Acknowledgements
The Legacy Foundation would like to thank the following
persons and organizations for their important contribu-
tions to the lessons learned in the development and
extension of briquette technology.
Dr. Ben Bryant, Professor Emeritus, (retired) University
of Washington Forest Products Laboratories, Seattle
Washington who developed the first briquette press and
continues to be a guide in the technology development.
Malawi: Harry Chuma, Principal Secretary Ministry of
Energy and Mines, Lilongwe Malawi; Wisdom Mulango
Nkhomano Center for Development; Sue Clasby, Peace
Corps Volunteer with the AIDS Orphans project Balaka;
the women’s groups of Mchinji and Mangochi districts
especially the senior trainers Stanford Noa and Frederick
Banda; Anna Erdelmann and Esther Chirwa of the Urban
Poverty Alleviation Project/GTZ; Sean Southey of UNDP;
Marijke Mooij of a private Dutch consortia and Godfrey
Sabiti, UNHCR.
Kenya: Christopher, Elizabeth and Nicholas Wood,
project designers, program managers and equipment
suppliers; Mary and Francis Kavita, lead trainers; Charles
Njiroge, Francis Oloo and the women of the Kangemi
Women’s Empowerment Center; Stephen Gitonga,
ITDG Kenya.
Peru: Carlos Olivera, Pablo Arujo, Nestor Valesco Castilla,
Bill Davis and John Wilcox of ADRA; Mario Carrion of
Canel 9; the women’s groups in Mosocllacta, Q’quea and
Chiaquilccasa communidades en la departamente del
Cusco, Juan Ponce de Leon and Txema Torrebada; the
faculty of the National University of San Antonia Abad del
Cusco and Juan Ponce de Leon and Txema for translation
assistance.
Mali: Enterprise Works Worldwide staff; Youshaou Traore,
translator; Adame Ba extension trainer; Abdullaye Dem
technician and Affa Sammassekou, thresher device design-
er and manufacturer.
THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
Haiti: Dr. Keith Flannagan of World Concern; Richard
Ireland, Peace Corps Volunteer and extension trainer.
Zimbabwe: Claudio Dembezeka of the Mukuvisi
Woodlands Center Education; Emmanual Koro of the
Africa Resources Trust (ART); Gus Le Breton, Southern
Africa for Indigenous Resource Use (SAFIRE); Steve Murray
of Action Magazine; Ramson Choto of the Ministry of
Energy and Mines and the ZIMTRUST organisation.
Mexico: Nancy and Robert Hall; Juan Pablo Tapia Cruz
of DESMUNI; Porfirio and Xavier briquette technology
technicians
Uganda: Uganda Industrial Research Institute; Dr. Mike
Foster and Charles Sembatya of Sasakawa Global 2000.
Ashland Oregon: Dr. Owen McDougal - Southern
Oregon University Chemistry professor and principal
investigator on briquette technology applications.
Other supporters of the briquette technology
development include:
Steve Troy of Sustainable Village; Claire and Jack Fincher/
practitioners; Mike Stanley/ Media Development; Kirsten
Paul /Web site development; Jeff Stanley/sound and video
graphics; Peter Stanley/extension training; USAID; The
Jane Marcher Foundation; UNDP; USAID; ADRA; Plan
International; GTZ and UNHCR; Special thanks to Michael
Lee (idesigncom.com) for his graphics design expertise
and patience in the production of this series of briquette
manuals.
 FUEL BRIQUETTES:

THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

FROM AROUND THE WORLD

© 2003, The Legacy Foundation

THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION

Bonding Theory and Basic Blending Process 2

Raw Materials and their Availability 4
Carrying Capacities of Various Landforms and
Land Uses, for Fuel Wood and Biomass Briquette Production 5
Table 1: Carrying Capacity: Fuel Wood from a Managed Woodlot 7
Table 2: Carrying Capacity: Non Wood Biomass Fuel Briquettes
off Small Scale Agricultural Land 8
Table 3: Carrying Capacity: Non-Wood Biomass Fuel Briquettes
off Non-Agricultural Land and Natural Landforms 9
Table 4: Carrying Capacity: Biomass Fuel Briquettes Based on
the Residues of Modern Urban Household 10
Burning Characteristics of Fuel Briquettes 11
Thermal and Emissions Tests 12
Gaseous and Ash Emissions: 13
Cooking, Heating and Other Applications 14
Using Fuel Briquettes in Conventional Wood & Charcoal Stoves 15
Use of Fuel Briquettes In a Braii 16
Special Fuel Briquette Stove Design:Continuous Feed Gasification Stove
Other Adaptations to Existing Stoves 16
Special Fuel Briquette Stove Design:
Continuous Feed Gasification Stove 17
Other Potential Uses of Fuel Briquettes 18
As a Closet Fumigant
As a Fuel Supply for Burning Bricks
As a Potting Media
Sample Blends and Their Applications from Around the World. 20
Recipes from Around the World 21
Hot Burning Fuel Briquettes for Braiis, Tea 23
Slow Steady Burn for Slow Cooking
High Temperature Medium/Short Burns as a Room Aromatic 24
High Temperature Long Burn for Mosquito Repellant and Room Fumigant
Use of Additives to Enhance the Heat Output 25
Long Slow Burn for Brickmaking, Lime Burning,
Water Heating or Commerical Use
Conclusion 26

THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
INTRODUCTION

Fuel Briquettes - made from everyday agricultural and commercial

residues such as weeds, leaves, sawdust, rice husks, carton board and
scrap paper – are a unique, yet well proven technology.

In many parts of the world, people are making this new and modern
fuel-saving time, saving energy, saving our environment and creating
income. Briquettes are unique because they provide a fuel wood alter-
native from resources that are right under your feet or in your waste-
basket! Briquettes can be made relatively quickly at a low cost to the
manufacturer or consumer and can be adapted and applied in a wide
variety of settings, making the briquettes appropriate, sustainable and
renewable.

The Legacy Foundation and its partners have tested the briquette mak-
ing process over ten years in a wide variety of environments and con-
ditions – in urban, sub urban and rural areas in Malawi, Haiti, Kenya,
Zimbabwe, Nicaragua, Peru, Mali and the United States. The produc-
ers who have participated in briquette training have become expert in
the process and able to adapt their own conditions, materials and
environment to the briquette production process.

This manual provides a detailed technical understanding

of the following:

■ Bonding theory,

■ Raw materials and their availability,

■ Burning characteristics,

■ Thermal and emissions testing,

■ Cooking and heating applications,

■ Other applications, and

■ An annotated listing of sample blends and their

applications from around the world.

Other manuals in our series include Fuel Briquette Press Kit: A

Construction Manual: a step by step guide in making a fuel briquette
press kit, Fuel Briquette Making: A Users Manual: a thorough guide to
the briquette making process and Fuel Briquettes: A Trainers Manual; a
guide for the trainer and those interested in expanding the briquette
making into a community income producing activity.

THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
 Bonding Theory and Basic
Blending Process
A key element of fuel briquette theory lies in the
bonding process. The theory is based on the ten-
dency of naturally occurring fibers to interlock when
randomly aligned in a pithy matrix. The wet bri-
quette process uses randomly aligned natural fibers
of agricultural residues (and other selected commer-
cially processed residues) to interlock and encapsu-
late each other forming a fuel briquette.
Wet process fuel briquettes are different to other,
conventional, commercial briquette technology in
that no glues or binders are used to make the fuel
briquette. Unlike the high pressure/high-tempera-
ture briquetting processes using sophisticated
machinery, which relies upon the melting of resins
within the material and/or the addition of some
form of special binder additive, the wet process is
simple and can be replicated anywhere there are
basic water sources and non woody agricultural
residues. Therefore, the process is particularly appli-
cable to use by the urban or rural poor.
The fibrous material used in the wet process is first
chopped, then left to soften, such that the associat-
ed fibers easily separate from the surrounding pithy
faction of the residues. The material is then blended
and partially pulped into a watery slurry with other
biomass or commercially processed residues
(paper, sawdust, rice husks, choir dust, etc.,) and
poured or sloughed into a porous mold. It is then
compressed and dewatered into a tightly bound
cake or briquette.
The bond is determined by the condition and avail-
ability of the fibers. Generally fibers of 0.5 to 3 cm
lengths are sufficient, although longer or shorter
fibers can be used depending upon what other
residues are anticipated in the recipe. The process
takes place at ambient temperatures and under
pressures attained by a manual lever press.
At one end of the continuum of blends, lies the
paper-based blend and at the other, the pure agro-
residue based blends. The theory of binding is the
2 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
same and almost any combination of the two is
possible, but the process of preparing the material is
different.
Whichever basic blend is used, the process
described here assumes use of only basic manual
equipment. As detailed in the Legacy Foundation
Manual, Fuel Briquette Making: A Users Manual, and
Fuel Briquette Making: A Trainers Manual, the use of
more sophisticated mechanized equipment for
blending (i.e. a hammer mill or specialised thresh-
er/masher/mulcher devices) may greatly reduce the
labor involved, but the principles for good briquette
making remain the same.
Two briquette-making processes are described
below to further clarify bonding theory:
Example one: Scrap Paper Based Process
The process can be done using only paper,
eliminating the agro-residue included steps.
1. Scrap paper (newsprint, stationary, photocopy,
wrapping, tissue etc.) is torn to shreds 5 cm in
width and 10 – 15 cm length, and soaked in a
simple pail or bucket of water for two days, or
until the paper can be readily rubbed into a
maché consistency with pieces not larger than 2
cm in diameter (thumbnail or cornflake size).
2. Four similar pails full of mashed dried grass /
straws / leaves is collected. If necessary, lay them
out to dry in the sun until they become crispy.
Pound into 2.5 cm long/wide sized pieces in a
mortar and pestle.
3. Pound the soaked paper adding water as neces-
sary until the fibers are soft and the mass sticks
together like crude paper maché or bread
dough.
4. Mix the broken leaves by the handful with the
paper in a bucket or pail. Add water as necessary
to give the mixture the consistency of a “slop”
for want of a better word. Up to 80% of the
total volume may end up being water. By vol-
ume the final mix will contain between 25% to
40% paper and between 60% to 75%, leaves.
5. The mass is then sloughed or poured (depending
upon its viscosity) into the briquette mold a per-
forated PVC pipe of 7.5 to 15 cm diameter and
compressed under a wooden piston, leaving
behind a hard cake which dries out in a few days
to form a briquette. For further details see the
companion guides: Fuel Briquette Making: A Users
Manual and Fuel Briquettes: A Trainers Manual.
3. As with any decomposition process this may not
occur uniformly throughout the mass. It might
be necessary to turn the row over to accomplish
uniform decomposition. Do this by opening up
the plastic sheet and lifting it in a jerking motion
all along one side. Repeat with the same motion
on the other side and re cover.

The use of scrap paper makes the process relatively

easy, because you do not have to rely upon decom-
position of the agro residues to do the binding.
That is accomplished by the fibers within the paper
which breaks apart easily and rapidly. You will how-
ever be restricted to a location where scrap paper is
readily available. As detailed later in this manual,
use of heavy concentrations of paper will also limit
in the kind of cooking or heating aroma that can be
produced. Chopped leaves about midway into decomposition

Example two: Agro Residue Based Process

In actual production some will prefer to use plastic
including misc. leaves grasses and straws,
stems fronds without any paper woven ‘gunny’ sacks, other homemade plastic
sacks, discarded water tanks or just open pits for
1. Pound the same dry, brown and somewhat brit- containing the material.
tle leaves grasses straws etc., into cornflake
(Thumbnail) sized pieces as below.

The same principles for decomposing and testing

Usual leaves grasses before chopping
2. Moisten the pounded leaves grasses and straws
etc. with water. Spread them out in the sun then
cover them with a tarpaulin until they become
soft. As with the composting process, this may
take several days or weeks depending on com-
position and local climate.
the mass apply for any container used. When the
mass becomes sludgy and warm, stop the decom-
position process by opening the plastic and expos-
ing the mass to the wind and sunlight.
The residues are now ready for ready for slurrying in
water and molding as in the above paper process.

THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World 3
 While heavy dependence upon agro-residues is
more challenging and requires more skill than the
paper-based process, it is more rewarding in terms
the increased varieties of aromas and cooking and
heating applications possible. It will also enables the
trained producer to apply the skills in almost any
environment, quite independent of the more urban
environments upon which the paper based recipes
depend.

Left: Agro-residue base with 20% charcoal fines:

Right: w/ 30% coffee husks

Generally one cannot add more than 50% (often

Decomposed leaves ready for blending
Both processes are commonly distinct from tradi-
tional high-pressure briquetting, in that they do not
require the addition of binders because the inter-
locked fibers hold the mass together. This fact
allows it to be applied more easily in a broad range
of environments and skill levels.
Whether paper-based or agro-residue based bri-
quettes are desired, the addition of pre-processed
commercial residues can reduce the total volume of
agro residue and/or paper material required by up
to 50%. Such wastes include sawdust, wood chips,
rice husks, coffee hulls, coir dust and charcoal fines.
not more than 40% of these “commercially
processed” granular materials) without causing a
blend to become too spongy and fall apart in the
testing process, as is detailed in Fuel Briquette
Making: A Users Manual, and Fuel Briquette Making: A
Trainers Manual,. Some samples are shown above.
Raw Materials and their
Availability
Raw Materials
The types of basic raw materials available for fuel bri-
quettes are almost infinite and include non-woody
agricultural residues, residues off natural landforms
forests and commercial processing wastes. The key
point to remember when thinking of these materials
for briquette usage, is that in all cases only dried
brown materials are used. “Fresher” /greener materi-
al contains soil minerals which do not add much to
thermal values, tend to smoke and, in the case of
burning chlorophyll, can be carcinogenic.

Other pre-processed materials like charcoal fines,

Note:
This agro residue-based briquette making process is
much more complicated than the above paper
based process in that considerable volumes of
material may accumulate and this material has to
be tended to daily during its decomposition. It is
the skill in efficiently managing and processing
these residues, which determines much of the via-
bility of a briquette production effort.
sawdust, wood chips and paper can also be added.
Paper readily breaks down and can serve as a starter
briquette material in that it binds other materials
without the normal required processing time and
effort of chopping and partial decomposition.
However not all pre-processed materials are useful.
Some forms of cardboard are bound with a glue
which will produce a well formed briquette but
which will not burn well and will smoke significantly
more than other fuels. Other natural materials have

4 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
a high starch content, which serves well to bind and
provide fill for the briquette but at the same time,
greatly retards combustion. As well, other processed
materials taken separately will burn well but when
combined have a neutralizing effect and vice versa.
Detailed burning theory, test data and recipes are
provided in subsequent sections of this manual. At
the level of blending effects and possibilities howev-
er, there is little precedent for the technology and
producers are all still learning daily. Never the less,
the many known combinations and their applica-
tions are discussed at the last section of this manual.
Much of the current knowledge on fuel briquetting
evolved during the implementation of various bri-
quette projects around the world and is detailed
below.
The key point to remember is that not all materials
combine harmoniously and the user should either
follow the tested recipes or do some testing before
a widespread introduction of a combination of non-
tested materials.
Availability
Most agricultural activity, natural landforms and
forests will generate some form of useable non-
woody biomass for briquetting. This part of the bio-
mass, which is not used for animal feed, housing
and construction and/or which is no longer useful
for soil conditioning is therefore available for the
fuel briquette making process. It is this dried nutri-
ent-leached biomass which is best for briquetting. It
is generated anew every season and it is far more
abundant than woody biomass. Added to this is
non woody biomass from trees, aquatic plants,
shrubs yielding leaves, fronds, ferns needles & cones
etc.
Availability of commercially processed biomass
(paper, sawdust, cardboard, rice husks, choir dust,
charcoal fines etc.) can only be assessed on a case-
by-case basis.
The tables below reflect the comparative “carrying
capacity” of useable biomass as briquetted fuel from
some of the more common agricultural crops, natu-
THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
ral landforms and natural forests. These are com-
pared to the carrying capacity of a well managed
woodlot in equivalent units of area. The information
thus far represents current understanding of
resource use, generalized over broad areas and will
be refined with increased exposure and feedback
from the producers. The tables are therefore best
used only as guidelines for the user in their own
local environment, and not as a hard and fast set of
data.
The source for much of the information is not
directly available through known published data as
yet. It has been derived through personal field
observations and discussions with agriculturalists,
agronomists and foresters in Malawi, Kenya, Haiti
and Peru, between years 1994 and 2003 and has
been augmented by studies conducted at the
University of San Antonio’s Biology department in
Cusco, Peru, Uganda’s National Biomass Study of
the Forest Department, Uganda’s National
Agricultural Research organization (NARO) and the
ICRISAT organisation in Kenya.
Finally, the tables below are prepared as stand alone
documents, as they may be needed individually in
assessing ones resources in the field.
Carrying Capacities of Various
Landforms and Land Uses for Fuel
Wood and Biomass Briquette
Production: Background on the
Tables
The following four tables outline the relationship
between biomass availability and sustainable heat
energy for the household. The tables cover:
■ Conventional fuel wood, as derived from man-
aged fuel wood lots or plantations;
■ Non-woody biomass off agricultural lands;
■ Non-woody biomass off natural, non agricultural
lands;
■ Paper and yard wastes off the modern urban
household.
5
 The first three tables apply primarily to lower eleva-
tions in the tropics and sub tropic environments.
We do not have substantial data as yet for other
environments. However, in most cases, the relation-
ships in the tables are direct and/or proportional:
Specific site data can be applied to easily assess the
"carrying capacity" for one's specific situation.
For example, In tropical to subtropical environments
sea level to 1500 meters: Briquette consumption
rates will likely be between 1.5 to 2.5 per person
per day in cooking environments ranging from
three stones to un-insulated chimney-less stoves. As
elevations increase to say 3000+ meters, for exam-
ple in the Peruvian Andes, the consumption rate
increases to between 3 and 4 briquettes per day,
under similar cooking conditions. With these same
elevations changes, fuel wood consumption
increases from 1.2 kg per person per day to as
much as 3.5 kg per person per day in the areas
studied. The demand on the land increases
proportionately.
The first three tables address only "on farm" agricul-
tural and directly available naturally occurring
residues off natural landforms. However, where
commercially processed bio matter is available, it is
highly sought after because it requires little or no
processing and tends to provide a more compact
form of energy. Examples include, waste paper and
cardboard, sawdust/wood shavings, charcoal fines,
choir dust and rice husks. Incorporation of such
materials in the blends, can reduce the on-farm and
naturally occurring biomass requirement by up to
50%.
The fourth table addresses the carrying capacity of
the waste generated by the modern urban house-
hold in the industrialized and developing nations. It
also estimates briquette use in the barbeque for that
household. As will be shown, the contribution of
the by-products of urban consumption can be as
important as a fuel source as it can be to preserving
the environment. Again however these are general-
ized data. There is, as yet, little precedence of large-
scale applications. The basic framework is provided
so the producer can apply their own data to assess
any given situation.
6 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
Although sanitary waste would also qualify as bio-
mass materials, the use of these materials, even
couched under such terms as "Bio solids" is normally
not encouraged due to the negative public image
and the risk of contamination. Animal wastes could
be used but these are far more effective when con-
verted to biogas.
Fuel wood and briquette consumption figures are
based on field observation (in the case of the bri-
quettes), and in the case of wood fuel, several pub-
lished studies. All presume in common, the predom-
inant use, in the developing nations, of relatively
inefficient three stone fires, non-insulated or poorly
insulated stoves with no, or poorly constructed
chimneys. Despite the fact that non woody biomass
in general has only 75 to 80% of the heat value of
woody biomass per unit weight, the briquette far
outperforms wood in the above basic burning con-
ditions. Its center hole provides an insulated com-
bustion chamber and a mini chimney, causing it to
burn at relatively high efficiencies even in the most
basic burning conditions.
Wood fuel, under the same basic burning condi-
tions, will generally burn extremely low efficiencies.
As the burning conditions are improved with use of
improved stoves, however, there is a marked
increase in wood fuel efficiency, but only a slight
improvement in the performance of the briquette.
The above tables address the prevailing reality of
inefficient burning appliances in the developing
nations. It also accepts that when everyone has
access to the several known 'improved stoves', there
would in fact be little need for briquettes.
Subsequent sections of these guidelines describe
measures to enhance fuel briquettes burning condi-
tions and stove usage.
Table 1: Carrying Capacity: Fuel Wood from a Managed Woodlot
In this scenario, two major types of wood lots are considered as these are the more typical in the develop-
ing nations. As the data emerges others will be added to complete the picture. The data conservatively pre-
sumes consistent management, few losses and no other use for the wood than as fuel wood.

Fuel Wood Center Total no. Years to Loss rate Sustain- Useable Sustainable Fuel wood Carrying
from a spacing planted harvest by able off fuel wood supply use rate capacity
managed (meters) per HA maturity maturity take wt/tree @ (Tons/Ha/Yr) (Kg/per- for a
woodlot (Trees Ha) (%) (No. Trees 60% son/day) Managed
/Ha/yr) recovery Wood lot:
(Kg/tree) (No. per-
sons sus-
tained
/Ha)

Broad
leaved tree
plantation
w/ 1.5 4444 6 20 593 50 30 1.2 68
Eucalyptus
(blue gum),
Cassia

Coniferous
tree planta-
tion w/ 2 2500 6 20 333 50 17 1.5 30
Pine,
cypress

Novel techniques of fuel wood lot management such as coppicing smaller branches seem to suggest far
higher yields are attainable. The figures vary widely. The eucalyptus of Cusco, up in the Peruvian Andes, has
a maturity time of nine years. The same genus and nearly similar species of eucalyptus will mature to the
same weight in two to three years in Uganda. Similarly, planting densities can vary from 1.2 meters to 2.5
meter centers– a shift which would alone result in a four fold difference in carrying capacity. Thus the data
is at best general at this stage but it does offer a structure for calculating capacities in the user's own area.

THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World 7
 Table 2: Carrying Capacity: Non Wood Biomass Fuel Briquettes off Small Scale
Agricultural Land
In this scenario, it is mainly the resources of the small-scale rural farmer that are under consideration, not
those on the larger plantations and estates. This table may have the most relevance because the biomass
technology and product itself is designed for production and use by the small farmer. The small-scale agri-
cultural land use pattern is generally the most prevalent in the low to mid lying elevations of the develop-
ing nations. The possible exception is sugar cane which is indicated simply because of its high output and
ready availability which, if not available on-farm, is most often available in local markets.

Non woody, Type of residue Dry weight Process Less %, for Net biomass Briquette Briquette Carrying
Agricultural potentially use- of harvested method feed, con- available weight use rate capacity using
Biomass off able for bri- biomass struction, (tons/Ha/yr) (Grams) (no./per small scale ag.
Small Scale quetting* (Tons/Ha/yr) soil son/day Crop residues
Farmland (No. pers./
Ha)
Maize Shucked cobs/ 3 Hammer 20 2.40 125 2.0 26
leaves/stalks milling
Wheat Chaff/ 3 Dehulling/ 20 2.40 125 2.0 26
husks/stems threshing
Rice Chaff/husks/ 3 -- do -- 20 2.40 125 2.0 26
straw
Coffee Husks 3 Shelling 5 2.85 125 2.0 31

Cassava Peels 3 Hand 10 2.70 125 2.0 30

peeling
Ground nuts Shells and 3 Shelling 5 2.85 125 2.0 31
stems
Potato Stems/roots 3 Hand 20 2.40 125 2.0 26
separation
Sorghum Chaff/husks/ 3 Dehulling/ 20 2.40 125 2.0 26
straw threshing
Millet Chaff/husks/ 3 -- do -- 20 2.40 125 2.0 26
straw
Pigeon peas Shells/stems/ 3 Threshing/ 20 2.40 125 2.0 26
leaves shredding
Bananas Peels, leaves, 3 Chopping/ 10 2.70 125 2.0 30
branches/trunks shredding
Sugar cane Crushed cane & 3 Crushing/ 75 0.75 125 2.0 8
leaves shredding

* Biomass in the form of agricultural residues is collected both in the field and off the threshing/milling dehulling etc.,
floor. In the field, it will be favored in its more browned and brittle stages (as opposed to the green/yellow nutrient rich
stage) because it is easier to collect, chop and process. Thus, rice for example, includes not only the hulls and the dust
from the threshing floor. but also the straw and stems left in the field.

8 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
Table 3: Carrying Capacity: Non-Wood Biomass Fuel Briquettes off Non-
Agricultural Land and Natural Landforms

Non-woody Type of dead Total pro- Process Less % Net biomass Briquette Briquette Carrying
dead bio- material used duction method reserved for available weight use rate capacity of
mass from for briquetting* (Tons/Ha/ ground (tons/H / (Grams) (no./pers./ non woody
natural year) cover/soil year) day fall off from
forests and natural
non agricul- forests and
tural lands non agricul-
tural lands
Tropical Leaves, twigs, Hammer
highland ferns, fronds, milling/
forest, needles 2 hand chop- 30 1.4 125 2.0 15
degraded & ping &
encroached shredding

Same forest
but fully -- do-- 3 -- do -- 20 2.4 125 2.0 26
stocked
Woodland, Leaves, twigs,
w/av. tree needles
height ≥ 4 2 -- do -- 10 1.8 125 2.0 20
meters.

Bushland Brush, straws.

with tree leaves, roots
bush height brambles 1.5 -- do -- 10 1.35 125 2.0 15
≤ 4 meters.

Grassland Grass straw,

brush 1.5 -- do -- 30 1.05 125 2.5 12

Wetlands, Straws, ferns,

Papyrus, fronds, stems,
Phragmites, vines, float, 5 -- do -- 50 2.5 125 2.5 27
reeds floats reeds, papyrus,
phragmites

The preferred non crop material is that which is dry and nutrient leached, because it is easier to gather, transport and
process. While wood twigs may be used, these should not exceed 5 mm diameter due to the difficulty of processing.
Hard acorn and other tree seed or nut materials should also not be used because they resist cracking and are hard to
process even under the more powerful hammermills.

THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World 9
 Table 4: Carrying Capacity: Biomass Fuel Briquettes Based on the Residues of
Modern Urban Household

In the industrialized nations and in the urban areas of the developing nations, the by-products of consumption are all
too evident. Much of this includes "Junk" mail, paper based packaging and yard wastes. These alone are filling up and
polluting landfills faster than they can be built. Shipping these wastes to distant nations may absorb the material, but
this incurs more pollution through the transportation process. If briquetted and consumed by the same household,
these free-and freely delivered- residues can provide useful heat for the hearth, the weekend barbeque and/or camp-
ing. In this scenario we assume a family size of five persons living in an urban suburban plot of 1/4 acre (≈ 0.1
Hectare).
Non- Materials Process Annual Briquette Briquettes No. Briquette No. heat- % cover-
woody used method production weight in used in BB'ques use in ing days age for
biomass less com- Grams = typical per year= hearth/wo per year = hearth/
off the post (Kgs/ No. bri- family bar- No. bri- od briquettes wood
urban house/yr) quettes beque quettes for stove/av. for heat- stove &
household produced BB'ques/yr winter day ing/yr BBQ per
& evening family

Junk mail All Yard chip-

per shred-
der/ 250

}
mulcher

Some Boxes, lin-

forms of ers fillers 125 5 120
cardboard wrapping, -- do -- 40 25 40 63%
packag- envelopes 3120 125 4800
ing*
Yard grass clip-
wastes pings yard
trimmings -- do -- 100
leaves,
weeds

* Unlike more basic burning conditions, fuel briquette use rate in a wood stove or barbeque will roughly approximate
wood and charcoal pellet use rates on a weight per weight basis. The above family may use a chord (≈ 200-250 kg)
of chopped wood, or its equivalent in fuel pellets or sawdust logs in northern and/or elevated regions for the
hearth/wood stove. Most families will use up to four sacks (4 - 6 kg of charcoal) a year in most climates for barbe-
ques, as above, the figures serve only as an example for adjustment to the reader's own situation. The changes are
directly proportional and easy to make. Given today's energy costs for wood, pellet or sawdust log and charcoal bri-
quette fuel, the use of the junk mail/yard waste fuel briquette can result in significant cost savings. It also directly
reduces cost and pollution associated with disposal of what would otherwise be considered waste materials.

10 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
Burning Characteristics of
Fuel Briquettes
In the previous tables, it was noted that the
observed use rate of the biomass fuel briquettes is
250 grams per person per day for cooking, in basic
burning conditions. Contrasted to this figure is the
widely reported–and repeatedly observed–figure of
1.2 Kg of fuelwood consumed per person per day in
the same conditions. Both figures are derived from
use in the common three stone or unimproved
metal stove by the mass populations of the develop-
ing nations. Yet, fuelwood is known to have a 20 to
30% greater heat capacity than biomass in its natu-
ral state!
This paradox is explained by the burning condition
or appliance used and the effect of the fuel bri-
quette’s hollow core in that environment.
The basic burning environment is observed most
often as either a small round metal un-insulated,
chimney-less stove or simply three stones on bare
earth. In these conditions, wood burns at only 6 to
10 percent efficiency.
The fuel briquette on the other hand is right at
home in such conditions: It is its own self contained
stove with its insulated central core which concen-
trates radiant energy and conserves heat in the com-
bustion chamber while providing a draft through its
‘mini-chimney’. As further verification, the incorpora-
tion of an insulated combustion chamber and chim-
ney (as in many of the emerging improved stoves),
greatly improves wood performance.
THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
The hollow core fuel briquette in general burns in a
unique fashion. They appear to be burning like
wood, then charcoal at the same time.
There are three essential guidelines for optimizing
heat output of any fuel briquette.
Air Flow
Good airflow is critical to a good burn with these
fuel briquettes. It is particularly important to allow
good air access to the bottom of the fuel briquette.
Failure to do so will result in a smoky burn.
While the fuel briquette has its own mini chimney
the effect can be considerably enhanced with the
addition of a simple chimney or sheet metal tube
Above left: Startup without stack about 2 minutes into burn.
Above right: same fire 15 sec after insert of tube.
Below: 30 minutes into burn with die back to glowing embers. Time
to remove the tube.
which is slightly smaller than the diameter of the
combustion area and between 30 and 40 cm height
(a water pail or a paint tin with bottom removed
works fine). The tube causes far faster ignition with
less smoke and higher initial burning intensities, but
it can also consume the fuel briquette more quickly.
For that reason, such tubes are ideal for start up but
then they are best removed as the fuel briquette
dies back to glowing embers.
11
 A few ideas have emerged for automatically raising
the combustion chamber or collapsing the tube as
the flames die back but as yet these appear too
complicated, costly and/or unreliable for practical
adaptation by the mass user.
Ash Removal
Even the most well made fuel briquettes produce
lots of very wispy, unconsolidated, white ash. While
this indicates a relatively good burn, it mandates a
grill shape below the burning fuel briquettes, which
can let these ashes easily slough off to the bottom
without choking essential airflow to the fuel bri-
quette. This is particularly essential in the latter
ember stages of the burn where the red glow of the
embers needs to be “seen” (as much as infrared
radiation can be seen) to provide useful radiant
heat. The Kenyan clay lined Jiko/Stove, ideal for
short bits of wood and charcoal, is of dubious bene-
fit to the fuel briquette because its relatively small
and downward tapered holes tend to clog up easily.
Position of Fuel Briquette
For any particular type of briquette, you will get a
longer and more efficient flame if you keep the bri-
quette upright, letting it burn primarily through the
center hole. This is due to the chimney effect of the
Red arrows indicate three of the many hole positions in this clay-
lined stove. Only foreground hole remains unclogged.
hole, which raises the combustion temperature and
makes the burn far more efficient. If you desire
quick and widely diffused heat, then break the bri-
quette into three or four pieces by stomping on its
long side with your foot. For any given type of fuel
briquette, this will ensure a faster start up but a
quicker burn. Even with this method, if you are
12 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
using fuel briquettes on the ground, try to ensure
that the pieces are raised slightly to let air flow
underneath.
Fuel briquettes are social animals: They seem to per-
form far better when stuffed into a fire together
than if burned individually. We surmise that it is due
to compounding effect of heat re-radiance between
the fuel briquettes and added insulative effect that
this compacted configuration has on the combus-
tion area itself.
Thermal and Emissions Tests
In conjunction with Southern Oregon University’s
Chemistry faculty and the Department of the
Interiors Forensics laboratory, tests were conducted
on basic thermal and emissions performance of
selected fuel briquette blends containing “junk” or
as the US postal service prefers to term it “bulk busi-
ness” mail . The tests were designed to assess possi-
ble pollution in the form of ash or airborne particu-
lates arising from the combustion of the inks (partic-
ularly chromium and cadmium) and or other com-
ponents involved in paper making (particularly tita-
nium –used as a whitener) .
The results, as published in the American Chemical
Society’s “Chemical Innovation Journal “ (Volume
31, No. 2, February 2001) indicated no detectable
levels of emissions in either the ash or gaseous emis-
sions of the colored ink-rich junk mail fuel briquette.
The research design and test results are summarized
below for the interested reader:
“An apparatus was constructed for burning fuel bri-
quettes, wood pellets, charcoal, and firewood. While
analyzing for the presence of toxic chemicals given off
during the combustion of the fuel briquette, it was also
desired to evaluate how much heat was given off by
burning fuel briquettes compared with more common
wood based fuels. Thus, the investigation of toxicity
also led to a heat output study.
The combustion chamber was designed to act as a
well-ventilated fireplace. A chimney (positioned a few
cm above the combustion chamber and not connected
to it) was devised from several open-ended coffee cans
connected in series with a length of flexible aluminum
ventilation piping. The pipe was connected to the top
of the coffee cans and angled down, for the purpose of
cooling the smoke and deflecting the flames.
A Buchner funnel was placed at the end of the alu-
minum pipe to collect emission particulate matter for
later study by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy.
Aluminum foil was used to seal any openings in the
apparatus. A thermodynamic analysis was performed
using a Vernier thermocouple connected to a PC inter
face and referenced in an ice bath (0 ¡C). The thermo-
couple was placed 16 cm above the fuel source for each
of the materials sampled.
Plot of Temperature versus Time for hollow core “junk mail” fuel
briquettes, ordinary wood pellets for pellet stoves and charcoal as
derived from ordinary barbeque “pillow” charcoal fuel briquettes.
Temperature readings, recorded in 0.6-second inter-
vals, were plotted against time. A Meeker burner was
used to ignite the source, whereupon it was allowed to
combust to completion.
The fuel briquette ignited within 2 minutes and
reached a peak temperature of 816 0C.
Wood pellets took a longer time to ignite and achieved
a maximum temperature of 733 0C.
THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
Both the fuel briquette and the wood pellets were com-
pletely combusted within 45 min.
Charcoal burned for approximately 2 h with a maxi-
mum temperature of 227C.
The oak wood sticks, used to represent common fire-
wood, did not burn long enough for reasonable tem-
perature data to be collected.
These data indicate that not only does the hollow core
fuel briquette releases amounts of heat comparable to
those of other common biomass based fuel sources on
a similar weight basis under similar burn conditions,
but that the pattern of release is more instantaneous
under these same conditions. As other, more carbonif-
erous residues are added to the blend, the curve for
the briquette may tend to extend more to the right as
has been suggested from observations in Kangemi,
Kenya where 45% charcoal fines are added routinely
to the blend. Ignition time is nearly the same but the
duration of the burn extends to an hour and a half.
Admittedly however, the phenomena has not yet been
empirically tested under the same conditions as set
forth in the above tests, owing to a lack of resources.
Gaseous and Ash Emissions:
A vacuum generated by a water aspirator collected the
gaseous emissions on a piece of filter paper held in a
Buchner funnel. The remaining residue from combus-
tion was collected directly.
The fuel briquette emissions contained copper, iron,
calcium, and silicon, and the residue contained calci-
um, iron, zinc, and titanium. The XRF spectrometer is
able to detect the presence of elements above an
atomic number of 10. This means that Carbon, the
element expected to be present in the greatest abun-
dance from combustion of any biomass, would not
have been detected.
13
 The elements above an atomic number of 10 were In conclusion, these preliminary studies have shown
detected in the range of parts per thousand. The fuel that the fuel briquettes can compete with other heat
briquettes showed signs of titanium, as would be sources and that they appear to burn cleanly. We
expected from the paper-whitening process. A litera- are satisfied, from a chemical standpoint, based on
the above laboratory tests at least, that the fuel bri-
quettes burn as cleanly as charcoal, firewood, or
XFR Analysis Results of Combustable Fuels
commercially sold wood pellets.”
Fuel Source Detected Detected
Elemental Elemental Cooking, Heating and Other
Composition of Composition of
Gaseous Ash
Applications
Emissions
Three Stone Open Fire
Fuel Briquette Cu, Fe, Ca, Si Cu, Fe, Ze, Ti
Fuel briquettes work well on the open, three stone
Fuel Pellets Cu Fe, Ca, K, Mn fire provided one allows at least 3 cm gap between
the fuel briquette and the ground. Use whatever is
Oak Cu Ca, Cu handy to accomplish this clearance, three small
stones are fine. If you have a large meal to cook on
Charcoal Cu Co, Fe, Ni, K an open fire you will need to ensure some access for
ash removal as well, as noted above.
Chemical elements detected through gaseous and ash emissions of
combusted fuel briquette, wood pellets, charcoal, and oak wood, in
order of most-to-least abundant.

ture search revealed that titanium dioxide (the com-

bustion product of titanium) is not classified as a
human carcinogen. There was no sign of the chromi-
um or cadmium that was expected from the colored
inks. This lack is attributed to a lower concentration of
these metals than could be detected by the spectrome-
ter. Future atomic absorption spectroscopy experiments
will need to be performed to detect chromium and
cadmium in the range of parts per million.

Admittedly, the above tests have been basic. A broader The ubiquitous three stone fireplace for cooking the daily Nsima in
Mchinji, Malawi
study needs to be conducted with a wider variety of
blends and technical resources, using the actual cook-
ing and heating application. We are interested in
determining the levels of potentially toxic substances to
the range of parts per million. In addition, the use of
bomb calorimetry would give exact numbers for the
amount of heat generated by the fuel briquette as
compared with other heating and cooking fuel sources.
(The latter is now ongoing as time and financial
resources permit).

14 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World

Equally ubiquitous metal Mbaola or Jiko in Mangochi Malawi, but
widely used in East, Central & Southern Africa
Using Fuel Briquettes In Conventional
Wood & Charcoal Stoves
Fuel briquettes are used in a variety of conventional
stoves without difficulty. However there are two
guidelines that should be taken into account. These
essentially follow the earlier precautions: air flow
and ash removal.
The bottom of most conventional stoves might have
to be modified to provide at least six 1.5" dia
(~37mm) diameter holes. This is easy to accomplish
in the basic street jiko or tin stove but it becomes
World Bank stove design cooking fries /chips (potatoes)
in Bamako, Mali
THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
much more of an issue when one adapts the more
recent clay lined stove. Here ash removal can be a
distinct problem because their grate holes are too
small to permit the fuel briquette's ashes to easily
slough off into the base. This effectively clogs air-
flow, requiring frequent cleaning of the holes to
keep the fire going efficiently. Other more open
grate stove designs, whether of clay or metal, tend
to fare better with fuel briquettes.
Conventional chicken “Polleria” Barbecue in Cusco, Peru)
Fuel briquettes make great barbeque fuel, especially
when cooking fatty meats and chicken. The notion
of hickory smoked, mesquite or oak seasoned, aro-
mas from the west can for once be supplanted by
such unique indigenous aromas as "mulange cedar",
"blue gum" or "guava pine".
Frying Pork rinds in Cusco Peru
15
 Use Of Fuel Briquettes In A Braii
The common large scale Barbeque, ‘Barbie’ or ‘Braii’
comes in a wide assortment of shapes and sizes.
Shown here is a common design made out of one-
half of an oil drum. As per the above requirements
for efficient burning of fuel briquettes, the braii
should be fitted with an intermediate grate to allow
adequate air flow and ash removal. The typical half
drum design shown can be fitted with a grate (of
either 1/2 inch (12 mm) diameter round bars
spaced about 1 inch apart or with an equivalent size
opening of wire mesh) raised about 7.5 cm (3") off
the bottom surface of the drum. In addition, three
to four 3 cm dia holes are made in both of the The traditional clay stove found in Puma and Cusco departments
(districts) is a cheap lightweight and versatile three-pot design.
opposite flat ends of the drum as an air inlet below
the grate to ensure adequate airflow to the fuel bri-
quettes from beneath the grate.

Xray side view of same stove with grate and proposed baffle door
Other Adaptations To Existing installed. Grate is at least 3cm above floor and has a 3 to 5cm grid
spacing.
Stoves
In addition of the grate, some existing designs can
be dramatically improved by simple additions of
insulated materials to increase the temperature of
the combustion chamber.

Typical clay stove used in Puno and Cusco.

Addition of a grille and a door to this same stove (above, right, cen-
ter drawing) can significantly augment its performance, especially Grill with grate to let air in beneath the fuel briquettes. Grill also
when adapting fuel briquettes. fitted with a front baffle/door to build heat in combustion chamber
and direct it upward to grille.

16 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
Special Fuel Briquette Stove Design: Continuous Feed Gasification Stove
Although far from proven in the field, the conceptual design ((below) for a continuous feed gasification stove, is based
on substantial theory and practical tests conducted globally. This stove is promising not only for conventional combus-
tion of volatiles, but partial gasification of the charred core that remains. Gasification is an exciting possibility because of
the high and relatively clean energy output the process generates.

Attaining a workable and affordable design for the developing nations is a challenge, which hundreds of enthusiasts and
entrepreneurs are at work on continuously. The concerned reader is encouraged to join such groups as the CREST
Stoves Newsgroup or Approvecho Institute to learn more about the stove.

Few current stove designs utilize fuel briquettes as well as they could because of their relatively restricted grate size which
chokes off the air flow by preventing the ashes to fall through to the bottom. In addition, many of the high mass stoves
actually use as much fuelwood as three stones because their earth or clay lined combustion chamber serves as an ener-
gy draining heat sink rather than a insulating medium, over the relatively short time cooking heat is required.

THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World 17

Other Potential Uses Of Fuel
Briquettes
As a Mosquito Repellent or as a
General Room Aromatic
Although not documented technically, some report
that the aroma from blue gum/eucalyptus trees
tends to repel mosquitoes. Similarly, fuel briquettes
made from blue gum leaves provide a strong aroma
of eucalyptus and have the same effect. The aroma
is noticed just in pre-heating the fuel briquettes.
They do not necessarily have to be burned to create
the effect.
In this application, fuel briquettes will be in serious
price competition with large logs. In their bulk
form, such logs are usually hauled from forest
reserves in large truckloads and dumped directly at
the site. Per volume or weight, this form of fuel-
wood is comparatively inexpensive, as there is little
value added in chopping, transporting and reselling
it at the market. As well, labor costs are usually low-
est in such rural areas. Per heat unit output, there-

The advantage here is that by merely positioning

such fuel briquettes around a well-ventilated fire to
be preheated, one can realise the benefit of the
aroma without the negative consequences of inhal-
ing the smoke. The same process can be applied to
create a pleasant aroma with the use of cedar wood
chips. Other aromatic wood chips should work just
as well in these fuel briquettes although to date, this
has not been tried. Such fuel briquettes are of
course eventually burned, but not before they have
contributed their aromatic qualities to the room
through the preheating process.
As a Closet Fumigant
Like the cedar wood closet, which prevents moths,
two or three fuel briquettes with a significant per-
centage of cedar wood chips will tend to have the
same effect when placed in the standard closet or
Almirah; and they last for several weeks. They of
course can be burned for functional purposes, after
the aroma leaves the fuel briquette.
As a Fuel Supply for Burning Bricks
Fuel briquettes have not yet been tested for their
effectiveness in burning bricks or slaking lime. They
are likely to face a unique economic challenge in
such a test.
Typical brick making kiln, Mangochi Malawi, Central
fore, use of wood for brick kilns is likely to be far
less expensive than use of fuel briquettes. The envi-
ronmental issues are however far more profound
and there may be ‘no cutting’ policy issues which
favors briquetting, nonetheless. A careful analysis
should be done before investing time and resources
in briquetting in such situations.
As a Potting Media
The idea behind using a fuel briquettes as a potting
media originated with the mentor of the technolo-
gy, Dr Ben Bryant who notes that a simple modifica-
tion to the mold allows the user to form a seed pot,
which can easily incorporate fertilizer and other
nutrients to support plant growth.
The advantage of creating a durable seed pot out of
the nutrient material itself would obviate the need
for a plastic bag, which in addition to its disposal
problems is often as costly as the fertilizer itself.

18 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World

Seed pot briquette made from choir dust and fertilizer filler. Semenis
ltd., Comitan, Mexico
To make a Seed Pot Fuel briquette, the normal fuel
briquette mold is modified in the following manner:
compost and other nutrients, the material will now
flow around the base of the guide pipe forming a
fuel briquette with deep closed pocket with a small
pinhole at one end, instead of a full center hole.
When dried the seed pot fuel briquette can receive
the seedling in this pocket. Once filled with the
seedling, the center area of the fuel briquette is
then moistened for storage and eventual use. In the
ground this potting media is more environmentally
friendly: It “decomposes” naturally and completely.
The money spent on the pot generates local capaci-
ty and enhances local incomes while replacing
money otherwise wasted on the plastic jacket.

1) Carve a tapered wood plug of about 30 – 50 The Legacy Foundation is regularly conducting tests
mm length and of sufficient diameter to fit tight- on fuel briquette usage and always appreciates
ly into the end of the “3/4”” GS metal center users' feedback on new and innovative usages and
guide pipe. Next drive a 75 to 90 mm long nail recipes for fuel briquette making.
about 3 – 4 mm in diameter, into the center of
this plug such that it becomes a center pin. The
exposed end of this nail is then cut to a 30 mm
length. The nail end should then be beveled and
made smooth to the touch.

2) Fill the center ring hole with a disk similar thick-

ness wood to effectively close the hole. This filler
can then be nailed in place with small brads or
glued with waterproof glue. Next drill a 5– 6
mm diameter hole into the
center of the disk in the center
hole, to a depth of 5 to 8 mm.

When the guide pipe is placed Use In The Home Hearth In The United States
on the centering ring, the
exposed nail is fit into this
small hole in the base plate,
leaving the guide pipe to rest
20 – 25 mm ABOVE the base
plate.

When the mold is filled with

THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World 19
 Sample Blends and Their
Applications from Around the
World.
General Notes on Recipe Development:
The use of dried yellow/brown grasses and straws
greatly accelerates the decomposition of the more
resistant materials due to inherent differences in pH.
Similar effects can be realized by addition of lye
derived from the water leached through wood
ashes (This is a common and traditional way of
making soap). However obvious health precautions
and management issues arise in using lye. Generally,
unless very resistant materials are encountered it
may be more optimal for the micro entrepreneur to
rely upon natural processes.The kind of materials
and their qualities overall will vary significantly from
location to location. One should use these observa-
tions only as guidelines for investigating and com-
piling a specific list for their own site.
20 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
The use of coffee husks for example is being tested
in Uganda. In and of themselves the husks are hard
to compress and give off an unpleasant odor. In
combination with other agro-residues however they
can be encapsulated into a relatively tight mass and
one that retains a pleasant aroma. The husk itself
adds a good heat value and is of great abundance in
Uganda, as coffee is a major export crop. Testing to
develop the ideal blend is ongoing at this writing.
The water hyacinth presents a special case. As a nui-
sance weed it is very hardy. It seeds can lay dor-
mant for up to fifteen years then reproduce under
the right wet conditions . It is recommended to har-
vest the weed BEFORE it flowers, for that reason.
The weed dries to a few percent of its original
weight and is easily broken apart when dry. Its
waxen leaves, which contribute to its prevalence in
water, serve to add heat value in the burning fuel
briquette. It, like the coffee husk, does not burn
with a particularly pleasant aroma, hence the search
for complimentary blends is almost always essential
for any one location. The contribution of water
hyacinth removal from the lakes and waterways in
the tropics of Africa, however, needs no elaboration.
As mentioned earlier, the use of paper greatly
reduces the overall effort of material preparation,
but it will negatively effect the aroma and burning
efficiency of natural materials. Finally, it is also reiter-
ated that addition of commercially processed granu-
lar materials — sawdust, charcoal fines, rice husks
etc, can reduce, by up to half, the volume of agro
residues required. Generally adding more than this
amount will tend to overwhelm the bonding effect
of the agro-residue fibers (and of paper) and the
fuel briquette will tend to lose durability and fall
apart upon drying.
Charcoal fines (the piles of small chips and grains of
charcoal associated with the urban charcoal sellers )
are a popular ingredient for fuel briquettes. They are
easily gathered and as easily processed and will typi-
cally command a premium price at the local mar-
kets, due to their high-energy content.
The use of the existing charcoal fines will reduce the
visual pollution of the waste heaps, which naturally
tend to accumulate around charcoal sales sites but
the advantage extends beyond just that effect
alone. Given a competitive market and competitive
pricing, the influence of introduction of charcoal-
based fuel briquettes on overall charcoal production
would tend to actually REDUCE demand for char-
coal: Here are the calculations for comparison to
your own area.
Some 30,000 tons of charcoal wastes are gener-
ated through distribution and sales of 120,000
tons of charcoal in Kampala each year. The maxi-
mum possible concentration is 40% charcoal
fines, or 60 grams per briquette. The use rate
would be about two briquettes per day, per per-
son for this area (or 1.2 x 365=) 438 kg/person/
year. Therefore, 30,000 tons/.438 tons =
685,000 persons who could theoretically benefit,
if all the fines were briquetted. Dynamically how-
ever, one enters a diminishing returns argument.
THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
The more fines used for fuel briquettes, the less
charcoal sold and therefore, the less fines avail-
able. The 30,000 tonnes of fine = 25% of the
total charcoal supply of 120,000 tonnes. Both
the fines and the solid charcoal are to feed a
maximum market of 1,000,000 persons.
Therefore;
0.25x + 1.00 x = 1,000,000
1.25x = 1,000,000
x = 800,000 = the optimum number
of charcoal users
.25 x = 200,000 = the optimum number
of charcoal briquette users
In other words, overall charcoal demand can be
reduced by up to 25%, where charcoal fines are
briquetted and sold competitively in the same
market.
The above is of course based on an ideal world: It
suggests equal or greater acceptance of charcoal-
based fuel briquettes in a charcoal-based economy
and would require extensive investigation of the
production costs and more importantly market reac-
tion to the charcoal-based fuel briquette in any par-
ticular area. To our ten year’s experience in seven
different nations, in observing hundreds of training
and production activities, charcoal briquettes are
generally preferred over charcoal because they are
uniform in shape, more easily transported and
stored and cheaper than charcoal. Our production
and training manuals elaborate on costing and pric-
ing of the fuel briquette in actual micro enterprise
production settings.
Recipes from Around the World
Below are some general sample blends or recipes
from around the world. These are the tip of the ice-
berg, because for every climate, culture, and land
use pattern, there arise hundreds of variants, opti-
mized to local conditions and demands. It was once
mentioned by on astute observer that the fuel bri-
quettes are to wood and charcoal fuel what the
Moosewood Vegetarian Cookbook was to steak and
21
 chips. Use these as only a guide for your own envi-
ronment and share your experience with the grow-
ing network of users. There is little advantage to
hording blends from other fuel briquette makers
because each recipe generally has such a wide vari-
ety of resources and applications to choose from. As
well, the product quality and cost relies heavily
upon the producer’s own skills.
That said, here then are a few of the more generic
blends from around the world.
Mango Leaves and Waste Paper
60% mango leaves 40% waste paper or carton
board: The waste paper and/or carton board must
be fully shredded and processed for an effective fuel
briquette. Too large a proportion of carton board
can cause excessive smoking during burning due
use of certain glues in making the cardboard.
Mango Leaves
100% Mango leaves produces a good burning fuel
briquette: The mango leaf generally is easily pound-
ed and rapidly decomposed. Ensure that the leaves
are fully dry before composting.
Maize Leaves and Mango
20% maize covers, dried and composted with 80%
mango leaves: This produces a long burning fuel
briquette; but low heat due to high starch content
of Maize
Cashew Leaves and Waste Paper
40% cashew leaves, 60% paper or carton board:
This produces a long burning fuel briquette.
Acacia Leaves and Waste Paper
60% acacia leaves, 40% waste paper/cardboard:
This produces a quick burning fuel with a pleasant
fragrance.
Misc. Deciduous Tree Leaves and
Sawdust
20% Sawdust, 80% misc. deciduous tree leaves:
This produces a slow burning fuel briquette. Be sure
it is fully dried and it will produce little smoke in the
burning process. The type of sawdust used will dra-
matically effect the aroma.
22 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
Sawdust, Misc. Deciduous Leaves and
Waste Paper
20% sawdust, 20% paper, 60% leaves: This recipe
can be easier to make for city dwellers who have
less access to agricultural raw materials. A slow
burning, hot fuel briquette results.
Misc. Leaves, Grasses and Waste Paper
Particularly of use in the “junk mail”-laden urban
household in the industrialized nation, this blend
offers the possibility off consuming freely delivered
wastes while unburdening the overburdened urban
landfills. Up to 40% waste paper can be used, the
balance blended according to desired aroma for the
hearth, barbeque &/or campfire. Pine, Cedar hicko-
ry blended with the yard clippings and yesterday’s
freely delivered junk mail are some of the more
common variants. The more sappy pine and cedars
produce intense flames with equally intense aromas:
Poplar leaves and grasses will blend more easily but
will retard combustion with little added aroma. It’s a
new substitution ritual for the wood chopping (or
plastic wrapped wood buying) experience.
Waste Paper and Cardboard
Blends of pure cardboard and waste paper produce
a quick burning fuel briquette, but not one which is
very hot or of a particularly pleasant aroma. The
advantage is that they (particularly the paper domi-
nant blends) are the easiest to make and amongst
the most durable to store. Paper breaks down rapid-
ly in water and will pass the tests for fiber integrity,
porosity and spring-back easily. Note that some
kinds of carton board have a certain glue content
that will retard burning and generate smoke. The
amount of glue seems to vary considerably from
place to place.
Misc. Grass, Leaves and Straws Only
100% grass/leaves/straw: This combination pro-
duces a very hot slow burning, relatively smokeless
fuel briquette if all materials are completely dry
before processing and if the fuel briquettes have
been thoroughly dried. The key is to assure that
dried brown and not green yellow wet residues are
used.
Hot Burning Fuel Briquettes for Slow Steady Burn for Slow Cooking
Braiis, Tea Recipe 1: Blue Gum/Eucalyptus and paper
Recipe 1: Peanut Shells, Paper and Leaves 60% Eucalyptus and 40% paper
Peanut shells 25%, waste paper/carton board 50%,
Recipe 2: Blue Gum
leaves 25%: A good, hot fire.
100% Blue gum
Recipe 2: Tree leaves
Recipe 3: Field Grasses
Certain leaves like the masuku or chisale in Malawi
100% Field grasses
burn very hot for barbecues.
My own recipes:
Recipe 3: Tree leaves with paper
Hot burning tree leaves with paper can be very
effective.
My own recipes:

THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World 23
 High Temperature Long Burn for High Temperature Medium/Short
Mosquito Repellant and Room Burns as a Room Aromatic
Fumigant Recipe 1: Cedar/sawdust/leaves
Recipe 1: Eucalyptus Cedar wood / sawdust chips 25%, misc. leaves
100% Eucalyptus with leaves well decompose and 50%, waste paper/carton board 25%
mashed.
My own recipes:
Recipe 2: Cedar
60% cedar chips/sawdust 40% either agricultural
products or paper.
My own recipes:

24 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
Long Slow Burn for Brickmaking, Use of Additives to Enhance the Heat
Lime Burning, Water Heating or Output
Commerical Use The average fuel briquette has the same heat value
Recipe 1: Tobacco Bale Paper and leaves as soft wood. It is highly absorptive and will virtually
Tobacco bale paper (has tar inside) 40%, acacia inhale such additives as used motor oil, the waste
leaves 60%. sludge (foots) of vegetable oil processing and other
combustible liquids. Simply dip the already dried
Note: these are not for domestic or commercial
fuel briquette into a pan with one to two cm of the
food preparation
liquid for a few seconds. More than five seconds is
My own recipes: rarely necessary, as you will find that the fuel bri-
quette absorbs the liquid almost evenly throughout
its mass rather quickly. The rate of absorption will
however depend upon the viscosity and other char-
acteristics of the liquid, as well as the porosity of
fuel briquette itself.

Depending on the additive,the added heat can be

substantial, or it can actually retard heat output but
it is rarely essential for the average cooking applica-
tion. Do not use petroleum by products for fuel
briquettes that are to be used in cooking.

THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World 25
 Conclusion
The Fuel briquettes you make have great potential
to be used for fuel that will save our environment
and provide many with employment.

While no social taboos against fuel briquette making

exist to our experience, it is nonetheless a new
product and one that will challenge traditional fuel
wood usage in any part of the world. Fuel bri-
quettes therefore require strong initial promotion to
gain wide public acceptance. They cannot be intro-
duced casually. Fuel briquettes must be treated like
a new product and become as popular as, for
example, Coca-Cola. The broad public acceptance is
what attracts the entrepreneurs to produce a posi-
tive economic and social impact in your area.

This manual has focused on new material.

Admittedly, much will be superceded as more expe-
rience is gathered from the practitioner, trainer, pro-
gram manager and researcher. We hope to have
provided the reader with guidline information for
further adaptation.

Legacy Foundation provides:

■ Other training guides in the fuel briquette
making process,

■ Comprehensive training of trainers programs

and services,

■ Marketing support and

■ Technical consulting and backstopping for those

committed to fuel briquette making.

For further information on training programs, or to

order other manuals, please visit our web site
www.legacyfound.org

We are building a global fuel

briquette making network and
welcome your input and insights.

26 THE LEGACY FOUNDATION 2003 —Fuel Briquettes: Theory and Applications from Around the World
 Technology, Management,

Training and Media Services

for Sustainable Development

4886 Highway 66 Ashland, Oregon, 97520 USA

Tel: 541 • 448-1559
Fax: 541 • 488-6402
E-mail: info@legacyfound.org
Web Site: www.legacyfound.org