud brick are giving way
to wider streets lined with isolated, reinforced
concrete structures.
Aknaibich’s residents continue to appreciate
the aesthetics and comfort of their traditional
homes, but the time-consuming nature of their
construction and the limitations of local resources
have led many to choose faster, easier methods
of building. In the past, inhabitants constructed
loadbearing walls from mud brick rendered with
earth plaster; roofs were made with eucalyptus
or palm timber and finished with a layer of earth.
In older structures, the dimensions and strength
of available timber, capable of spanning only 3
to 4 meters, limited the size of interior spaces.
Today homeowners prefer more spacious rooms,
with dimensions only obtainable with concrete
and steel. The substitution of one material for
another may bring certain advantages, but the
shift is not without drawbacks. Concrete-based
structures do not modulate external temperatures
as well as do earth-based construction; homes
are subsequently less comfortable during the
hottest and coolest times of the year. In addition,
commercial materials must be transported great
distances to rural areas, increasing cost, which
Primitive to Performative 191
 6 7

2
4 1 5

1 entrance
2 covered swings
3 swing
4 enclosed play area
5 classroom
6 classrooms (existing)
7 courtyard (existing)

6.4.2 Plan and transverse section.

puts newer methods of construction out of reach
for many families.
A study of the region conducted by the French
aid organization GoodPlanet identified Aknaibich
as a community in need of education facilities for
preschool-age children. As part of GoodPlanet’s
“Bioclimatic Schools” program, the foundation
worked with the Ministry of National Education of
Agadir and the local township to initiate the project,
and to select the grounds of the Al Hidaya School
as the site for the new facilities. Architects Dorian
Vauzelle of the MAMOTH collective and Nicolas
Coeckelberghs of BC architects were invited by
GoodPlanet to design and oversee the construction
of a one-room annex to serve children under the
age of 6.
After holding a workshop with community
members, the architects developed a proposal
for a new courtyard that would serve both the
existing school and the new annex. The architects

192 Material Strategies

6.4.3 Classroom north elevation.

6.4.4 Classroom interior.

Primitive to Performative 193

proposed to locate the new classroom building
and a walled play area at the east end of the
school’s central gathering space. The preschool
was designed to open out onto a smaller, enclosed
courtyard, which the architects decided to partially
cover with a wooden pergola that offers shade to
students sitting, swinging, and playing underneath
the structure.
The architects designed the preschool to
operate in tandem with the seasons. Each face
of the building is configured to regulate the
interior climate by responding to its particular
orientation through the position and size of its
openings and the design of its earth masonry. The
compact classroom is situated at the south end
of the play yard, an ideal location for controlling
solar heat gain and daylight. Tall glass doors
are positioned on the north façade to allow for
ample, indirect natural lighting, while openings to
the south were minimized so as to avoid direct
sunlight and overheating of the interior. The
south wall is positioned to absorb heat during
the day and to radiate warmth during the cooler
evening hours. Openings on the north and south
walls increase cross ventilation, keeping the
classroom cool in summer. The architects designed
the east- and west-facing walls of the preschool
without openings, which were constructed with
two layers of brick facing the exterior and a
10-centimeter air gap and single layer of masonry
facing the interior. With a total thickness of
70 centimeters, the walls insulate the building
and enhance the acoustic performance of the
classroom.
After observing the transformations occurring
in the village, the team resolved to build with native
resources, but in a way that would overcome many
of their deficiencies. Using contemporary building
regulations as a guide, the architects proposed
several improvements that would bring older
methods of construction up to current standards.
The most significant development to emerge from
this process was the structural augmentation of
earth and stone masonry so as to conform to
Morocco’s seismic building regulations (Règlement
de Construction Parasismique), as well as France’s
seismic regulations for earth construction (Le
Règlement Parasismique des Constructions en
Terre). The architects used these norms to inform
the development of structural connections and in
determining wall thickness, size of openings, and to
establish optimal mixes for rammed earth and earth
masonry.
194 Material Strategies
The architects began their efforts to improve
the overall performance of the building by
conducting field tests to determine the quality
and characteristics of the soil that would be used
for the loadbearing masonry walls of the building
and for the rammed earth walls surrounding the
play area’s perimeter. The bricks for the project
were to be produced on site. In preparation,
several blocks made from different soil mixtures
and stabilizers were subjected to various tests in
order to determine their compressive strength and
resistance to water and abrasion. Based on data
from this analysis, soil from the site was amended
with clayey material sourced from the nearby Oued
River. This optimized mix was used to produce
blocks that met the team’s criteria for structural
stability, durability, and thermal performance.
To further bolster the masonry structure against
seismic forces, the construction team incorporated
a series of steel reinforced masonry piers, which
were tied into the stone foundation and the north-
and south-facing walls of the preschool by way of
12-centimeter-thick concrete ring beams that occur
at the foundation, the top of the door openings,
and the juncture between the walls and the timber
roof assembly.
The team increased the structural capacity
of local timber by treating the beams with oil and
doubling up on primary roof members. This resulted
in an overall classroom size of 7.5 by 4.2 meters.
Beams were installed on top of the ring beam
and then mortared and bolted into the structure.
Ceiling joists spanning between the beams were
fabricated from short lengths of wood, which were
staggered to increase their bearing area at support
points. Tightly spaced rattan rods were installed
over the top of the roof assembly. Traditional roofs
are flat, and typically enclosed with a layer of earth
and finished with plaster. The team improved on
this assembly by adding 10 centimeters of cork
insulation and a waterproof membrane beneath the
final layer of earth and plaster. To protect the mud
brick against weather and abrasion, the exterior
of the building was finished with plaster render,
known locally as tamelas, which consists of straw,
sand, and clay-rich soil. A finer finish was applied
to the interior walls. Called nouss-nouss (half-half)
in Berber, the mixture is made by combining sieved
dry clay with gypsum and water, which results
in a durable, luminous surface that can be easily
decorated with paint.
In designing the preschool, the architects
returned to age-old practices that depend on
 1

3
1 concrete roof ring beam - 12 cm
4
2 vertical and braced reinforcement bars - 8 mm
5
3 metal mesh mortar reinforcement
4 earth masonry
5 concrete layer - 12 cm
6 plaster layer - exterior: lime earth straw
interior: gypsum earth straw
7 river stone masonry skirting
8 concrete foundation tie beam
9 river stone masonry foundation 6
10 foundation bedding 7
11
11 cement screed floor
12 hardcore - 20 cm 12
13 compacted earth - 30 cm 8
13
14 subsoil 9
14 10

6.4.5 Detail of reinforced

masonry piers.

6.4.6 Classroom
construction.

Primitive to Performative 195

 the density of earthen walls to keep spaces cool
in summer and warm in winter; this strategy
eliminated the need for additional sources
of heating and cooling in the building. Many
of the limitations attributed to earth masonry
construction were overcome through material
testing and the addition of modern materials
such as steel and concrete. By drawing on
local expertise, previous project experience,
and knowledge gained while studying at the
International Centre for Earth Construction
(CRAterre), Coeckelberghs and Vauzelle
successfully combined traditional methods with
modern practices to create what they define as
“contemporary vernacular,” an architecture that
responds to the current needs and demands
of the local community and the environment.
Despite being modest in size, the architects
hope that the lessons learned during the
construction of the preschool will serve as a
model for future schools in other rural areas of
Morocco.8

6.4.7 Cork roof insulation.

196 Material Strategies

6.5 Blooming Bamboo Home
Architect: H&P Architects
Location: Flood-prone areas in Vietnam
Year: 2013
6.5.1 Blooming Bamboo Home exterior.
Water—and the perpetual struggle to control it—
have played a significant role in shaping the culture
and landscape of Vietnam.9 Water is essential for
growing rice and other life-sustaining crops, and
yet its destructive forces can also wreak havoc on
fields and villages every year. Vietnam experiences
more natural disasters caused by tropical storms
than almost any other country in the world. In the
most extreme cases, the country may experience
ten or more typhoons a year, many of which bring
flash flooding to low-lying areas, especially in
the Mekong Delta. Climate change has already
contributed to the increase and severity of tropical
storms, and this trend is expected to escalate.10
The problem of flooding in Vietnam is
compounded by the fact that most of its population
resides along river deltas or in coastal regions.
These locations are suitable for rice cultivation
but are also prone to inundation from high levels
of rainfall. As a result of flooding, farmers can
lose crops, livestock, and their homes, which are
often swept away by strong currents or suffer
damage from standing in water for long periods
of time. Families affected by flooding frequently
experience serious financial losses, which,
when multiplied across a large area, can have
serious consequences for a region’s economic
development.
In response to these conditions, inhabitants
of flood-prone areas tend to prepare for the rainy
season by reinforcing their residences and by
stockpiling food and supplies in safe locations.
Individuals have also adjusted the configuration of
their homes; many of which are now constructed
on higher foundations, or with a mezzanine or
second level to provide a dry area out of harm’s
Primitive to Performative 197
 8

1 entry
2 living room
3 bedroom
4 kitchen
5 laundry + drying
6 terrace
7 animal pen 3 3
8 learning + worship

5 4 2

6.5.2 Floor plan and

section.

198 Material Strategies

6.5.3 Lower level living space.

way. In addition, the number of houses constructed

with permanent materials, such as brick and
reinforced concrete, has increased, while the
number of homes made from less permanent
materials, such as bamboo and thatch, has
decreased.11
An increase in permanent structures made from
industrially produced materials may temporarily
reduce loss of property and life, but the long-
term environmental damage caused by these
changes can also exacerbate the very conditions
that gave rise to this type of construction in
the first place. Fixed structures can withstand
inundation, but they may also impede the flow of
water within a floodplain, causing it to rise. On a
broader scale, materials requiring large amounts
of energy to produce, such as concrete and steel,
contribute to carbon emissions through their
production as well as their poor performance in
tropical climates, necessitating the need for air
conditioning.
Doan Thanh Ha and Tran Ngoc Phuong of
H&P Architects became interested in the problem
of flooding and its impact on rural communities 6.5.4 Upper level living space.

Primitive to Performative 199

6.5.5 Assembly diagram.

200 Material Strategies

6.5.6 Exterior façade.
while developing temporary homes for individuals
displaced by natural disaster. This experience led
the architects to consider more proactive solutions
for sheltering individuals before, during, and after
extreme weather events. Working with a team from
their office, the architects designed a structural
module that could be quickly and inexpensively
fabricated from bamboo. The flexible floor plan of
each module could be configured to house up to
six individuals or to serve as public infrastructure,
such as a clinic or library. The units were designed
to be either freestanding or clustered to form small
communities. To address flooding the team initially
proposed a unit that would float during a high
water event. This would be achieved by installing
recycled oil drums underneath the shelter’s floor
platform. A second proposal was designed to sit
1.45 meters off the ground on a series of robust
bamboo trusses. The raised structure, shored by
cables anchoring it to the ground, was configured
to allow water to flow underneath.
The architects selected bamboo for the
project with economic as well as pragmatic
considerations in mind. The plant grows in almost
every part of Vietnam, and the country is one
of the largest exporters of the material. There is
also a long tradition of specialized craft villages
that are home to artisans skilled in working with
bamboo and rattan.12 Bamboo’s abundance and
wide availability have kept its price low relative to
other materials, making it an attractive option for
low-cost housing. The shelter was also designed
to be prefabricated, potentially in craft villages,
which would reduce cost and support the local
economy; alternatively, the structures could be
built on site by homeowners, for about $2,500 per
unit and a time investment of about 25 days. The
material’s high strength-to-weight ratio makes it
ideal for light, wind- and water-resistant structures,
and, like traditional bamboo houses found in many
parts of Southeast Asia, the design exploits the
potential for the material to be shaped into sturdy,
yet permeable, screens that filter sunlight and air
entering the interior.
To test their design, the architects built a full-
scale prototype on a lot in a suburb of Ha Noi.
Primitive to Performative 201
The 6.3- by 6.3-meter building relies on structural
redundancy and bolted, bypass connections to
withstand strong winds and water currents. The
house’s loadbearing members are fabricated by
assembling two or more poles 8 to 10 centimeters
in diameter to create beams, columns, and roof
joists. At the base of the structure, floor beams
made from bolted pairs of poles are supported by
the bamboo trusses. Flattened bamboo panels
are nailed on top of the beams to create the floor
deck. The division of interior space is defined by
columns spaced on a 3-meter grid. Each column
is fabricated using four poles, which allows for
6-meter-long beams to pass between them in
both directions. The joists for the upper level are
installed over the beams and finished in the same
way as the floor deck. The roof framework forms
a truncated pyramid that is bolted to the main
structure at the columns. The perimeter of the roof
framework is constructed with double member
beams cross-braced with single poles on the
diagonal.
One bay on each side of the exterior is
enclosed by sliding poles between the bamboo
columns, stacking them from floor to ceiling; this
method is also used for creating interior partitions.
To enclose the roof, flattened bamboo panels are
202 Material Strategies
nailed to the framework and covered with a tightly
woven mat. Steel cable cross-braces, providing
additional lateral support, are installed in the roof
and on the outside of the exterior facing panels.
In normal conditions, the roof hatch and pivoting
bamboo screen doors on each side of the house
can be opened to promote natural ventilation and,
during inclement weather, the entire building can be
closed and secured against storms.
According to the architects, the house was
designed to adjust to the local climate and
available resources; the bamboo frame can be
enclosed with wattle and daub, fiberboard, or
other common materials; polycarbonate panels
or nylon sheeting can be installed on the exterior
to further weatherize the structure. The architects
have simplified typical bamboo connections so
that anyone with minimal skills and access to
ordinary hardware and tools can assemble the
building. At the same time, the configuration of
a typical bamboo structure has been adjusted
and augmented so that it can withstand extreme
weather conditions. Through these modifications,
the architects hope to create a flexible system
that gives individuals more control over their built
environment and greater economic stability in the
future.
6.6 Thread Artist Residency and Cultural Center
Architect: Toshiko Mori Architect
Location: Sinthian, Senegal
Year: 2014
6.6.1 Thread from southeast.
Sinthian is a rural community of approximately
900 residents and is located in eastern Senegal,
about a day’s drive from the coastal capital of
Dakar. Throughout the last decade, the region
of Tambacounda, where Sinthian is located, has
been increasingly affected by erratic weather
patterns characterized by drought and variations
in the timing and duration of the rainy season.
The unpredictable climate has caused economic
hardship for the region’s population, which is
almost entirely dependent on the production of
peanuts, cotton, and subsistence crops. The
decline in agriculture has led to both seasonal and
permanent migration, with many seeking more
reliable job opportunities in Dakar and beyond.13
The US-based aid organization Le Korsa was
started after its founder, Nicholas Fox Weber,
traveled to Sinthian in 2004. Since its inception,
the organization has funded numerous health,
education, and cultural programs in the rural
areas of Tambacounda, as well as in the region’s
capital. In the village of Sinthian, Le Korsa works
closely with Dr. Magueye Ba, head of a nearby
medical center, and it was with Ba that Weber and
his organization first decided to create a venue in
Sinthian that would host artists and performers from
the area and around the world. The initial intent
of the project was to provide income-generating
opportunities for the community, while supporting
the arts in the Tambacounda region. Thread, as it
would later be called, was conceived as a place of
cultural exchange between locals and visitors alike.
In 2010, the project and the village became
the focus of study for Harvard Graduate School
Primitive to Performative 203
6.6.2 Thatched roof.
of Design (GSD) students participating in a studio
led by the New York-based architect Toshiko Mori.
Mori learned of the project through Weber, who
had previously commissioned her, on behalf of the
Josef and Anni Albers Foundation, to design an
exhibit featuring the artists’ work. The foundation
would eventually fund the construction of the
1150-square-meter building—an adaptation of
a design developed during the GSD studio—by
Mori’s associate and former student Jordan
Mactavish.
The design of Thread was developed in
response to the studio’s site visit to Sinthian,
where models were used to present options to
the local residents in order to gage their response
to program and form. What emerged from this
dialog was an adaptable program that could be
adjusted based on the community’s needs. The
openness and flexibility of the floor plan allows
the building to function as one entity or as 15
separate spaces housed under one roof. Artists’
residences constitute the only ‘fixed’ spaces,
defined by masonry walls. The remainder of
204 Material Strategies
the program is loosely organized around two
oval-shaped courtyards. In addition to hosting
Senegalese and foreign artists, Thread currently
serves as a community gathering space and,
thanks to solar-powered lighting, as a study hall
where Sinthian’s youth do their homework in the
evenings. Most importantly, by providing training,
land, and a meeting place for the local and
regional community, the building has become an
agricultural hub for Sinthian and the surrounding
villages.
The shape of the building’s roof supports
Sinthian’s agricultural activities by collecting
rainwater. Two cisterns, located on the north
and south sides of the building, are able to
collect enough water from the roof annually
to fulfill 40 percent of the village’s needs. This
method of water collection is similar to traditional
catchment systems found in the Casamance
region of southern Senegal. There, domestic
spaces are organized around circular courtyards
that collect water from steeply pitched, inward-
sloping roofs. The lightweight roof structure is
 9

2 3 5
2

8 4
7 6

4 8
7

5 3 2 2

1 flexible workshop
2 breakout space
9
3 kitchen
4 bedroom
5 bathroom
6 gathering space
7 water canal
8 courtyard
9 reservoir

6.6.3 Floor plan.

typically constructed from lashed bamboo poles
covered with a layer of grass thatch, a technique
that offers an adequate span for accommodating
living spaces and also allows enough flexibility
during construction to follow the tight curvature
of the courtyard. Thatch is oriented to direct the
flow of water, and its capacity to absorb and
release small amounts of moisture can also help
to keep spaces comfortable through evaporative
cooling.
The roof of Thread was also constructed
from bamboo and thatch, with the addition
of steel beams to increase the span of the
structure. Bamboo is an important resource for
construction in southern Senegal, and the diameter
of available culms is roughly 5 centimeters on
average. Typically, roofs are conical, a shape
that is achieved by lashing bamboo poles at one
end to form an apex. The spanning members
are reinforced by joining them with split bamboo
poles that have been bent and lashed at interstitial
points along the circumference of the structure.
A similar technique was used for the roof of Thread.
Steel beams were installed to support the longest

Primitive to Performative 205

6.6.4 Gathering space.
spans: between the structural supports along the
perimeter of interior and exterior spaces. Bamboo
poles, spaced roughly 15 centimeters apart, were
then laid as infill between the steel members,
running between the exterior and the interior
courtyards. To support the infill in the opposite
direction, poles were installed over and under the
initial layer, at a distance of about 90 centimeters
apart. Instead of lashing the structure together with
natural fibers, the layers of bamboo were tied with
steel wire.
The roof thatching was prepared beforehand
by tying stalks of dried grass together at one
end with wire, so as to form a continuous layer
of roofing. After the desired length was reached,
the layer was rolled together to form a compact
bundle and delivered to the construction site.
Starting with the lower edge of the roof, workers
unrolled the thatch over the bamboo framework,
taking care to overlap each layer as they moved up
the slope.
Mud brick is another building material common
to the region, where it is often used for the exterior
206 Material Strategies
enclosure of homes. The exterior walls of Thread
were constructed with concrete block, with the
exception of the ventilation screens. Locally
fabricated earth brick was the ideal proportion
(10 by 10 by 40 centimeters) for creating the
screen patterns. The base for the screen walls
was constructed with concrete blocks, and the
earth masonry was then positioned on top at an
angle to the base, with adequate spacing between
the bricks to allow for light and air to enter the
interior spaces.
The primary structure of Thread—the
foundation, columns, and some beams—were
constructed from reinforced concrete. These
elements, along with the steel beams, form a
contemporary framework that has been filled
with traditional materials. This strategy relies on
the durability of steel and concrete but is not
entirely dependent on imported components.
The decision to use familiar, locally available
materials such as bamboo and grass allows
for inexpensive and uncomplicated repairs to be
made in the future. Since the project’s completion,
 THATCH ROOF

Locally grown and harvested thatch is layered on top of

the bamboo substructure, providing a low-cost and
sustainable building solution representative of traditional
construction techniques.

BAMBOO ROOF

The roof substructure is composed of three layers of

bamboo sourced locally.

CLAY BRICK

Clay bricks will be formed on site by local villagers,

enhancing the participation of the local community in the
construction of the cultural center.

sloped sloped

roof sheds water to canal sloped surface water canal collects rain from roof courtyard drain to canal

covered water reservoir

Max Water Collected: 559,120 liters

sloped water canal

sloped water canal

Min Water Collected: 159,745 liters

covered water reservoir

Total Roof Catchment Area: 1050 m2

6.6.5 Materials and water diagrams.

Primitive to Performative 207


6.6.6 Bamboo roof structure.
its roof and reservoirs have proven successful
enough to support an association of women
farmers who raise crops on the site during the dry
season. The money they raise from these efforts
supports their families and pays the school fees for
their children.
Notes
1 Michael U. Hensel, “Performance-oriented
Architecture and the Spatial and Material
Organisation Complex,” FORMakademisk 4,
no. 1 (July 2011): 7.
2 Roger Boltshauser and Martin Rauch,
Haus Rauch: Ein Modell Moderner
Lehmarchitektur = The Rauch House: A
Model of Advanced Clay Architecture
(Basel: Birkhäuser, 2011), 171.
208 Material Strategies
6.6.7 Binding grass.
6.6.8 Roof thatching.
3 Khalid El Harrouni, Hassan Kharmich,
and Assia Lamzah, “Seismic Performance
of Traditional Architecture in Morocco,”
International Journal of Heritage Architecture
1, no. 1 (2017): 52.
4 A hypocaust, or hollow, under-floor heating
system was used by the ancient Romans.
Similar heating systems have also been
employed in Korea (ondol) and Afghanistan
(tawa-khana).
5 Kushal Lachhwani, “What to Build is a Bigger
Question than How to Build,” Indian Architect
& Builder Magazine (June 2012): 82.
6 With the rise of urbanization in Bangladesh, the
demand for inexpensive building materials has
accelerated brick manufacturing on a massive
scale. Despite the increase in production,
however, the methods for making the bricks
have remained relatively unchanged from
centuries-old practices. The entire process is
 completed by hand: soil is mixed with water
and placed in forms, the forms are removed
and the bricks are left to dry before they are
fired in an underground kiln. Conditions at the
brickyards are harsh; the work is backbreaking
and child labor is a common practice. In
addition, coal-fired kilns are dramatically
reducing the country’s air quality. However,
there have been some efforts to reduced
carbon emissions in recent years, and agencies
such as the United Nations and World Bank
have funded initiatives to introduce smokeless
brickmaking technology to the country.
7 Boltshauser and Rauch, Haus Rauch: Ein
Modell Moderner Lehmarchitektur = The
Rauch House: A Model of Advanced Clay
Architecture, 113.
8 BC Architects and MAMOTH, “Preschool of
Aknaibich: Bio-Climatic Construction,” material
provided by the office of BC Architects,
Brussels.
9 Nguyen Huu Ninh, Vu Kien Trung, and
Nguyen Xuan Niem, “Flooding in Mekong
River Delta,” United Nations Development
Programme, Human Development Report,
2007, 5.
10 Ibid., 2.
11 Tran Thanh Duc, Ueru Tanaka, and
Hirohide Kobayashi, “Living with Typhoon
and Flood Disasters: A Case Study in
Huong Phong Commune, Tam Giang
Lagoon Area, Central Vietnam,” SANSAI:
An Environmental Journal for the Global
Community 6 (2012): 93.
12 Tuong Trang Hieu and Alfons Eiligmann, “Value
Chain Study for Bamboo/Rattan in Phu Tho,
Hoa Binh, Thanh Hoa and Nghe An, Viet
Nam,” International Trade Centre, November
2010, 11.
13 Michelle Leighton, “Desertification and
Migration,” in Governing Global Desertification:
Linking Environmental Degradation, Poverty
and Participation, ed. Pierre-Marc Johnson,
Karel Mayrand, and Marc Paquin (Aldershot:
Ashgate, 2006), 46–47.

Primitive to Performative 209

Taylor & Francis
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 7
Reflections and Looking
Ahead

7.1 Agriculture Pavilion and Crafts Workshop in Pingtian, China.

As the case studies in this book have made
clear, a broad range of strategies for utilizing
traditional materials and methods in contemporary
construction persists. Even if their use has waned
generally, architects, engineers, and builders
throughout the world maintain the relevancy of
these materials and methods by adapting them
to current economic, social, environmental, and
cultural conditions. Sustaining traditional resources
and their associated processes is important for a
variety of reasons, made plain in the project analysis
of the case studies in this book. Nevertheless, in the
wake of mass urbanization and rapid development,
many individuals have no other alternative but to
turn away from the labor-intensive, local or regional
building methods refined by previous generations.
These practices will eventually come to an end if the
perpetual process to improve and fine-tune them is
not sustained. Throughout this book we have seen
that complex circumstances, ranging from a lack of
building regulations and skilled labor to changing
climate conditions, can restrict the advancement
of certain practices. Removing these limitations
depends equally on small-scale interventions and
large initiatives supported either directly or indirectly
by government entities. The examples discussed in
the following sections outline measures providing
the greatest potential for advancing traditional
materials and methods and highlight future
trajectories.
Advocacy
Of the materials covered in this book, bamboo
is the only resource to have an international
organization that promotes its use. The
International Network for Bamboo and Rattan
(INBAR) is an intergovernmental organization
initially established in 1997 by the governments
of Bangladesh, Canada, China, Indonesia,
Myanmar, Nepal, Peru, the Philippines, and the
United Republic of Tanzania. The organization
has grown since that time to include 41 countries
around the globe. INBAR works in partnership
with governmental and development agencies to
promote the inclusion of bamboo and rattan in
socio-economic and environmental development
policies at national, regional, and international
levels. INBAR also supports pilot projects, such as
those focused on housing that raise understanding
of and appreciation for the material through
212 Material Strategies
education and hands-on training programs. By
contrast, only a handful of organizations advocate
for earth construction, and their outreach is often
limited to individual countries. The internationally
recognized German representative for earth
construction, Dachverband Lehm (German
Association for Building with Earth), has worked
to establish national regulations for building with
earth and in addition supports vocational training
programs. Advocacy is imperative for maintaining
and advancing the application of traditional
building practices. Without the support of building
professionals (architects, engineers, contractors,
and tradespeople) and financial assistance from
manufacturers or governments, however, there is
little incentive to form these organizations.
Education
Education and certification programs for building
professionals and students of architecture and
engineering can strengthen the development and
acceptance of traditional materials and methods.
The case of contemporary earth construction
in Germany provides a useful model in this
regard; this framework could be adapted to suit
vocational and higher education programs in other
countries. Apprentices in the construction trades
can receive additional training to specialize in
earth construction, even though it is not officially
recognized as an independent trade in Germany.
Companies hiring such individuals are entitled to
carry the “specialized in earth construction” seal,
which is registered with the Dachverband Lehm
and allows prospective clients, architects, and
planners to identify qualified specialists. Students
of architecture and civil engineering can also take
courses focused on earth construction at certain
universities, such as the University of Kassel
and the Bauhaus University Weimar.1 Vocational
and higher education programs increase the
quality of construction and lend creditability to a
material with which the general public might not
be familiar.
Standardization
Establishing internationally recognized
performance standards and construction
guidelines is a significant step toward increasing
the awareness and acceptance of materials,
particularly those considered to be ‘non-
conventional’ or traditional. The development of
standards for bamboo materials and construction
provides an excellent contemporary example
of this process. Bamboo grows in a number
of regions experiencing high levels of urban
expansion, but the lack of comprehensive
standards and building codes continues to
constrain the plant’s use by the mainstream
construction industry. Standardization is
considered key to assuring bamboo’s acceptance
as a viable construction material, particularly
in urban areas. Reliable standards provide
governments, building officials, engineers,
architects, and owners, the tools necessary for
assessing the safety of bamboo construction.
They additionally equip architects and engineers
with clear guidelines for testing and designing
with the material. In one sense, standardization
can be viewed as a replacement for the traditional
expertise lost to globalizing influences: empirical
knowledge, once gained over many centuries by
trial and error, is now achieved much more rapidly
through scientific testing.
The International Standards Institute (ISO)
issued the first formal bamboo materials and
construction standards in 2004.2 These early
standards provided an important foundation for
bamboo research and code development in a
number of countries, including Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru, Jamaica, Ethiopia, and India. Nonetheless,
the initial ISO Standards were inadequate or
incomplete in a number of senses. Recent
developments in research and testing have been
aimed at improving, updating, and expanding the
scopes of the 2004 ISO Standards. These efforts
include more accurate testing methods and data
on material performance. A bamboo culm, when
stressed as a structural component, behaves in
a way that is most analogous to timber. Drawing
comparisons between these materials has proven
valuable for advancing bamboo’s acceptance and
use, as many engineers and architects are already
familiar with the characteristics and behaviors
of timber. The revised ISO design standard (ISO
22156) for bamboo construction will therefore
follow a format that is similar to existing timber
standards, and will borrow from these where
appropriate, making the bamboo standard more
broadly accessible to the construction and design
communities.
Similarly, a new bamboo materials testing
standard (ISO 22157) is anticipated in 2017 and
will replace the 2004 version. Testing methods
included in this new standard have also been
clarified and streamlined to increase accuracy and
replicability, and to simplify procedures so that
less specialized equipment is needed. Work is also
being done to reduce the number of tests required
to characterize bamboo for use. This objective
is being met with a two-pronged approach that
includes a new bamboo grading standard (ISO CD
19624) and scientific efforts to develop two tests
for establishing characteristic material properties,
which can then be used to represent multiple
other properties needed in bamboo structural
design. Simplifying testing methods ensures that
individuals with limited resources continue to
have access to the standardization process.3 As
testing and standards continue to be streamlined
and knowledge about bamboo material and
structural behaviors grows, whole culm bamboo
construction seems poised to reach a greater
level of acceptance by the construction industry.
The process of developing guidelines for bamboo
as a building material demonstrates a feasible
framework that could be applied to other materials
that, despite their inclusion in local and national
building codes in some countries, are currently not
addressed by internationally recognized codes and
standards.
Rehabilitation
and Revitalization
Programs that support the rehabilitation of existing
buildings constructed from traditional materials
can also become important mechanisms for
maintaining, as well as advancing, culturally
significant building practices. Restored buildings
can provide needed public amenities and help to
economically revitalize the communities in which
they are located. Two examples that follow—one
in China and the other in Niger—demonstrate
the potential impact of programs focused on
rehabilitating traditional building stock. Such
initiatives are especially crucial in areas that have
been affected by urban migration, which has had a
profound influence on the built environment of the
countryside. Homes and community buildings have
either been abandoned or replaced with structures
Reflections and Looking Ahead 213
made from imported materials, a change that has
drastically altered the character of many rural
municipalities. Even more serious than the loss of
cultural heritage, however, is the lack of economic
opportunity. Communities that have been self-
sufficient for many previous generations are now on
the decline.4
Migration and the resultant degradation of
villages and towns is perhaps nowhere more
evident than in China, where rates of urbanization
7.2 Abandoned village of Dushang, Guangdong Province, China.
214 Material Strategies
have almost doubled during the last 25 years.5
Despite the Chinese government’s primary focus
on city development, there have been some
limited, state-supported endeavors to revitalize
rural areas. One of the most significant steps
taken by the government was their assessment
and designation of more than 2,500 “traditional
villages” in 2012. Villages receiving this designation
are protected from demolition and are entitled
to financial support for building maintenance
and conservation measures. As a result, Chinese
architects and professionals in related fields are
working more frequently today in rural communities
than they had in previous decades, and academic
interest in village conservation is growing.6
Oftentimes materials and construction techniques
in rural villages have remained unchanged for
many centuries, creating conditions requiring
specialized knowledge and careful planning
in order to bring structures up to current living
standards without damaging their historical
integrity.
Some initiatives focus solely on preservation,
whereas others involve small-scale interventions
to provide tourism infrastructure. Revitalization
projects potentially offer a way to maintain village
7.3 Pingtian Agriculture Pavilion and Crafts Workshop exterior.
culture in the face of urbanization, but treating
rural heritage as an economic asset can become
problematic when over-commercialization and
gentrification threaten the needs of local residents.
The government of Songyang County, for instance,
has invested in building refurbishment and new
tourist infrastructure in a number of villages with
the intent of boosting the region’s economy.
The community of Pingtian has been the site of
several such revitalization projects planned for
the area. The Pingtian Agriculture Museum and
Crafts Workshop is a noteworthy example that
integrates contemporary amenities within existing
structures. The institution highlights cultural
exchange and education of residents and tourists
alike.
Reflections and Looking Ahead 215
 The firm DnA Design and Architecture first
suggested the inclusion of a cultural institution
for Pingtian during the assessment and
documentation phase of the revitalization plan,
which was conducted by the Institute of Planning
at Tsinghua University in 2014. The architects also
proposed rehabilitating ordinary village structures
of seemingly little value. In doing so, they hoped
to demonstrate that every building in the village
was worth saving, not only those deemed
7.4 Exhibit space.
216 Material Strategies
historically significant. DnA subsequently identified
a pair of humble farmhouses and livestock
outbuildings to house the future museum and
workshop.
Since its completion, the institution has become
a gathering place for village residents. In addition,
the experience gained during reconstruction has
been applied to other villages in the area. DnA cites
changing local attitudes toward traditional buildings
as vital to insuring the success of rehabilitation
7.5 Dandaji Mosque.

7.6 Axon of Dandaji Library.

Reflections and Looking Ahead 217


7.7 Interior of library.
projects; the agricultural museum and handcrafts
workshop were the first step toward this goal, at
least in Songyang County.7
The loss of rural architectural heritage
to contemporary development is also a
reoccurring theme in the Sahel region of
western and north-central Africa. There, earth
has long been essential to several parallel and
overlapping building traditions, but changing
lifestyles and a growing preference for concrete
construction have contributed to the neglect
and decline of earthen structures. Due to their
prominence, the deterioration of local building
traditions is most evident in communal amenities,
such as village mosques, typically constructed
from banco, an unfired earth masonry rendered
with plaster. This protective layer is applied less
frequently than in the past (or not at all) due to the
lack of masons.
A notable example of this type of construction
can be found in northwest Niger, in the village
218 Material Strategies
of Dandaji. Initially constructed by master
mason and Aga Khan award recipient El Hadji
Falké Barmou, the mosque had subsequently
fallen into disrepair over the years, resulting
in imminent plans for its demolition and
replacement. Recognizing the significance
of the building, community leaders proposed
converting the earthen structure into a library
and literary center. In 2016, architects Mariam
Kamara and Yasaman Esmaili were tasked with
redesigning the mosque for its new use. The
team recommended minimally restoring the
building; however, given that few skilled masons
were on hand to carry out annual plastering and
maintenance, they suggested an alternative
exterior treatment to protect against water erosion,
thus preserving the building for the long term. On
the interior, the architects used a light touch in
adapting the building to its new functions, only
modifying the existing masonry structure where
necessary.
The mosque’s eventual transformation into
a regional hub for education and literacy not
only gives an architecturally significant building
a new purpose but also revives community
members’ sense of ownership and pride
in their shared architectural heritage. The
building sets a valuable precedent for restoring
and adapting similar earthen structures in the
region.
Local Resources and
Production Systems
Unlike conventional systems dependent on
global logistics and economies, industries
utilizing indigenous resources and local craft
knowledge have the potential to support
sustainable economic development while also
maintaining important cultural practices related
to agriculture and forestry, manufacturing, and
construction. Haus am Moor [5.6] in Vorarlberg,
Austria, illustrates the strong relationships that
exist between local forestry and timber trades;
highly integrated resource and production systems
play an important part in that region’s continuing
economic success. A similar approach was
adopted by the Base foundation (albeit on a much
smaller scale) to construct affordable housing
for rapidly growing areas of the Philippines [3.4].
The organization has successfully exploited one 2 David Trujillo and Louis Felipe Lopez, “Bamboo
of the country’s most plentiful natural resources, Material Characterisation,” in Nonconventional
bamboo, to produce several hundred units of and Vernacular Construction Materials, ed. Kent
urban housing, while continuing to involve rural Harries and Bhavna Sharma (Cambridge, MA:
farmers and craftspeople in the process. Both Woodhead Publishing, 2016), 380.
examples present viable models for other regions 3 Information on the development of revised ISO
still endowed with sufficient natural resources design standard (ISO 22156) is from discussion
and local populations possessing the knowledge with Kent Harries, Associate Professor of civil
necessary to harvest and work these materials. It and environmental engineering at the University
is not too late to establish manufacturing models of Pittsburgh, via Skype, December 20, 2016.
that continue to include agricultural communities,
4 Yuheng Li, Hans Westlund, Xiaoyu Zheng, and
builders, and craftspeople in the process of
Yansui Liu, “Bottom-up Initiatives and Revival
production and construction, and, as we have
in the Face of Rural Decline: Case Studies from
seen in previous chapters, this type of localized
China and Sweden,” Journal of Rural Studies,
integration can be even achieved in highly
July 2016, 1.
industrialized contexts.
5 World Bank, Urban Population Databank, http://
data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.
IN.ZS?locations=CN
Looking Ahead 6 Ministry of Housing and Urban Rural
Development, Tsinghua Tongheng Urban
The cultural dimensions of traditional materials Planning and Design Institute, and Tsinghua
remain tangible in many places; however, Heritage Conservation Institute, Traditional
development and growth are a reality. It is no Chinese Villages Bulletin, January 2015, 12.
longer feasible to expect that building traditions will 7 Information provided by the office of DnA
be unconditionally revived or perfectly preserved. Design and Architecture, Beijing, China.
Solutions that move between traditional and
contemporary materials and technologies seem
to offer the most promise in terms of long-term
viability. Combining old and new practices can also
give rise to flexible, multi-scalar approaches that
are truly responsive to their immediate temporal
and environmental circumstances.
After a long period of neglect, we are just
beginning to rediscover the potential of traditional
materials and methods and to appreciate the
many ways they can work in tandem with modern
technology to shape contemporary buildings. It is
still possible for building practices to evolve from
social and cultural needs, while continuing to lay
the groundwork for what lies ahead.

Notes
1 Information on the inclusion of earth
construction in German vocational and higher
education programs is from Horst Schroeder,
Sustainable Building with Earth (New York:
Springer International), 532–534.

Reflections and Looking Ahead 219

Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http:/taylorandfrancis.com
Index
aborigines 17
Abu Dhabi 142–3
Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture
and Heritage (ADACH) 143
acoustics 60, 87, 189, 194
adaptive construction logic 99,
122
adobe 9, 15
Adventist Development and
Relief Agency 35
advocacy 212
aerodynamics 178
aesthetics 24, 35, 43, 46, 79,
191
affordable housing 35, 53, 61,
80–3, 98, 112–13, 153–8, 218
Afghanistan 22, 174, 177
Africa 42, 53, 61, 75, 98, 100,
103, 186, 218
Agadez, Niger 9, 76
aggregates 10–11, 187
Agricultural School Mezzana 93
aid organizations 35, 53, 61, 85,
179, 192, 203
Al Ain Oasis 142
air conditioning 199
air quality 13, 209
airflow 67, 101, 107, 161, 172,
181
Aknaibich Preschool 171, 173,
191–6
Al Borde 99, 122, 124–5
Albers Foundation 204
Alveo Pierre 24
Amazon rainforest 42
animals 11, 29, 40, 48, 103, 174,
178, 198
anisotropic materials 38, 47
Antarctica 51
anthropologists 47
aqueducts 18, 44
Arabian Desert 143
Arabian Peninsula 13
arch i platform 174
archeologists/archeology 8, 17,
28, 30, 36, 44, 47
architects 1–3, 57, 60–1, 99,
134–5, 173; in Austria 164,
166, 169, 186; and bamboo
46, 52–3; in Bangladesh 179,
181; in Burkina Faso 100;
in Chile 69–70, 73; in China
127, 132, 147–8, 150; in
Ecuador 122, 124–6; in France
153–4, 156, 158; and future
architecture 212–13, 215–16,
218; in India 174–5, 178; in
Japan 63, 66; in Morocco
191–2, 194, 196; in Niger
75–7, 79; in Philippines 83,
106–7, 111; in Rwanda 117; in
Senegal 203; and stone 22–3;
in Sweden 136, 139–40; in
Switzerland 91; in UK 86–7; in
United Arab Emirates 142–5;
in USA 112–14; in Vietnam
159, 197, 201–2; and wood
35, 43
architectural historians 1, 3, 134,
148
Armogenia, R. 107
artisans 42, 107, 135, 145, 164,
201
Arup 22
ashlar masonry 17–18, 20, 24
Asia 21, 42, 44, 47, 52–3, 81–2,
173, 201
asphalt 13
Assyrians 29
Atelier TeamMinus 147–8
Australia 64, 68
Austria 13, 42–3, 93, 133, 135,
164, 172, 186, 189, 218
authenticity 4, 52–3, 134, 142
Avalokiteśvara 148
Ba, M. 203
Babylonians 29
Bader, B. 43, 135, 164, 166, 169
bahareque 48, 51, 82–3
bahay kubo 48, 50
BAKOKO 43, 63–4
BaleHaus 87
bamboo 2–3, 30, 44–53, 61, 99,
135, 172–3; in Bangladesh
179–83, 185; in China 129;
and earth 11; and future
architecture 212–13, 219;
in Philippines 82–5, 106–7,
110; in Senegal 205, 208; in
Vietnam 159, 161–3, 199,
201–2
Bambus Collabo 53, 107
Bambusa vulgaris 47
banco 9, 76, 218
Bangladesh 172, 179–81, 185,
212
bark 30, 38–9
Barmou, F. 218
Barragán, D. 122
bartering 122
basalt 18
Base 53, 61, 81–5, 218
Base Affordable Housing 81–5,
218
Bath University 86–7
Bauhaus University Weimar
212
Baukultur 169
BC architects 191–2
Bedouin community 143
Benavides, E. 122
Berber community 194
Bernardo Bader Architekten
164
bespoke construction 59–95
best practice 2, 99, 127–8
binding 28
Bioclimatic Schools 192
biocompatible materials 2
biodiversity 42
biomass 47
Bishop, S. 112
bitumen 189
Blooming Bamboo House 173,
197–202
Blueland 174, 178
BM TRADA 60, 87
Boivin, N. 8
Boltshauser Architekten 186
Boltshauser, R. 186
Borja, M. 122
BRE Centre for Innovative
Construction Materials 60, 86
Index 221
brick 8–11, 15, 60, 98, 172–3;
in Austria 166; in Bangladesh
180–2, 184–5; in Burkina Faso
103–5; in China 127–8, 130; in
India 174–5, 177; in Morocco
191, 194; in Niger 75–7; and
plant materials 30; in Rwanda
117–21; in Senegal 206; and
stone 17, 22; in Switzerland
91; in UK 89; in United Arab
Emirates 142–5; in Vietnam
199
Britain/British 17, 30, 42, 142,
180
Bronze Age 18
Bry-sur-Marne social housing
153–8
Buddhists 148, 174
builders 1, 12, 15, 30, 98,
134–5, 172; in Austria 186;
and bamboo 48, 57; in France
154; and future architecture
212; master builders 98, 154;
in Philippines 82; and stone
18–19; in UK 88; and wood
35–6, 38–40
building codes/regulations
2, 33–4, 42, 60, 172; and
bamboo 51; and earth 12–13;
in France 158; and future
architecture 212–13; in
Morocco 194; in Philippines
82, 84; in Rwanda 119; in
Switzerland 94; in UK 86, 90
building information modeling
(BIM) 66
Burkina Faso 99–100, 104
butt joints 40
Cabuyal community 99, 124–6
Caminada, G. 43
Canada 212
carbon neutrality/sequestration
39, 42, 47, 60
carbon/nitrogen emissions 33,
86, 88, 199, 209
carpenters 35, 41–2, 68, 74, 99,
104, 119, 164, 178
case studies 57, 61, 99, 135,
172, 212; Aknaibich Preschool
171, 173, 191–6; Base
Affordable Housing 81–5, 218;
Blooming Bamboo House 173,
222 Index
197–202; Bry-sur-Marne social
housing 153–8; Common
Ground Neighborhood
34–5, 98, 112–16; Dungga
Daycare 106–11; Esperanza
Series 122–6; Haus am
Moor 133, 135, 164–9,
218; Haus Rauch 13, 172,
186–90; Hostal Ritoque 43,
69–74; Al Jahili Fort, Al Ain
13, 134, 142–6; Jianamani
Visitor Center 134–5, 147–52;
Kargyak Learning Center 172,
174–8; Ma’anqiao Village
Reconstruction 99, 127–32;
ModCell Straw Technology
86–90; Niamey 2000 61,
75–80; Onjuku Beach House
43, 59–63; Opera Village and
Center for Health Care and
Social Promotion 100–6,
117; Pani Community
Center 172, 179–85; Ricola
Kräuterzentrum 59, 61, 91–4;
Tåkern Visitor Center 34,
134, 136–41; Thread Artist
Residency and Cultural Center
172, 203–9; Wind and Water
Bar 135, 159–63; Women’s
Opportunity Center (WOC)
97–8, 117–21
cellulose 29, 36, 46, 86, 114,
166
cement 3, 9, 12–13, 15, 18, 20,
22, 52, 61, 75–7, 82–3, 103,
172–3, 187
cement bamboo frame (CBF)
83–4
certification 60, 79, 87–8, 104–5,
212
Chan Chan, Peru 9, 46
Chile 43, 69–70
Chiltern International 87
China 2, 99, 130, 132, 134; and
future architecture 211–15;
and Jianamani Visitor Center
147–8; and Ma’anqiao Village
Reconstruction 127; and plant
materials 33, 35, 39, 42, 44,
46; and stone 17, 21
Chinese University of Hong
Kong 127
circumnambulation 148
classification of stone 18
clay 9–13, 15–16, 19, 30; in
Austria 166, 186, 190; in
India 174–5; in Morocco 194;
in Rwanda 119; in Sweden
138; in Switzerland 91, 93; in
United Arab Emirates 145
climate 1, 30, 33, 172, 178, 199;
in Austria 190; and bamboo
47; in Bangladesh 180; in
China 127, 147; climate
change 2, 81, 173, 197, 212;
and earth 10, 13; in India 174;
in Morocco 194; in Philippines
107; in Senegal 203; and
stone 16, 22; in USA 114; in
Vietnam 199, 202; and wood
39
cob 14–15
Coeckelberghs, N. 192, 196
Cold War 1
Colombia 46, 48, 82, 84, 213
colonialism 46, 76, 107
Common Ground Neighborhood
34–5, 98, 112–16
communication 98–100, 128,
181
community participation 2,
34, 97–128, 135, 178; and
bamboo 53; in Bangladesh
180; in China 132, 148; and
future architecture 218–19;
in India 178; in Morocco 192,
196; in Senegal 203–4; in
Vietnam 201; and wood 42
compaction 10, 13
composition 2–3; of bamboo
46–7; of earth 9–10; of wood
36–9
compounds 76
comprehension 1
compressed earth blocks (CEB)
15, 61, 76–9, 103–4
compressive forces 10, 18, 32,
36, 40, 46–7, 92, 121, 194
computer aided design (CAD)
66
computer numerical control
(CNC) 42, 64
concrete 2–3, 22, 61, 98, 135,
173; in Austria 166, 187; and
bamboo 44, 47, 51–2; in
Bangladesh 185; in Burkina
 Faso 104; in Chile 70, 73; in
China 127–8, 130, 150; in
France 156, 158; and future
architecture 218; in India 174;
in Morocco 191, 194, 196; in
Niger 76–7, 79; in Philippines
82–3, 85, 107, 110; in Rwanda
118, 121; in Senegal 206; and
stone 17, 22; in Switzerland
92–3; in UK 89; in United Arab
Emirates 145; in Vietnam 161,
199; and wood 36, 42
Connolly and Callaghan 89
conservation 42, 215
construction costs 2, 73–5, 98,
119, 135; in China 127–8, 130,
147; in France 154, 156; in
Morocco 191; in Senegal 207;
in Vietnam 159, 161–3, 201
construction industry 2, 53,
60–1, 82, 87–8, 98, 119,
212–13
construction methods 1, 3, 61,
99, 135, 173–5; in Austria
187; and bamboo 44, 46, 48,
52, 57; in Burkina Faso 104;
in Chile 70, 74; in China 127,
130, 148, 150, 152; and earth
10–11, 13–15; in Ecuador
122, 125–6; in France 154,
158; and future architecture
212–13, 218–19; in India 178;
in Japan 63–4, 67; in Morocco
192, 194; in Niger 76, 79–80;
in Philippines 82–5, 106–7,
111; and reeds/grasses
28–30, 33–4; in Rwanda 118;
in Senegal 205; and stone
16–20, 22–4; in Sweden
139–40; in Switzerland 93–4;
in UK 88; in USA 114–15;
in Vietnam 162–3, 197; and
wood 35–6, 38–40, 42–3
contemporary vernacular
architecture 196
contractors 60–1, 79, 119, 181,
212
cooperatives 53, 98, 112–13,
115, 121
corbeling 20–1
Le Corbusier 3
Core Passiv system 87
cork 24, 187, 194, 196
corrugated galvanized iron (CGI)
32–3, 98
courtyards 76, 99, 101–4,
142–3, 145; in Bangladesh
181–2, 185; in China 127, 129,
148, 150; in France 153–4; in
Morocco 192, 194; in Senegal
204–7
craft skills 3, 42, 60, 98–9, 134,
173; in Austria 164, 169, 186;
and bamboo 46, 52–3; in
Burkina Faso 104; in Chile 74;
in China 128; in France 154,
156; and future architecture
218–19; in Philippines 82, 85,
107; in Rwanda 117–18; and
stone 16, 24; in Vietnam 201;
and wood 36, 40
cross-bracing 74, 87, 202
cross-laminated timber (CLT)
35, 43
crowdsourcing 111
culms 46–9, 51–3, 83–4, 161–2,
181, 205, 213
cultural contexts 1–3, 8, 60–1,
100, 134–5; in Austria 169;
and bamboo 44, 46, 52–3,
57; in Burkina Faso 100,
105; in China 148; and future
architecture 212–16, 218–19;
in Japan 63, 66; in Niger 76;
in Philippines 107; and reeds/
grasses 28, 33; in Senegal
203; and stone 17; in United
Arab Emirates 143; and wood
36, 43
Cultural Revolution 148
customization 52, 64, 67, 87
cyclopean walls 20, 22
Cyperaceae family 29
Czech Republic 174
Dachverband Lehm 212
Dai community 127
daiku 61, 64, 67
Dandaji Library 217–18
Dandaji Mosque 217–18
Daxi community 46
decomposition 9, 28–9, 36, 39,
46
deforestation 42
Denmark 34, 139
designers 3
developers 88–9
developing nations 2, 52
diamond drills 19, 21
diorite 18
Dippelbaumdecke 187
disasters 33, 53, 63, 81–2, 85,
100, 127, 132, 147–8, 179,
197, 201
Djoser’s Pyramid 17
DnA Design and Architecture
216
do-it-yourself builders 15, 35,
115
Doan Thanh Ha 199
drainage 30, 175
drought 29, 76, 172–3, 203
Druk White Lotus school 22
dry stone masonry 19–20
drywall 66–7
Dubai 111, 142
Dungga Daycare 106–11
Durrington Walls 36
earth 42, 60–1, 99, 134, 172–3;
in Austria 186–7, 189; and
bamboo 44, 46, 48; in
Burkina Faso 103; in China
127, 129, 132; earth-based
construction 1–3, 8–15; and
future architecture 212, 218;
in India 174, 177; in Morocco
191, 194, 196; in Niger 75–6,
79–80; in Philippines 110; in
Senegal 206; in Switzerland
91–4; in UK 87; in United Arab
Emirates 142–6; in USA 114
earthquakes 36, 47, 69, 81–2,
99, 127, 129–30, 132, 147–8,
171–3, 175
East Asia 81
Eastern Europe 139
ecology 173
economic development/
constraints 1, 3, 24, 60, 98,
134–5; in Austria 164; and
bamboo 52–3; in Chile 70; in
France 150, 154; and future
architecture 212–15, 218; in
Japan 63–4; in Philippines 82;
in Rwanda 117; in Senegal
203, 208; in Vietnam 197,
201–2
ecosystems 42, 136, 141
Index 223
Ecuador 46, 48, 82, 99, 122, 213
education 106, 117, 122, 132,
174, 179, 192, 203, 212, 215,
218
Egypt 17–18, 22, 28
Eliet & Lehmann Architectes
153–4
Eliet, D. 23, 154
embedded practices 135
emplecton walls 20–1
energy codes/standards 13, 33,
35, 43, 86–7, 158
energy systems 114, 145, 159
Engel, B. 119, 121
engineers 1, 3, 13–14, 32, 46,
57, 73, 77, 83, 87, 107, 127,
212–13
England 30, 36, 115
Enterprise Centre, UEA 33
environment 1–3, 13, 60, 134,
172; in Austria 169, 190; and
future architecture 212, 219; in
Morocco 196; in Niger 77; in
Philippines 82, 107; and plant
materials 33, 57; in Sweden
136; in UK 86; in USA 113,
115; in Vietnam 159, 199
equity caps 112
erosion 9, 42, 47, 93, 172, 190,
218
Esmaili, Y. 75, 218
Esperanza Dos 99, 122, 124–5
Esperanza Series 122–6
esterilla 48
Estudio Damgo 53, 99, 106–7,
110–11
Ethiopia 213
ethnographic studies 47
eucalyptus 103, 191
Europe/Europeans 2, 21, 32–5,
39, 41–2, 46, 51, 60, 82, 92,
94, 98, 139, 164
evolution 17
experts/expertise 2, 12–13,
18, 98–9, 134–5, 173; in
Bangladesh 181; in Chile 69;
in China 127, 148; in Ecuador
124; and future architecture
213; in Morocco 196; in Niger
76, 80; in Philippines 107; in
United Arab Emirates 143; in
USA 113–15
extrusive igneous rock 18
224 Index
Fachwerkhaüser 39, 41 Gesellschaft für Technische
farmers 32, 82–4, 107, 117, 162, Zusammenarbeit 121
208, 219 girdling 39
Feenstra, A. 174, 177 Global Housing Program 53
field tests 12 global warming 39, 173
filled walls 20 globalization 3–4, 43, 47, 51, 75,
Finland 68 98, 134, 213
fir 166 glue-laminated timber (glulam)
fire resistance 32, 36, 47, 60, 68, 87, 139, 145
83–4, 86–7, 107, 138–40 Göbekli Tepe 17
fish-mouth joints 48, 50 Gohar Khatoon Girls’ School
flax 14 23
flies 185 Golden, E. 75
flooding 100, 106, 110, 173, GoodPlanet 192
179, 197, 199 Gothic architecture 154
floor plans 66, 88, 92, 102, 109, grain of wood 18, 38–9
138, 150, 155, 178, 182, 198, granite 17–18
201, 204–5 grasses 15, 28–35, 48, 172–3,
Flying Factory 88 175, 180, 205–6, 208
foresters 166 Great Depression 2
formwork 11, 13–14, 93, 129, Great Plains 32
185, 187 Grünhelme 104
Foundation University 106 guadua 46
framework 182 Gugler Printing Plant 93
Frampton, K. 28 guidelines 2, 129–30, 213
France 23, 34, 76, 153–4, 158, Gyanak Mani 148, 152
192, 194 gypsum 19, 194
fungi 36, 48, 52
future architecture 62, 76–7, H&P Architects 173, 197, 199
79–80, 211–12, 219; in halved joints 40
Burkina Faso 104–5; and handmade building 1
geological materials 16, handworkers 67
24; in Morocco 196; and hardwood 36, 38
plant materials 29, 35, 53; in Harvard Graduate School of
Senegal 206; in Vietnam 202 Design (GSD) 203–4
Future Cities Laboratory 51 Haus am Moor 133, 135, 164–9,
218
gabbro 18 Haus Rauch 13, 172, 186–90
Gangotena, F. 122 Haus Walpen 43–4
Gangotena, P. 122 heartwood 38
Gateway Building, Nottingham heat gain 13, 114, 177–8, 194
University 35 Hebel, D. 51
geologic materials 7–24 hemp 86
geotextiles 14 Herzog & de Meuron 91
Germany 2, 12–13, 15–18, 33–4, Al Hidaya School 192–4
60; and Austria 164, 189; and Hilti Foundation 81
Burkina Faso 104; and future Himalayas 22, 172, 174
architecture 212; and German Hindus 174
Democratic Republic 1; and Holland 139
Niger 76; and plant materials Hostal Ritoque 43, 69–74
39, 41–3, 46; and Rwanda Hua Yang 127
121; and United Arab Emirates humanitarian aid organizations
143 35
humidity 10–11, 13, 36, 67, 93,
143, 172, 189–90
Hunnarshala Foundation 145
hurricanes 84
hybrid systems 3–4, 20, 30, 51,
85
hydronic systems 13, 24, 93,
145, 166, 190
hydrophobic properties 29
hygroscopic properties 29, 36,
47
hygrothermal properties 13
hypocausts 177
Hyuga Villa 46
identities 1, 16, 62–94
igneous rock 18
Immobilière 3F 154
Incas 19
India 2, 22, 61, 145, 172, 174,
213
indigenous materials see local
materials
Indonesia 39, 212
Industrial Revolution 1, 42
industrialization 1–2, 15–16,
22, 52, 64, 70, 94, 98, 164,
219
infestations 103, 107, 144
infrastructure 17–18, 46, 80, 98,
104, 132, 145, 174, 201, 215
innovation 34, 47, 52, 60, 86,
135, 181, 186
insects 28, 36, 48, 52, 103, 107,
161
Institute for Lightweight
Structures, Stuttgart 46
Institute for Standardization
(DIN) 60
insulation 2–3, 13, 15, 22–4,
29, 33; in Austria 166, 189;
in China 130; in France 158;
in India 175; in Morocco
194, 196; in Sweden 140;
in Switzerland 93; in UK
86–7, 89–90; in United Arab
Emirates 144; in USA 113–14;
and wood 35, 39, 43
International Centre for Earth
Construction (CRAterre) 196
International Network for
Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR)
53, 212
International Standards
Organization (ISO) 213
interpreters 181
intrusive igneous rock 18
Iran 76
Iraq 9, 28–9
irregular stone walls 20
Italy 34
Jacobsen, A. 37
Al Jahili Fort, Al Ain 13, 134,
142–6
Jamaica 213
Japan 30, 35, 39, 43–4, 46, 48,
61, 63–4, 66–8, 88
Jeanneret, P. 3
Jenney, W. 46
Jericho 8
Jianamani Visitor Center 134–5,
147–52
joint types 36, 40–1, 48, 61, 64,
66
Jun Mu 127
just-in-time delivery 87–8
jute 16, 180
Kamara, M. 75, 218
KanBan 88
Kargyak Learning Center 172,
174–8
Kassel University 212
Katwico cooperative 121
Kengo Kuma & Associates 33
Kenya 98
Kéré Architecture 100, 117
Kéré, F. 99–101, 103–4
Bin Khalifa, Z. 142
Khullar, S. 174
knowledge transfer 4, 98–9,
107
labor 2, 16–17, 34, 42, 98, 134;
in Bangladesh 181; in Burkina
Faso 101, 104; in China 128;
in Ecuador 122, 124; and
future architecture 212; in
Japan 64, 66; in Niger 76,
79; in Rwanda 119, 121; in
Senegal 209; in Switzerland
93–4
Lachhwani, K. 174, 178
Lagerlöf, S. 141
Lai, H. 174
laminated bamboo lumber (LBL)
51–2
lamination 3, 51–3, 68, 87
lapped joints 40–1
larch 166
lashing 48, 50, 124, 161, 205
Latin America 46, 48, 53, 82
Le Korsa 203
Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED)
60
Leatherbarrow, D. 1
Lehm Ton Erde Baukunst 93,
186
Lehmann, L. 23, 154, 158
Lehmbau Regein 12–13, 60
Leschot, G.A. 19
Li Wan 127
Liechtenstein 164
lignin 29, 33, 36, 46
LILAC 88–9
lime 13, 18–20, 82, 94, 114–15,
129, 187, 190
limestone 17–19, 139, 154
loadbearing systems 10, 32,
34, 60, 62; in Austria 187;
in Bangladesh 182; in Chile
69; in France 156, 158; in
Morocco 191, 194; in Niger
77; in Rwanda 121; and stone
17, 22; in Switzerland 94; in
UK 87; in USA 114; in Vietnam
202; and wood 35–6, 43
local labor 34, 64, 85, 88,
97–126, 134–5, 181
local materials 1–3, 60, 68, 98,
133–5, 172–3; in Austria 164,
166, 169, 186, 190; bamboo
46, 52–3; in Bangladesh 180,
185; in Burkina Faso 101,
103, 105; in Chile 70, 74; in
China 128, 130, 132, 148,
150, 152; in Ecuador 122,
126; and future architecture
212–13, 215, 218–19; in India
174–5, 177; in Japan 68; in
Morocco 191; in Niger 76–7; in
Philippines 82–3, 106–7, 111;
reeds/grasses 33; in Rwanda
118, 121; in Senegal 204, 206;
stone 16, 22–3; in Sweden
139; in UK 88, 90; in Vietnam
201; wood 35, 42–3
Index 225
log construction 39–40, 43–4
logistics 1, 60, 218
longitudinal sections 77, 92,
155, 182, 188
Lopez Community Land Trust
(LCLT) 112–14
Lopez Island affordable housing
project 35, 112–16
low-carbon materials 42, 86–8
low-cost housing see affordable
housing
low-tech practices 1–2, 14
Lutcha house 61
Ma’anqiao Village
Reconstruction 99, 127–32
McLeod, M. 3
Mactavish, J. 204
Magdalénien hut 40
magma 18
maintenance 82, 84, 98, 103–4,
110, 116, 132, 154, 214, 218
Maison de Weekend 3
Maison Sec 3
Maisons Murondins 3
Make Architects 35
Malay communities 36
Mali 98
MAMOTH 191–2
Mander, T. 87
mani stones 148–9, 152
Mañosa & Company 52–3
mantras 148
marble 18
masons 19, 24, 79, 98, 119,
134, 150, 178, 218
mass production 3, 16, 35,
42–3, 52, 60, 98
master builders 98, 154
materiality 1, 107, 134, 148, 166
Mesopotamia 9
metal 32, 48, 61, 66, 69, 75,
103–4, 110, 119, 129, 140,
161, 180, 182
metamorphic rock 18
metaphysics 17
micro Trombe wall systems 172
Middle Ages 39, 41
middle class 52, 76
migration 9, 76, 81, 174, 191,
203, 213–14
milestones 17
millaria 17
226 Index
Miller, R. 112
MINERGIE 35
Ministry of Housing and Urban-
Rural Development of China
(MHURD) 127, 130
minka houses 39
Mithun 112–13
mock-ups 99, 107, 152, 162
ModCell Straw Technology 35,
60, 86–90
modeling 13, 66, 84, 87–8, 99,
107, 124, 126, 132, 140, 152,
181, 204
modernism 46
modular systems 43, 53, 63–4,
66, 70, 87, 101, 124, 156, 173,
201
moisture/moisture resistance 3,
9–13, 15, 29–30, 33, 172; in
Austria 189–90; and bamboo
46–7; in Morocco 194; in
Rwanda 119; in Senegal 205;
in Sweden 141; in Switzerland
93; in UK 87; in USA 114–15;
and wood 36, 39
monsoons 127, 179
moon phases 166
Mori, T. 203–4
Morocco 173, 191, 194, 196
mortar 15, 18–20, 52, 60, 93,
119, 144–5, 156, 194
mortgages 88
mortise-and-tenon joints 40–1,
43
Muslims 174
Myanmar 212
Naturum Visitor Centers 136
Neolithic period 8, 36, 46
Nepal 212
Netherlands 34, 179
New Zealand 13
Ng, E. 127
Niamey 2000 61, 75–80
Niger 9, 61, 75–7, 80, 213, 218
nomads 36, 60
non-profit organizations 104,
112, 145, 174
North America 32, 39, 42
Northern Hemisphere 38
Nottingham University 35
nouss-nouss 194
Nueva Esperanza 99, 122
Occitanie Pierres 23
Onjuku Beach House 43, 63–8
Opera Village and Center
for Health Care and Social
Promotion 100–6, 117
opus quadratum walls 20
Other 3
Otto, F. 46
overhangs 10, 36, 103–4, 110,
114–15
Pacific 69, 81, 114
Pakistan 8, 35
Palestine 28
palms 48, 107, 124, 144–5, 191
Pani Community Center 172,
179–85
Pani Foundation 179
papyrus 29
Passive House 35
Passive House Institute 87
patents 19, 24
Pavillon de L’Esprit Nouveau 3
pedagogy 122, 125
pegging 50, 161
performance 2, 22–3, 60–1, 98,
134; in Burkina Faso 101, 104;
in China 128–9; and earth 9,
12, 15; in France 158; and
future architecture 212–13;
in Japan 68; in Niger 76–7;
performative architecture
171–209; in Philippines 82–4;
and plant materials 28, 33, 35;
in Rwanda 119; in UK 86–7,
90; in USA 114
Perraudin Architectes 23
Perraudin, G. 23
Peru 9, 42, 46, 48, 82, 212–13
Philippines 46, 48, 52–3, 80–5,
99, 106, 212, 218
Philippines Bamboo Foundation
107
phloem 38
photovoltaic arrays 113
Phragmites australis 29
physiology 36
pilgrimages 148
pine 43, 70, 73, 139
Pingtian Agriculture Museum
and Crafts Workshop 211,
215–16, 218
place making 133–5
planners 212
plant materials 27–55, 173
plant species 29
plaster 3, 10, 13, 28, 30, 32; in
Austria 189–90; and bamboo
44, 46; in Bangladesh 185; in
China 127, 130, 132; in France
156; and future architecture
218; in India 175; in Morocco
191, 194–5; in Niger 76, 79;
in Philippines 82–3, 85; in UK
90; in United Arab Emirates
144–5; in USA 114–16; and
wood 35, 40
platbands 156
Pleistocene Epoch 47
plutonic igneous rock 18
plywood 51, 66, 114
Poacaea family 29, 46
Poland 139
pollution 13, 33, 42, 162
porphyry 18
Portland cement 13
post-and-beam system 63–4, 67
post-occupancy surveys 85, 130
Pouillon, F. 154
poverty 53, 76, 80, 82, 100, 127,
179
precut technology 64, 67–8
prefabrication 14, 16, 35, 42–3,
52–3, 59–60; in Austria 166,
187; in France 154; in Japan
63–4, 67; in Philippines 83–5;
in Switzerland 92–4; in UK 87,
89; in Vietnam 161–3, 201
primitive architecture 171
profit 77
properties 1–3, 5; of bamboo
46–7; of earth 9–10; of
grasses 29; of reeds 29; of
wood 36–9
property values 98
prototypes 82, 84, 87, 100,
128–30, 132, 201
Pucca construction 61
pumice 189–90
pyramids 17–19, 22
Q-Mark 60, 87
qi 17
quality factors 11, 13, 60, 98,
135, 173; in Austria 164, 166,
169; in Chile 69–70, 74; in
China 129, 132; in France 154;
and future architecture 212; in
Morocco 194; in Philippines
82–5, 107; and plant materials
41–2, 52; in Rwanda 119, 121;
in Senegal 209; in Switzerland
91, 93; in UK 87–8
quarries 18–21, 23–4, 134, 139,
148, 150, 154, 156, 158
R-value 13
rain 10, 33, 46, 48, 85, 172; in
Austria 190; in Bangladesh
179, 181, 185; in China 127;
in Senegal 203–4; in Sweden
140; in Switzerland 93; in
United Arab Emirates 144; in
Vietnam 197
rammed earth 2–3, 8–15, 59,
61–2, 99, 172–3; in Austria
187, 189–90; in China 127–9;
in Morocco 191, 194; in
Philippines 110; in Switzerland
92–4; in United Arab Emirates
145
rattan 48, 161–2, 194, 201, 212
Rauch, M. 93, 186–7, 190
recent developments 2, 12–16,
21–4, 32–5, 42–3, 51–3
reconstruction projects 22, 34,
99, 127–32, 147–8, 216
recycling 130, 144, 201
reeds 3, 11, 16, 28–35, 42, 134,
138–41, 172–3, 189
rehabilitation 213–18
renewable resources 1–2, 60,
82, 107, 113, 159, 163, 173
repairs 33, 76, 86, 98, 104, 115,
141–2, 175, 206, 218
Research Institute of the
Philippines 84
resilience 46, 85, 173
Restionaceae family 29
revitalization 213–18
Ricola Kräuterzentrum 59, 61,
91–4
Romans 17–19, 21, 156
roofers 30
Roswag & Jankowski
Architekten 13, 142–3
rough-hewn walls 20
Rudolphy + Soffia Arquitectos
69–70
Rudolphy, G. 43, 69, 74
rushes 29
Rwanda 98, 117–19
sacred landscapes 8, 19, 35,
134, 148–50, 152
safety 87
Sahara 9
Sahel 76, 218
sand molding 119
sandstone 18, 186
Scandinavia 42, 136
Schilder, G. Jr. 179
SchilderScholte Architects 179
Schlingensief, C. 100–1, 105
Schmidt, W. 35
Scholte, H. 179
Scientific Management 3
sculptors 17
sedges 29–30
sedimentary rock 18
seismic forces 15, 22, 66, 135,
173; in Chile 70, 73; in China
127–9, 150; in India 175; in
Japan 66; in Morocco 194;
in Philippines 82; and plant
materials 35, 43, 47–8; in
Rwanda 121; in Switzerland
92
Semi-Pucca house 61
Senegal 172, 203–5
Sharon Davis Design 117, 119
Shelter 34
Shintoism 35
Sichuan Province 99, 127
silica 18, 29, 46–7
simulations 87, 129
Singapore 51
site plans 70, 118, 143
Skanska 88
skilled labor 2, 53, 60, 66, 98–9,
135; in Bangladesh 181;
in Burkina Faso 104–5; in
Ecuador 122, 125; and future
architecture 212; in Rwanda
117, 119; in UK 88
slate 18
slop molding 119
snow 30, 40
social housing, Bry-sur-Marne
23
Soffia, A. 43, 69, 74
softwood 36, 38, 87
Index 227
soils 8–15, 36, 47, 77, 93, 103,
172, 186–7, 190, 194
solar power 13, 113–14, 116,
190, 204
Somalia 98
sorbtive properties 13
sound absorption 29
South America 42
Southeast Asia 47, 173, 201
Spanish 46, 107
spruce 139, 166
standardization 2–3, 15–16, 42,
51–3, 59–95, 98, 129, 154,
172, 212–13
status 42, 52, 61, 75, 79, 82,
104, 142
steel 2–3, 16–17, 44, 46–7, 60;
and bamboo 44, 46–7, 52; in
China 129; in India 173, 178;
in Morocco 191, 194, 196; in
Niger 77; in Philippines 82–3;
in Rwanda 119; in Senegal
205–6; in Vietnam 161
stigmatization 8, 16, 75
stone 16–24, 28, 36, 134–5, 172;
in Austria 187; and bamboo
47–8; in Bangladesh 180; in
China 130, 148, 151–2; in
France 154, 156, 158; in India
174–5, 177–8; in Morocco
194; in Philippines 107; stone
cutters 19; stonemasons 19,
24, 79, 98, 119, 134, 150, 178,
218
storms 33, 36, 106, 142, 173,
190, 197, 202
Straeter, P. 75
stråtak 138–9
stratified walls 20
straw 11, 14–15, 30, 40, 75,
86–90, 138, 140, 156, 174–5,
194
Straw Bale and Appropriate
Building 35
straw bales 2–3, 29, 32–5, 60,
87, 89, 98, 114–16
structural engineers 32, 73
students 53, 99, 105–7, 110,
114, 125–6, 194, 204, 212
Stuttgart University 46
sub-Saharan Africa 79, 98, 103
supply chain 1, 60, 83–4, 88
sustainability 1, 16, 23, 29,
228 Index
34, 60–1; and bamboo 53;
in China 132; and future
architecture 212, 218; in Niger
76; in Philippines 81, 84; and
wood 35, 42–3
sweat equity 35, 98, 112, 114
Sweden 43, 134, 136, 138–9,
141
Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) 136
Swiss Ornithological Institute 93
Switzerland 34–5, 43, 91–2, 164
Tåkern Visitor Center 34, 134,
136–41
Tam Vong 161
tamelas 194
Tanzania 212
tatami 64, 66
Taut, B. 46
termites 103, 144
testing 12, 60, 129, 213
Thailand 44
thatch/thatched roofs 28–35,
75–6, 86, 134, 172; in Ecuador
124; in Philippines 107, 110;
in Rwanda 119; in Senegal
204–8; in Sweden 138–41;
thatchers 139–40; in Vietnam
159, 162, 199
thermal properties 2, 10, 60,
77, 169, 172; in Austria 169,
187; in Bangladesh 181, 185;
in China 129; and earth 13; in
France 158; in India 174, 177;
in Morocco 194; in Niger 77;
in Philippines 84; and plant
materials 33, 39, 43; and
stone 23–4; in UK 86–7, 90; in
United Arab Emirates 143; in
USA 114
Thermo Pierre 24
Thesiger, W. 143
Thread Artist Residency and
Cultural Center 172, 203–9
Tibet 147–8, 150
Tibetan Buddhists 148, 174
Tibetan Plateau 134, 147
tides 70
Tiegang Zhou 127
tiling 89, 91, 127, 138, 172, 187,
189–90
timber see wood
timber-frame construction 39,
61, 65, 67, 82, 87–8, 114,
166
Toraja houses 39
Toshiko Mori Architect 203
tourism 134, 141, 148, 164, 174,
215
Towards a New Architecture 3
Townsend, A. 66
trade guilds 98
traditional identity 62–94, 134–5,
140
traditional methods 1–4, 10–12,
60–1, 134–5, 172–3; in Austria
164, 166; and bamboo 47–50,
57; in Burkina Faso 103; in
China 127–8, 148, 150; in
Ecuador 122; in France 156,
158; and future architecture
212–13, 215–16, 218; in India
177; in Morocco 191, 194,
196; in Philippines 106, 111;
and reeds/grasses 29–33; in
Rwanda 117–18; in Senegal
206; stone 18–20; in Sweden
139; in Switzerland 93; in UK
87, 90; in USA 115; in
Vietnam 161, 201; and wood
39–42
traditional villages designation
214
training 2, 53, 64, 98–9, 135; in
Austria 164; in Bangladesh
179–80; in Burkina Faso
103–4; in China 130; and
future architecture 212; in
Philippines 82, 84–5, 107;
in Rwanda 117, 119, 121; in
Senegal 204; in United Arab
Emirates 145; in USA 113; in
Vietnam 162
Tran Ngoc Phuong 199
Transcontinental Railroad 32
transport 2, 16, 19, 24, 60, 172;
in Austria 166, 186–7; in Chile
69; in China 127; in France
154, 156; in India 178; in
Japan 63; in Morocco 191; in
Switzerland 93; in UK 88; and
wood 36, 39, 42
transverse sections 109, 165,
192
Trucial Oman Scouts 142
Tsinghua University Institute of
Planning 216
turf 30
Turkey 17, 33
typhoons 47, 67, 81–4, 107,
110, 172–3, 197
U-value 13
La Ultima Esperanza 125–6
unfired earth masonry 8, 15, 60,
103, 121, 173, 218
United Arab Emirates (UAE) 134,
142
United Kingdom (UK) 15, 33, 35,
60, 86–9
United States of America (USA)
1–3, 13, 22, 60, 98, 112–16;
and Japan 68; and Niger 76;
and Philippines 106; and plant
materials 32, 34–5, 40, 42;
and Senegal 203
united4design 75–6
University of East Anglia (UEA)
33
University of the West of
England 87
upper class 52
Ur, Iraq 9
urbanism/urban migration 9, 76,
81, 174, 191, 203, 213–14
urbanization 42, 81, 145, 159,
162, 212, 214–15
URBATEC 77
uses of stone 18
Valdivia people 46
Vauzelle, D. 192, 196
Vietnam 45, 53, 135, 159,
161–2, 173, 197, 201
Villa Sørensen 37
Village-Level Brickmaking 121
Vo Trong Nghia Architects 53,
135, 159, 162–3
Vorarlberg, Austria 42, 133, 164,
218
wallboard 16
water 10–12, 29–30, 39, 42, 172;
in Austria 190; and bamboo
47; in Chile 74; and future
architecture 218; in India
174–5; in Morocco 194; in
Philippines 110; in Rwanda
119; in Senegal 204–5, 207;
in Sweden 136, 139, 141; in
Switzerland 94; in USA 113;
in Vietnam 161, 197, 199,
201–2
wattle-and-daub technique 30,
202
wavelengths 39
weathering 18, 93, 110, 175,
190, 194
weaving 28–30, 39–40, 44, 48,
61, 82, 118, 161, 202
Weber, N.F. 203–4
Weißenhofsiedlung 3
West Africa 75
Weston, R. 134
wetlands 29, 34, 121, 134, 136,
141
White, C. 87
White Design 86
White, F. 90
wildlife 47, 141
Wind and Water Bar 135, 159–63
winds 18, 40, 47–8, 66–7, 84,
107, 110, 135, 159, 162, 173,
178, 183, 201–2
Wingårdh Arkitektkontor 34, 136
Women for Women International
(WfWI) 117, 119
Women’s Opportunity Center
(WOC) 97–8, 117–21
wood 2, 35–43, 60, 133, 135,
173; in Austria 164, 166, 187,
189–90; and bamboo 46–8,
51–2; in Chile 69–70, 73–4; in
China 129–30, 148; and earth
11, 15; in France 154; in India
175; in Japan 63, 67–8; in
Morocco 194; in Niger 76; in
Philippines 82–3; and reeds/
grasses 29–30, 32; and stone
16, 20; in Sweden 139; in
UK 86–7, 89; in United Arab
Emirates 145; in USA 114;
woodworking 39, 42, 61, 64
workshops 34, 100, 105, 107,
125, 132; in Austria 187, 190;
in Bangladesh 181–2, 185;
in China 150; in France 156;
and future architecture 211,
215–16, 218; in Morocco 192;
in Senegal 205
World Bank 81
World War I 34
World War II 1, 64, 154
Xi’an University of Architecture
and Technology 127
yak felt 177
Yi community 127
Yusuhara Marche 33
Zero Carbon Standard 86
Zhang, B. 148
Ziggurat of Ur 9
zylem 38
Index 229