DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

✔ Food can be divided into six groups 1%

according to its composition; 1%

5%
Carbohydrates
15%

Vitamins 19%

Minerals
60%

Lipids

Proteins

Water
Each of these foods should be taken in proper amounts for energy production and
for the production of some vital substances for the body !!!!!
✔ Foodstuffs can be grouped according to their functions
as below;

NUTRIENTS

Energy Structural Regulatory

Sources Elements Elements

Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Minerals H2O Vitamins

✔ After ingestion of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins,
they are hydrolyzed into their subunits and absorbed
from gut into blood.
✔ However, vitamins, water and minerals do not need any
break down and they enter blood circulation directly.
Carbohydrates Vitamins
Lipids Water
Proteins Minerals

Need Digestion Do not need Digestion

✔ Degradation of foods requires an aquatic medium,
energy and proper enzymes.

✔ If these required components are present, foods split

into their monomers.

Energy
Energy Production

Enzymes
FOODS MONOMERS

H2 O Construction of
other
molecules
✔ These monomers may be used in energy production
processes (=cellular respiration) or in production of some
other required substances.
✔ For example: in animals excess carbohydrates are
stored in the form of glycogen, but in plants in the form
of starch.
✔ Digestion takes place in 4 steps, these
steps are;

Ingestion of food

Mechanical digestion

Chemical digestion

Absorption
 a) Ingestion of food:
✔ Food is ingested into digestive tract through the
mouth.
✔ Lips, teeth and tongue help ingestion.
 b) Mechanical Digestion: 1/2
✔ Food undergoes physical changes by the help of the
teeth. It is chewed and put in smaller pieces.
✔ Later, by the addition of saliva a bolus is formed and it
is sent into stomach through a tube named as
esophagus.
 b) Mechanical Digestion: 2/2
✔ Bolus moves gradually downwards by the help of
peristaltic movements of esophagus.
✔ Peristaltic movements of esophagus and stomach
movements also are effective in mechanical digestion.
✔ Mechanical digestion increases the surface area. This
helps enzymes to work effectively on the substrate
(food).
Bolus

Mechanical digestion
Peristalsis in esophagus increases the surface area
 c) Chemical Digestion:
Chemical digestion …
✔ In chemical digestion starts in the mouth.
enzymatic activity
and an aquatic Moves in esophagus
medium is important.
✔ By chemical digestion
from macromolecules
their monomers are
produced.
✔ Chemical digestion continues in stomach
starts in the mouth
and continues in continues in small
stomach and small intestine
intestine.
 d) Absorption:
✔ Is the final stage of digestion. Monomers are absorbed
in small intestine and they enter blood circulation.
✔ Villi (=foldings on internal surface of intestine) and
microvilli (=foldings of cell membrane in small intestine)
increase absorption area.
✔ These monomers are transported to different parts of
the body and used by the cells for proper needs.
MICROVILLI

VILLUS
✔ There are two sorts of digestion
according to their location;

Intracellular Digestion

Extracellular Digestion
 Intracellular Digestion 1/2
✔ In unicellular organisms such as amoeba, paramecium and
euglena, food is taken into the body by…

active transport,

passive transport,

& endocytosis

(pinocytosis or

phagocytosis).
 Intracellular Digestion 2/2
✔ After the uptake of the food by endocytosis, it is put
into a digestive vacuole.
✔ Digestive vacuoles
later fuse with
lysosomes. The
food meets with
the enzymes and
food is digested.
✔ The needed
materials are
taken by the cell
and the remaining
unneeded
materials are
thrown out of the
cell by exocytosis.
✔ Extracellular Digestion
In unicellular organisms, invertebrates and in all
vertebrates extracellular digestion is seen.
✔ In this sort of digestion lysosomes release their
enzymes out of the cell onto the foodstuff.
✔ The food is digested into its monomers outside.
✔ Later, needed materials are taken by the organism. In
this uptake diffusion is common.
Digestion in plants
✔ Plants do not have a digestive system. However, some
plants such as insectivorous plants can digest some small
organisms such as insects by using proper enzymes.
Sundews Venus fly trap

Pitcher plant
✔ Normal plants can take nitrogen by their roots directly
from soil. Insectivorous plants grow on nitrogen lacking
soils. Instead of taking nitrogen from soil, they take
nitrogen from the insects by digestion.
✔ Different insectivorous plants have different strategies
to trap the insects.
✔ After the organism is trapped, enzymes are released
onto the organism to digest its proteins. Proteins give
nitrogen containing amino acids. These amino acids are
than absorbed by the organism and used in metabolic
activities.
Digestion in animals
Digestion in Invertebrates
 Digestion in Sponges 1/2
✔ Water that is rich in food enters a sponge by passing
through the pores on the body.
✔ Flagellated collar cells lining on the endoderm of sponge
trap the food by their flagella.
 Digestion in Sponges 2/2
✔ Later, amoebocytes in mesoglea distribute the food to
the proper parts of the organism.
✔ Water, poor in food, is released out of the organism
through osculum.
 Digestion in Coelenterates 1/3
✔ Coelenterates have different forms of body. But we are
✔ going tocaptures
Hydra exemplify
its digestion
food in coelenterates by hydra.

by the help of its

tentacles (= arm-like
structures that are
present around the
mouth).

✔ The organisms to be
captured are paralyzed
by some proper
structures on the
 Digestion in Coelenterates 2/3
✔ The food enters gastrovascular cavity through an opening
that serves both as mouth and anus.
✔ Endodermal
cells
surrounding the
digestive
cavity secrete
digestive
enzymes.
✔ The food faces
with the
enzymes and it
is digested into
some small
pieces.
(External
digestion).
 Digestion in Coelenterates 3/3
✔ Small food particles are taken into the cells by
phagocytosis.
✔ They are
degraded into
monomeric units
by the activity
of the
lysosomes.
(Internal
digestion)
✔ Later,
undigested
materials are
released out of
the cells by
exocytosis.
Digestion in Platyhelminthes (=flatworms) 1/3

Planarian is a good example of flat worms

 Digestion in Platyhelminthes (=flatworms) 2/3
✔ In flatworms there is a sac-like gastrovascular
(=digestive) cavity.
✔ Gastrovascular cavity opens to the medium with an
✔ opening that serves as both mouth and anus.
The gastrovascular

cavity has many

branches.

✔ Branching

increases the
surface area for
easy digestion and
absorption.
 Digestion in Platyhelminthes (=flatworms) 3/3
✔ Food enters the cavity through the opening and there
faces with the digestive enzymes. Digestion takes place
out of the cells (=external digestion).
✔ Further digestion takes place in the cells (=intracellular
✔ digestion).
Some parasitic

forms of
flatworms like
taenia are
incapable of
digestion because
of the lack of
proper enzymes.
 Digestion in Nemathelminthes (=roundworms)
✔ Different than all previously mentioned primitive
invertebrates, roundworms have two openings. One of
them serves as mouth and the other one as anus.

Roundworms in the intestine o raccoon Roundworms Roundworm in sclera

✔ Digestion
Segmented in Annelida
worms have two(=segmented
openings. worms) 1/2

✔ Food enters the body through mouth and sent into the

crop through pharynx and esophagus.

✔ The food is moistened and softened by the help of the

juices and the contractions of pharynx and esophagus.

 Digestion in Annelida (=segmented worms) 2/2
✔ In the crop food is more softened. Later food is sent
into gizzard and there digested mechanically and sent
into the intestine.
✔ In the intestine, by the help of the enzymes food is
digested chemically and absorbed.
✔ Undigested materials are thrown out of the body from
anus.
 Digestion in Arthropoda (=arthropods)
✔ These organisms have a complete
digestive system.
✔ The manner of digestion is similar to the

✔ manner of digestion in segmented worms.

In contrast to
all other
invertebrates
they have
special mouth
parts for
catching,
cutting,
tearing, and
grinding the
food.
 Digestion in Molluska 1/2

✔ There are two openings that serve as mouth and anus.

✔ In the mouth there are specialized teeth-like structures for
grinding the food.
✔ After mechanical digestion in the mouth the food is sent into
 Digestion in Molluska 2/2
✔ Digested food is absorbed by the digestive glands of
the stomach and undigested materials are thrown out of
the body through anus.

Garden Snail Slug Nautilus

Squid
Octopus Cuttlefish
Digestion in Vertebrates
✔ Vertebrate digestive tract is

composed of a long convoluted tube,

extending from mouth to anus, and
accessory organs like salivary glands,
the pancreas, the liver, and the gall
bladder that provide the enzymes
and other substances essential for
digestion.

✔ Digestive system of different

vertebrates is different depending

on their type of nutrition.
 Digestion in Fish

✔ All the digestive organs that are present in a regular

vertebrate are also present in fish.
✔ But the intestines run in several coils through the body.
The intestines of meat-eating fish are short and straight,
whereas those of plant-eating fish are long and twisting.
 Digestion in Amphibians

✔ All the digestive organs that are present in a regular

vertebrate are also present in amphibians.
 Digestion in Reptiles

✔ All the digestive organs that are present in a regular

vertebrate are also present in reptilians.
 Digestion in Birds 1/5
✔ Digestive system is composed of a mouth known as beak,
pharynx, esophagus, crop, stomach, gizzard, intestine, and
cloak.
✔ In birds, beak functions in tearing and grinding of food. No

✔ teeth are present in the beak.

Crop is the part where food
and digestive enzymes are
mixed together for chemical
digestion. The softened food
is send into the stomach
through esophagus.
 Digestion in Birds 2/2
✔ The food is more softened with the enzymes and sent

into the gizzard. Gizzard has strong muscular structure

and contains particles of sand and gravel that are
functional in mechanical
digestion of food. The
function of teeth in birds
is done by gizzard.
 Digestion in Birds 3/5
✔ When food passes to the small intestine it is digested
chemically by the secretions of pancreas and liver. The
digested food is absorbed by the intestine and
undigested part of the food is expelled out of the body

✔ through cloaca.
Appendix is the part
that secretes enzymes
for digestion.
 Digestion in Birds 4/5

SMALL
INTESTINE

RIGHT
LUNG
HEART

LEFT
LUNG
GIZZARD
PANCREAS
Digestion in Birds 5/5

CROP
(on the left side)
&

GIZZARD
(at the top)
✔ Digestion in Mammals 1/6
Mouth has an active role in digestion.
✔ Digestion starts by the activity of the teeth in the
mouth.
✔ Tongue is functional in the formation of bolus from
mechanically digested food and salivary secretions.
 Digestion in Mammals 2/6
✔ The digestive systems of mammals are modified
according to the digestive method of the organism. For
instance; incisors (=the four teeth both in the upper
and lower jaw between the canines) are well developed
in carnivores. On the other hand, molars are well
developed in herbivores.

Coyote skull Horse skull

✔ Digestion in Mammals 3/6
In herbivores, the stomach is composed of four lobes

but in carnivores it is composed of only one lobe.

 Digestion in Mammals 4/6
✔ In ruminants, (=group of herbivorous animals consist of
cows, horses, giraffes and such animals) the stomach is
composed of the following compartments; abamossum,
amossum, reticulum and rumen.
 Digestion in Mammals 5/6
✔ The food is first taken into the abamossum and amossum. In these
lobes symbiotic bacteria are present. They help the digestion of
cellulose with their enzymes.
✔ Later, the food is returned to the mouth and rechewed. At this
form, the food is ready for secondary digestion.
✔ Digestion in Mammals 6/6
The food is swallowed again and sent into the reticulum and rumen.

✔ In rumen, by digestive enzymes, food is digested chemically and

passes into the small intestine for absorption.

Digestive System
in Human
✔ The system is composed of some …

MAIN ORGANS ACCESSORY ORGANS

Mouth Salivary Glands

Pharynx Alveolar glands of stomach

Esophagus Glands of intestines

Stomach Pancreas

Small Intestine Liver

Large Intestine
1) MOUTH:
✔ The structures in the mouth are teeth,
tongue, and salivary glands.

Tongue

Teeth

Salivary
glands
1.a) Teeth:
✔ The function of the teeth is to grind the food into an
easily digestible form and to mix it with digestive
secretions.
✔ In a mature human there are 32 teeth.
✔ 16 of them are on the upper jaw and 16 of them are
on the lower jaw.

Upper Jaw 16

Lower Jaw 16
 On one jaw;
4 are in the front and named
as incisors. (Total: 8)

2 are behind the incisors and

named as canines. (Total: 4)
Adult teeth
4 are behind the canines and
named as premolars. (Total: 8)

6 are behind the premolars and

named as molars. (Total:
12)
✔ The incisors and canines cut the food, the premolars and molars grind it.
✔ Last 4 molars (=two in each
jaw bone) emerge after the
age of 20 and they are
known as wisdom teeth.

✔ 20 of milk teeth that

emerge in the early ages are
replaced with 28 new teeth
at the age of 7. Wisdom
Teeth
Milk Teeth of a child
 The structure of a tooth: 1/5
✔ The teeth maybe different in shape but their structures
are all same.
✔ A tooth is composed of 3 different parts;

The crown
(=the part that is seen on the gum)

The neck
(=the part in the gum)

The root
(=the part in the jawbone)
 The structure of a tooth: 2/5
✔ If a cross section is studied from outside to inside 3
different layers are seen; enamel, dentine and pulp
cavity.

Enamel
Crown
Dentin
Neck Gum
Pulp cavity
Nerves &
blood vessels
Root
Periodontal
fibers &
Cementum
Jawbone
 The structure of a tooth: 3/5
✔ Enamel covers the crown part and it is composed of
calcium phosphorus and fluoride.
✔ Enamel is the hardest material in human body.

Enamel
Crown
Dentin
Neck Gum
Pulp cavity
Nerves &
blood vessels
Root
Periodontal
fibers &
Cementum
Jawbone
 The structure of a tooth: 4/5
✔ Right beneath the enamel dentine is present. Dentine is
the bone-like structure of the tooth.
✔ The pulp cavity contains the nerves and capillaries.

Enamel
Crown
Dentin
Neck Gum
Pulp cavity
Nerves &
blood vessels
Root
Periodontal
fibers &
Cementum
Jawbone
 The structure of a tooth: 5/5

✔ The root is surrounded by periodontal fibers and a layer

of cement that fix the tooth firmly to the jawbone.

Enamel
Crown
Dentin
Neck Gum
Pulp cavity
Nerves &
blood vessels
Root
Periodontal
fibers &
Cementum
Jawbone
1.b) Tongue:
✔ The tongue together with the teeth assist the
masticated (=chewed) food to mix with saliva in order to
form a bolus.
✔ The taste buds on the tongue helps person to taste
bitter, sour, sweet and salty tastes.

Taste Molecules
Papillae

Taste buds

The tongue is also studied under chapter sensory organs.

 1.c) Salivary Glands:
***

*** Will be studied under subject “digestive secretions”

2) PHARYNX:
✔ The pharynx is a cavity that is located directly behind
the mouth and at the top of the esophagus and
trachea.
✔ The swallowed bolus passes from the pharynx into the
esophagus. The food passage into the trachea is
prevented by epiglottis.
✔ Swallowing
starts
voluntarily in
the mouth and
continues
through the
pharynx into
the esophagus
involuntarily.
3) ESOPHAGUS:
✔ Esophagus resembles a pipe that is 25 cm. long and
2 cm. wide.
✔ It is located between pharynx and the stomach.
✔ The esophagus wall is composed of 3 main layers;

Outer layer Middle layer Inner layer

✔ Outer layer contains connective tissue and protects
the esophagus.
✔ Middle layer contains circular muscles. Contractions
and relaxations of these muscles result in peristaltic
movements. Peristaltic movements force the food into
the stomach. Reverse peristalsis causes vomiting.
✔ Inner layer contains alveolar glands that secrete

mucus.

✔ Mucus provides a friction free surface for food

movement through esophagus.

4) STOMACH:
✔ The stomach is a sac-like structure between esophagus
and the small intestine.
✔ It is located at the upper left portion of abdominal
cavity.
✔ The connection point between esophagus and the
stomach is named as cardiac sphincter and the
connection point between the stomach and the
small intestine is named as pyloric sphincter.
These two points control the food passage.
✔ The stomach wall
is composed of 4
main layers.
✔ From inside to
outside these
layers are…
Mucosa

Submucosa

Muscularis

Serosa
✔ Mucosal layer is very
thick and contains
numerous pits. The
epithelial cells of
mucosa secrete
mucus
HCl
pepsinogen &
rennin (=an enzyme that is

secreted in children for milk

coagulation).

✔ These secretions
constitute the gastric
✔ Normally, acidic
gastric juice
should digest
the stomach wall
but secretion of
mucus protects
the stomach
from self
digestion.
✔ Submucosal layer
contains a rich
network of blood
capillaries and
nerves in loose
connective tissue.
✔ Muscularis layer
contains circular,
longitudinal and
oblique muscles.
Stomach digests
the food by the
contractions of
these muscles. At
the same time
the contractions
help mixing of
food and gastric
juice.
✔ Serosa layer
(=visceral
peritoneum)
surrounds the
stomach and
protects it.
The functions of the stomach:
1) To store ingested food
2) To produce gastric juice for
digestion
3) To mix digestive juices and food
by physical movements
4) To squirt the partially digested
food into the small intestine for
further digestion
5) SMALL INTESTINE:
✔ Small intestine is located between the stomach
and large intestine. It is approximately 6-8
meters in length.
✔ The small intestine
wall is composed
of 4 main layers.
✔ From inside to
outside these
layers are…
Mucosa

Submucosa

Muscularis

Serosa
✔ It has 3 main segments; duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum.
✔ Duodenum is 26
cm. in length.

✔ The Common Hepatic duct

bile duct from Common

bile duct
the liver (gall
bladder) and
pancreatic duct Pancreatic
duct
of pancreas
drain their
content into the Opening

duedonum.
✔ Jejunum is located after duodenum and
5,5 - 7,5 meters in length. Its function is to
carry on absorption
✔ Ileum is the final portion that connects the
small intestine to the large intestine.

Openin
g
Ileu
m
✔ All of the layers are similar to the layers of
stomach but only the mucosa is characterized by
some folding known as villi. Microscopic
finger-like projections of mucosa are called as
villi. On the other hand tiny cytoplasmic
projections are known as microvilli and they are
the projections of intestinal epithelial cells.

✔ Their function is to increase the inner surface

area of intestine for absorption. The total
surface area of human small intestine is
approximately 300m2 (=about the size of a
 SEM of a
cross
section of
small
intestine
(villi)

SEM of a surface of an
epithelial cell (microvilli)
6) LARGE INTESTINE:
✔ Large intestine is located after the small
intestine and ends in the anus.
✔ Approximately it is 1,5 – 2 meters in length.
✔ It has 3 main segments; caecum, colon, and
rectum.
Colon

Caecum
Rectum
✔ Caecum is attached vertically to the small intestine.
From caecum a projection known as appendix extends.
✔ The inflammation of appendix (=appendicitis) requires
surgical operation.

Appendix
✔ Colon is the main segment that extends first up
(=ascending colon), later horizontal (= transverse colon)
and finally down (= descending colon) and lasts in
rectum. Transverse Colon

Descending Colon
Ascending Colon
✔ Rectum is the large portion that opens out of
the body with anus.
✔ Anatomically, large intestine has the same layers with
the small intestine. However, mucosa does not contain
villi and microvilli but contains some glands that secrete
mucus for easy movement of fecal matter.

Important note: The crypts contain granule-rich Paneth

cells that discharge their granules into the crypt lumen in
response to the entry of bacteria or food-related stimulation
by acetylcholine.
✔ It is composed of 4 main layers.

✔ From inside to outside these layers are…

Mucosa
Submucosa

Muscularis

Serosa
Important note: The crypts contain granule-rich Paneth
cells that discharge their granules into the crypt lumen in
response to the entry of bacteria or food-related stimulation
by acetylcholine.
✔ Absorption of water and minerals occurs in large intestine.
✔ Approximately, 7 liters of water is absorbed by the large
intestine per day.
✔ When the absorption of water and minerals is disrupted an
illness named as diarrhea (=runs) occurs. It is still the
chief cause of infant death in many countries.

Giardia intestinalis
✔ In large intestine so many symbiotic bacteria live that
produce vitamins (=especially vitamin K) and amino acids.
Also they breakdown some undigested materials.

E.coli
DIGESTIVE SECRETIONS
✔ Digestive secretions originate from salivary glands of
mouth, gastric glands of stomach, gall bladder of liver,
pancreas, and small intestine.

salivary
gastric glands glands of
of stomach mouth

Gall bladder Pancreas

of liver

Small intestine
a) SALIVARY GLANDS:
✔ There are three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth;
sublingual, submaxillary and parotid glands.
✔ Additionally, the mucosa of the mouth produces
secretions.
✔ Secretions of these glands form the saliva of the
✔ mouth.
Saliva contains …
enzyme amylase
(=ptyalin)

Mucus
(=it functions as a solvent)

Proteins

Water

Na++
Functions of Saliva
1) It initiates carbohydrate digestion

2) It helps in detection of taste because it is a

solvent

3) It helps in formation of bolus

4) It lubricates the pharynx so that food may

be swallowed easily

5) It assists in speaking
 Control
Of
Salivary Gland
Secretion
✔ Secretion is controlled by conditional and unconditional
reflexes.

✔ In conditional reflexes, secretion is provided when

individual thinks, smells and sees food.
(There is no contact of the mouth with the food.)

✔ In non conditional reflexes, as we take food into our

mouth the food stimulates the nerve endings in the
mouth.
The stimuli are transmitted to the secretory center in
medulla oblongata in impulses.
As a response, the impulses are sent to the salivary
glands from the center for salivary secretion. And
salivary glands make secretion.
b) GASTRIC GLANDS:
✔ Gastric Juice is acidic with pH = 1-2 and capable to
digest the stomach wall.
✔ Gastric juice is secreted by the gastric glands in the
stomach. Gastric juice contains …
HCl Stomach wall

Pepsinogen

rennin (=in
babies)

a small
amount of Gastric juice

lipase.
✔ Self digestion is prevented by the secretion of mucus
from the gastric glands. Any damage in the gastric
mucosa results in gastritis (Inflammation of the
stomach). Gastritis may result from infection, alcohol,
or dietary changes.
Areas effected from gastritis
✔ Gastritis may develop in a peptic ulcer.

areas of peptic ulcer

 What is the difference between
gastritis and peptic ulcer?
✔ Gastritis is not a single disease, it is

inflammation of the stomach lining and has

many causes from drinking too much to a
bacteria in the stomach.

✔ A peptic ulcer is when a sore or ulcer has

been made in the lining of the stomach by the

stomach acid.
Functions of HCI acid
in Gastric juice
1) It converts inactive pepsinogen into active
pepsin
HCl
Pepsinogen Pepsin
(Inactive) (Active)

2) It stimulates the secretions of pancreas and

intestinal glands
3) It destroys microbes ingested with food
4) It facilitates digestion by denaturizing
proteins
Control of Gastric
juice secretion
✔ After the food enters the stomach the
receptors of the stomach detect the food
presence and send impulses to medulla
oblongata.
✔ As a response, vagus nerve that extends from
the medulla oblongata stimulates secretory cells
of the stomach to secrete hormone gastrin.
✔ The release of gastrin initiates the secretion of
HCl and inactive pepsinogen from the gastric
glands.
✔ Under the effect of HCl, pepsinogen is
✔ The usage of pepsin increases pepsinogen and

HCl secretion.

✔ The mixture of half digested food in the

stomach is named as chyme. The chyme is

squired into the duodenum.

✔ The acidic content of chyme stimulates the

secretory cells of duodenum to secrete hormone

enterogastrin.

✔ Enterogastrin inhibits the activity of the

 Food enters the Enterogastrin Secretory cells of
stomach inhibits the duedonum secrete
stomach activity enterogastrin

Receptors of stomach
send impulses to m.o Chyme enters
duedonum

Medulla oblongata
send impulses via
Digestion of proteins and
vagus nerve
formation of chyme

Gastrin
Secretory cells of stimulates the
Formation of
stomach secrete secretion of HCl
Pepsin
hormone Gastrin and Pepsinogen
c) GALL BLADDER
& LIVER:
✔ The liver is the largest organ of the body and weights
approximately 2 kg.
✔ It is surrounded by some membranes and contains a gall
bladder beneath it.
✔ Outer membrane of the liver is named as peritonea and
it connects liver to the stomach and diaphragm.

PERITONEA
✔ Liver is composed of 4 main lobes.
✔ These lobes contain thousands of small lobes. They are
the functional units of the liver and carry on more than
500 activities.
✔ The lobes are 1-2 mm in diameter and pentagonal or
hexagonal in shape.
✔ Actually, each lobe is separated from each
other by a sort of connective tissue.
✔ Hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood to the liver and
hepatic vein removes deoxygenated blood from the
liver.Hepatic portal vein brings the glucose and
aminoacid containing blood to the liver from intestine.
✔ Both of the vessels first branch into four main lobes
and these four vessels branch into small lobes in the
form of capillaries
✔ These capillaries are present in the star-like gaps
between the lobes.
✔ Artery capillaries mainly penetrate the surface of the
lobe and venal capillaries penetrate the center of the
lobe.
✔ At the center of the lobe there is a central vein and
venal capillaries attach to the central vein.
✔ The liver cells and Kuppfer cells (=the specific cells that
carry on phagocytosis) extend from center to the outer
region.
✔ Bile salts are the water soluble metabolic wastes of the
liver cells. After secretion from the cells they flow
through the internal spaces of the lobes and finally
enter the bile duct.
✔ Bile ducts merge and form the Common hepatic duct.

✔ Common hepatic duct carries the bile salts into the gall

bladder for further usage.

✔ Approximately 600 ml. of bile is secreted from the
liver in a single day.
✔ Bile contains insoluble cholesterol and some other

substances.

✔ A reduction in the bile salts can result in the formation

of gall stones by the precipitation of cholesterol.

Functions the liver
 1) Formation and degradation of erythrocytes:
✔ Old erythrocytes are degraded in the liver.
✔ From hemoglobin bile salts and the hemoglobin of new
erythrocytes are synthesized.
✔ Old erythrocytes are degraded by phagocytotic activity
of Kuppfer cells.
✔ In early embryological
o l o gica
l development, liver functions as an
bry ent
organ
ear that
ly elopm produces erythrocytes.
e
dev
m

HEME BILE
 2) Formation and secretion of bile:
✔ Bile is formed by liver cells and drain into common
hepatic duct. Common hepatic duct braches into to two
ducts. (Cystic duct and common bile duct)
✔ Cystic duct brings excess bile into the gall bladder and
✔ 90% of bile salts
common bile duct leads bile in the small intestine.

are absorbed
during passage
through the small
intestine.
✔ Bile helps the
absorption of lipids
and plays a great
role in the
prevention of
bacteria production
 3) Regulation of blood sugar level:
✔ Excess amount of sugar in the blood is stored as
glycogen in the liver. When blood sugar level decreases
glycogen is converted into glucose and released into the
blood.

Glucose

Insulin Glucagon

Glycogen
 4) Conversion of provitamin A into vitamin A &
vitamin deposition :
✔ Liver converts provitamin A into vitamin A.
✔ On the other hand, liver stores vitamins A, D, K and
some minerals such as Fe, Cu etc.

Provitamin A Vitamin A
5) Regulation of
protein metabolism:

✔ Liver synthesizes
12 amino acids out
of 20.

✔ Excess amino
acids are stored
in the form of
lipid at proper
parts of the body.
 6) Urine synthesis:
✔ After the degradation of amino acids in the cells,
poisonous ammonia (=NH3) is produced.
✔ Ammonia is later brought to the liver to be converted
into a less poisonous substance –urine- by a process
named as ornithineNH
cycle.
3

CO2
H2O

Ornithine Ornithine Citruline

Cycle
Urea NH3

Arginine H2O
H2O

2NH3 + CO2 Urea + H2O

 7) Plays a great role in coagulation of blood:
✔ In coagulation, proteins protrombin and fibrinogen are
very important. These proteins are synthesized by the
liver.
✔ On the other hand, heparin that prevents blood
coagulation in vessels is also synthesized by the liver.
Thrombokinase
Protrombin Thrombin
++
Ca , Vitamin K

Fibrinogen Fibrin
(Soluble) (Insoluble)

Thrombocytes Clot
 8) Detoxification of substances:
✔ Toxic substances that enter the body with food and
medicines are detoxified by the liver cells. The most
important toxic materials are H2S and H2O2. These
substances are converted into H2O and O2 by enzymatic
activity.
 9) Regulation of body temperature:

✔ The liver an organ that produces a great amount of

heat.
✔ The heat is distributed to other parts of the body by
blood.

10) Immunity:

✔ The liver cells form lymph and also some antibodies that
are important in immunity.
d) PANCREAS:
✔ Pancreas is located beneath the stomach laterally and it
is connected to duodenum.
✔ Its weight is approximately 75-80 gr., pink in color and
has a leaf-like shape.
✔ It is composed of lobes known as acinus (=pulural; acini).

✔ From acinar cells 1,5-2 lt. of pancreatic juice is

secreted per day.
✔ Pancreas is gland that both make endocrine and exocrine
secretions.
✔ Endocrine glands make secretion directly into the
circulatory system but exocrine glands make their
secretions through a channel or a duct into the digestive
tract.
✔ Exocrine secretions of pancreas are directly concerned

with digestion and released into the duodenum through

pancreatic duct. Common bile duct

Pancreatic
duct

Pancreas

Duedonum
✔ In the pancreatic juice ….
Lipase For lipid digestion
Amylase For carbohydrate digestion
Trypsinogen
Chemotrypsinogen For protein digestion
Carboxypeptidase
A small amount of nuclease For protein digestion
A small amount lecithinase For lecithin digestion
H2 O
Chloride (Cl-)
Bicarbonate (HCO3)-
A small amount of P, Na, K, Ca and Mg

…are present.
✔ The pH of pancreatic juice is between 8 and 8,5.

✔ As chyme enters the duodenum from the stomach, its

acidic content stimulates the mucosal cells of the

duodedum.

✔ In those cells, normally inactive form of hormone

secretin is present.

✔ After stimulation, it is converted into active secretin.

✔ Hormone is transported to the pancreas and stimulates

the secretion of pancreatic juice.

 B
Pancreatic
juice
Inactive
secretin

Active secretin is carried

by the blood to pancreas
Active
and stimulate pancreatic
secretin
juice secretion
✔ Endocrine secretions of pancreas are secreted by the
Islets of Langerhans. These islets are located among
the acini and secrete hormones glucagon and insulin.
✔ These hormones are directly secreted into the blood.

.
 β-cells of
Affects the pancreas Insulin secretion into blood

Increase in glucose level Conversion of glucose into glycogen in

the liver

.
Normal Glucose level

Decrease in glucose level Conversion of glycogen into glucose

Affects Glucagon is secreted into

α-cells of the blood
pancreas

Insulin and Glucagon functions in the control of blood glucose

level
e) SMALL INTESTINE:
✔ Intestinal glands secrete digestive enzymes, hormones

and mucus.

✔ Digestive enzymes are maltase, sucrase, lactase for

carbohydrate digestion and erepsin for protein

digestion. These enzymes are secreted by the
Liberkuhn Glands.

✔ Hormones are secretin (initinates enzyme secretion

from pancreas), enterogastrin (inhibits gastric activity)

and chylocytokinin (stimulates the contraction of gall
bladder to secrete bile).
Digestion of the foodstuffs
Carbohydrate Digestion
✔In the mouth: from salivary
glands
Amylase
H 2O + Polysaccharide Dextrin + Disaccharides
(ex: sucrose, lactose
& maltose)

✔In the small intestine: from pancreas

Amylase
H 2O + Dextrin Glucose

from intestinal glands

Sucrase
H 2O + Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

from intestinal glands

Lactase
H 2O + Lactose Glucose + Galactose

from intestinal glands

Maltase
H 2O + Maltose Glucose + Glucose
Protein Digestion
✔In the stomach:
From medulla oblongata Vagus nerve caries impulses to the secretory
cells of the stomach.
Vagus stimulates the secretion of hormone gastrin.
Gastrin stimulates the secretion of HCl and inactive pepsinogen.

HCl
Pepsinogen Pepsin
(Inactive) (Active)

H 2O + Proteins Peptones

Additionally in babies;
Rennin
H 2O + Milk Casein

Pepsin
H 2O + Casein Peptones + Amino acids
✔In the small intestine:
Chyme (=mixture of peptones, amino acids, monosaccharides, lipids,
enzymes, vitamins and minerals and water etc.) enters duodenum.
Acidic content of chyme stimulates the secretion of hormone secretin.
Secretin stimulates pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice.
Pancreatic juice contains inactive enzymes trypsinogen and
chymotrypsinogen.
On the other hand, intestinal glands secrete enterokinase. All of this
mixture (chyme + enzymes + enterokinase) is present in the intestine at
this moment.

Enterokinase
Trypsinogen Trypsin
(Inactive) (Active)

Enterokinase
Chimotrypsinogen Chimotrypsin
(Inactive) (Active)
 Trypsinogen
&
Chimotrypsinogen
H 2O + Peptones Peptides + Amino acids

Peptidase (=Erepsin)
H 2O + Peptides Amino acids
from intestinal
glands

Shortly protein synthesis is as below;

In stomach In duedonum In ileum & jejenum

Amino
Proteins Peptones Peptides
acids
Lipid Digestion
✔In the small intestine:

from pancreas

Lipase
H 2O + Lipids Glycerol + Fatty acids

Bile secretion from the gall bladder emulsifies the lipids and makes
their digestion easier.

If the gall bladder is removed in a person, lipid digestion occurs harder.

Nucleic Acid Digestion
 DNA (ase)
H 2O + DNA Nucleotides

from pancreas

RNA (ase)
H 2O + RNA Nucleotides
THE END