Modules 1 and 2

Basic ideas and Terminology

 Essence of Welding
• Metallurgical unification
• Aim: 100% joint efficiency
– Design
– Process
– Consumables
– Optimization
– Understanding
– Execution
– Inspection/testing
– PWHT
 Welding is Metallurgical Bonding

• Requirements
– Clean surfaces
– Intimate contact
• Impediments
– Oxide layer
– Surface roughness
• How is it accomplished?
 Many processes, but just two classes
• Fusion welding (MMAW, SAW, GTAW, etc.)
– Base materials melt
– Filler material may be added
– 90% welding is fusion welding
• Solid-state welding (FSW, USW, EXW, etc.)
– No base material melting
– Plastic deformation of base materials
– Material can get red hot
– Several metallurgical advantages
– Numerous established applications
• How do they work?
Heat sources for fusion welding
• Fuel burning (Gas welding)
• Exothermic reactions (Thermit welding)
• Resistance heating (RSW)
• Electric arc (MMAW, SAW, GTAW, GMAW,
FCAW, PAW)
• Laser beam (LBW)
• Electron beam (EBW)
• Electric arc processes dominate
 Microstructural zones
• Localized melting
• Peak temperature decreases as a function of distance
away from weld center line
• HAZ shows inferior properties
• HAZ width increases with heat input
 Heat input
• Heat input = heat utilized for melting + heat conducted
sideways (wasted)
• Concentrated heat sources → higher melting efficiency
• Energy density
– Fuel burning < electric arc < laser/electron beam
– Energy density within arc welding processes:
• MMAW < GTAW < PAW
• High energy density processes produce narrow HAZs
• Thermal conductivity
• Use lowest heat input consistent with penetration
Types of Joints
Butt joint, butt weld T - Joint, fillet weld

Lap joint, fillet weld

Types of joints and welds

 Need for Edge Preparation
• Beyond a certain thickness, through-
thickness melting not possible with electric
arcs
– Prepare plate edges to facilitate access
– Use filler metal to fill the groove
– Weld progressively in multiple passes
 Shielding
–Protect hot metal against
contamination
• Flux (MMAW, SAW)
• Gas (GTAW, GMAW)
• Vacuum (EBW)
–Not required in some cases (low
process temperatures)
 Arc Welding Processes
• Consumable electrode processes (MMAW,
SAW, FCAW, GMAW)
– With flux shielding (MMAW, SAW, FCAW)
– With inert gas (GMAW) or CO2 shielding (CO2
Welding)
• Non-consumable electrode processes (GTAW,
PAW)
– Inert gas shielding
 Properties of the welding arc
• Arc is electrical discharge through a gaseous medium between two
electrodes
• Cathode and anode
• Polarity
– DCEN (straight)
– DCEP (reverse)
– AC
• Plasma: Ionized state of gas containing electrons and positive ions
(some neutral atoms and undissociated molecules)
• In an electric arc, nearly 2/3rd heat is generated at anode
– Movement of electrons to anode and +ve ions to cathode
– Anode heated by KE of electrons and cathode by KE of +ve ions
– +ve ions move slowly, so less contribution in unit time
• DCEP: Higher deposition, DCEN: Deeper penetration
• Arc Temperature is function of nature of the gas and the current
intensity
– Max. temp. between 5,000 and 50,000 K
– Measured values between 5,000 and 30,000 K
– Constricted arcs: As high as 50,000 K
• SMAW: Easily ionizable Na and K salts in coating → lower
temperature ~ 6000 K
• Pure inert gas: Axial temperature up to 30000 K
• Core of arc hottest zone, mantle less hot
• Steep temperature gradients
 Electrical characteristics of the welding arc

• Arc voltage falls and rises again as arc current is increased

• Initial fall related to thermionic emission from cathode and
increasing ionization
• I-V relationship follows Ohm’s law at higher currents
• Voltage increases as arc length rises
 Power source characteristics

Power source: Motor-Generator, Transformer-Rectifier, Inverter

Power source characteristic: OCV, SCC
Constant potential and constant current types

Const. current/drooping: For manual welding

Const. potential or flat: For semi-automatic and fully automatic
welding
 Power source
characteristic Arc
characteristic
OCV

Voltage Operating
point

SCC
Current

Electrical behaviour of arc and power source

 Forces in the arc
• Pressure generated from gas evolution at
electrode tip
• Electrostatic attraction between electrodes
• Gravity
• Electromagnetic forces
• Explosive evaporation of necked filament
between drop & electrode
• Friction between arc and atmosphere
• Interaction between arc current and magnetic field →
electromagnetic forces
• Shape of arc: Divergent from electrode to work, bell-shaped
• Two components: Pinch effect and plasma jet
• Pinch effect:
– Radial component of magnetic field around arc
– Detachment of droplet from consumable electrode
• Plasma jet:
– Detached droplet accelerated by plasma jet towards
weld pool
• Significance for metal transfer
 Metal Transfer
• Requirement of smooth transfer: Avoid spatter,
uncontrolled short circuit, arc instability due to erratic
transfer, possibility of drawing air into the arc
• Types of metal transfer:
 Globular transfer
 Spray transfer
 Short circuit transfer
• Funda 7: Spray transfer most desirable (stable, smooth,
spatter-free, vertical/overhead welding)
Transition currents for spray transfer

Transition from globular to spray:

f (electrode material, diameter, gas)
Electrode dia. Transition current (A)
(mm) Steel (Ar+2%O2) Al (Ar)
0.75 155 90
0.9 170 95
1.15 220 120
1.55 275 170
 Initiating the arc

Un-ionized gases insulating in nature, very high

voltages needed to make them conduct
Measures required to ionize the gas

Two methods practised:

 Short-circuiting or touch start
 Impose high voltage, but for very short time
Short circuit ignition (“Striking the arc”)

Touch electrode to workpiece (res. heating

& “fuse” action), withdraw electrode
slightly but quickly to a short distance -
‘drawing’ an arc

Thermionic emission from cathode,

high electric field, acceleration & ionization
High voltage not required (OCV just ~ 60V)

Example: MMAW / SMAW

2) High-frequency spark discharge

Superpose on welding power supply

a high-voltage, high-frequency a.c.:
1-5 kV, 2-4 A, 0.2-4.0 MHz

Take electrode close to work surface,

but no short circuit
High electric field →
Ionization from stray electrons

Example: GTAW
 Welding processes

Pressure welding Fusion welding

Cold pressure Hot pressure Chemical reaction

Electrical LBW EBW
welding welding resistance
Gas
Thermit
welding
welding Resistance Electroslag
Diffusion Explosive Ultrasonic
welding welding
welding
bonding welding
Electric arc

Friction welding

Flux-shielded Gas shielded

SAW GTAW PAW

SMAW

GMAW
Including
FCAW