Accepted Manuscript

Applications of hyperspectral imaging for quality assessment of liquid based and

semi-liquid food products: A review

Antonietta Baiano

PII: S0260-8774(17)30254-6
DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.06.012
Reference: JFOE 8917

To appear in: Journal of Food Engineering

Received Date: 21 December 2016

Revised Date: 6 June 2017
Accepted Date: 7 June 2017

Please cite this article as: Baiano, A., Applications of hyperspectral imaging for quality assessment of
liquid based and semi-liquid food products: A review, Journal of Food Engineering (2017), doi: 10.1016/
j.jfoodeng.2017.06.012.

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1 Applications of hyperspectral imaging for quality assessment of liquid based and

2 semi-liquid food products: A review

4 Antonietta Baiano

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5 Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, degli Alimenti e dell’Ambiente, University of Foggia, Via Napoli,

6 25 - 71122 Foggia, Italy

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8 Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 881 589249

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10 E-mail address: antonietta.baiano@unifg.it (Antonietta Baiano).
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13 Abstract

14 The food industry must maintain high quality and safety standards. These goals can be achieved by

15 applying analytical procedures able to provide information about composition, structure,

16 physicochemical properties, and sensory characteristics of foods. The conventional analytical

17 techniques are often time-expensive and unsuitable to be used on line, and require sample

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18 preparation. Instead, the modern food industry requires efficient and non-invasive inspection

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19 technologies able to provide information about external and internal quality attributes of food. An

20 example is given by hyperspectral imaging, which allows the obtainment of spatial, spectral, and

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21 multi-constituent information. This note provides an up-to-date review on the major applications of

22 hyperspectral imaging to liquid and semi-liquid food products (oils, milk, yogurt, and eggs).

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24 Keywords:
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25 Hyperspectral

26 Image analysis
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27 Liquid food
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28 Machine vision

29 Optical properties
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30 Quality evaluation
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31 1. Introduction

32 In order to meet the need of modern consumers to make informed purchase decisions and

33 their preference for food products with high quality and affordable price, the food industry must

34 maintain high-quality standards and assurance of product safety. Furthermore, the whole supply

35 chain has focused its attention on the identification of origin as an important step in ensuring food

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36 safety and quality. These goals can be achieved by applying efficient and low cost technologies for

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37 quality and safety inspection (Fluvià Sabio, 2015).

38 Different analytical techniques are available as official methods of analysis for

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39 characterizing food properties. These analytical procedures are used to provide information about

40 composition, structure, physicochemical properties, and sensory characteristics of foods. They have

41
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been chosen on the basis of requisites such as selectivity, accuracy, repeatability, reproducibility,
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42 limit of detection, limit of quantification, sensitivity, and applicability under the normal laboratory
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43 conditions (Codex Committee on Methods of Analysis and Sampling, 2012). Nevertheless, they

44 often have some weakness points, being time-expensive, difficult to be used by unskilled workers,
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45 unsuitable to be used on line during processing and needing of sample preparation.

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46 When developing a new analytical technique, in addition to the above listed requirements,

47 the way in which the analyte can be distinguished from the matrix need to be understood. It can
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48 depend on differences in their molecular characteristics (size, shape, polarity, electrical charge,

49 interactions with radiation), physical properties (density, rheology, optical properties, electrical
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50 properties, phase transitions), and chemical reactions between the component of interest and added

51 reagents (http://people.umass.edu/~mcclemen/581Introduction.html).

52 The modern food industry requires efficient and non-invasive inspection technologies. In

53 this direction, significant advances have been obtained thanks to computer technology and

54 instrumental engineering (Fluvià Sabio, 2015). In particular, machine vision systems have emerged

55 as powerful methods for inspection of visual attributes in several agricultural and food products

56 including fruits and vegetables, bakery products, meat products, fish, and prepared consumer foods

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57 (Al-Marakeby et al., 2013; Davidson et al., 2001; Tan and Shatadal, 2001; Mery et al., 2011;

58 Pedreschi et al., 2004).

59 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers, a non-profit student and professional association

60 operating in the manufacturing industry in North America, defined the machine vision systems as

61 the use of devices for optical non-contact sensing to automatically acquire and analysis an image

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62 with the aim of obtaining information and/or control machines or processes. ‘Machine vision

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63 system’ can be also defined as the automatic extraction of information from digital images for

64 process control or inspection of manufactured products (Lewis, 2014). In other words, machine

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65 vision can replace or integrate manual inspections and measurements with digital cameras and

66 image processing.

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The aim of this work was to give a comprehensive overview on the application of
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68 hyperspectral imaging to the assessment of visual parameters of liquid and semi-liquid food
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69 products that are correlated with quality and safety characteristics.

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71 2. Machine vision systems

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72 An image acquisition unit generally includes a sample-holding platform, a light source, a

73 device (a camera or a flat-bed scanner) for capturing the image, and an image capture board for
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74 digitalising the image. Qualitative and quantitative results are then obtained applying appropriate

75 image processing and image analysis algorithms (Vithu and Moses, 2016).
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76 Flat-bed scanners are cheaper than cameras and can also offer better consistency for image

77 illumination (Russ, 2011), but they couldn’t be suitable for real-time applications. An imaging

78 camera receives light from the object surface and converts it into electrical signals using a charge-

79 coupled device (CCD). Charge-coupled devices are available in linear array or area array

80 configurations. Linear array CCD sensors are able to capture a full two-dimensional object image

81 through motion of either the object or the sensor along the direction perpendicular to the line of

82 pixels. Instead, area array CCD sensors capture a two dimensional image with a single exposure.

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83 The electrical signal, which is proportional to the intensity of the light from the surface, is then

84 converted by an A/D device into an 8- or 16-bit data, and the digitized imaging data are then stored

85 in the computer (Chen et al., 2002). As an alternative to CCD sensors, a camera could be equipped

86 with complementary metaleoxideesemiconductor sensors (CMOS). Cameras may be monochrome

87 or colour and are selected on the bases of retrieval interphase, image format, resolution, and noise-

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88 pixel ratio requirements (Burke, 2012). Monochrome imaging requires a single-chip CCD camera

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89 systems while, generally, colour imaging is achieved by using a three-chip CCD camera system, in

90 which each CCD receives red, green, and blue (RGB) colours to simulate the colours seen by the

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91 human eye (Chen et al., 2002).

92 Light sources can be classified as: front lighting (requires surface feature extraction); back

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lighting (facilitates edge dimensioning and subsurface featuring applications); structured lighting
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94 (Soborski, 1995; Yang, 1994; Vithu and Moses, 2016). The most used light sources are
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95 incandescent, fluorescent, quartz halogen, metal halide, and infra-red lamps; lasers; light emitting

96 diodes (LED), X-ray tubes (Hornberg, 2007; Martin, 2007; Vithu and Moses, 2016). The choice of
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97 background colour depends on the type of application and is critical to obtain the need contrast
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98 between object borders and background and facilitate the successive image processing and image

99 analysis (Guevara-Hernandez and Gomez-Gil, 2011).

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100 Image processing, used to improve the quality of acquired images, can be performed through

101 the following methods: image resizing, image enhancement, noise removal, edge detection and
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102 filtering (Davies, 2009; Sun, 2011).

103 Image analysis allows the obtainment of quantitative information from the processed

104 images. It is based on learning techniques such as artificial neural networks, statistical learning,

105 fuzzy logic, genetic algorithm, and support vector machine (Goyal, 2013; Tellaeche et al., 2011).

106 The objective of a learning technique is to mimic the decision making process of human vision

107 through automated methods.

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109 3. Hyperspectral imaging

110 Spectroscopy and imaging are non-contact optical techniques suitable for online inspection

111 of products. Nevertheless, spectroscopy is useful to determine the product quality through the

112 measurement of their optical properties while computer vision is able to measure the external

113 features of products. Hyperspectral imaging integrates the main advantages of the two original

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114 techniques to attain spatial, spectral and multi-constituent information from an object (Gowen et al.,

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115 2007). Furthermore, it is sensitive to minor components. It has found applications in fields such as

116 astronomy, pharmaceuticals, medicine, and, according to Koehler et al. (2002), it could be

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117 increasingly adopted as a process analytical technology (PAT) in the food industry. In fact,

118 hyperspectral imaging allows determination of the composition of samples (for example moisture

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content, protein content) but also physical characteristics such as particle size of ground particulate
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120 materials. Furthermore, many relevant chemical bonds in food samples absorb light at wavelengths
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121 included in the 900 – 2500 nm range.

122 From a technical point of view, a hyperspectral imaging system produces a stack of hundreds of
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123 images of the same object at different spectral wavelength band (Wu and Sun, 2013a). As a
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124 consequence, each pixel in a hyperspectral image contains the spectrum of that specific position,

125 which is a fingerprint useful to characterize the composition of that particular pixel. Hyperspectral
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126 image is a three-dimensional hyperspectral cube comprising two spatial and one wavelength

127 dimension (Gowen et al., 2007). The raw hyperspectral cube consists of a series of contiguous sub-
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128 images taken at different wavelengths. It is known as hypercube, spectral cube, spectral volume,

129 datacube, or data volume) (Wu and Sun, 2013a). Each sub-image provides the spatial distribution of

130 the spectral intensity that is related to the distribution of its corresponding biochemical components.

131 This means that regions of a sample with similar spectral properties have similar chemical

132 composition (Gowen et al., 2007). Multivariate data analysis is an important step for processing

133 spectral data. In order to establish relationship between hyperspectral imaging data and the food

134 characteristics object of evaluation, the application of a multivariate analysis is required (Wu and

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135 Sun, 2013a). Qualitative classification is divided into unsupervised and supervised classification.

136 The first, which doesn’t require a prior knowledge concerning the class information of the data,

137 includes Principal Component Analysis (PCA), k-means clustering, and hierarchical clustering.

138 Supervised classification, which includes algorithms such as linear discrimination analysis (LDA),

139 partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), artificial neural networks (ANN), support

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140 vector machines (SVM), and k-nearest neighbor (kNN), I s used to group samples into predefined

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141 known classes according to their measured characteristics. The aim of multivariate regression is to

142 explain or to predict the samples features through linear or not-linear regression methods (Wu and

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143 Sun, 2013b).

144 Hyperspectral imaging provides more spectral information than multispectral images, due to

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its larger numbers of wavelengths. Nevertheless, it’s important to select only wavelengths
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146 containing the information related to quality attributes, in order to avoid errors for qualitative
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147 discriminations or quantitative analysis. The choice of optimum wavelengths can be performed both

148 through a manual approach or by applying mathematical algorithms (Zou et al., 2010).
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149 Similarly to other spectroscopy techniques, hyperspectral imaging can be carried out in
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150 reflectance, transmission, or fluorescence modes. Hyperspectral reflectance imaging is the most

151 common mode and is usually carried out in the Vis-NIR (400-1000 nm) or NIR (1000-1700 nm)
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152 range. It can be used to detect defects invisible to the naked eye, contaminants (fungal infection,

153 biological contamination), and quality attributes (moisture content, total soluble solids content, pH,
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154 firmness, marbling level) of fruits, vegetables and meat products (Nicolaï et al., 2006; Lu and Peng,

155 2006; El Masry et al., 2007; Gómez-Sanchis et al., 2004). Fluorescence spectroscopy is used in the

156 dairy industry (Karoui and De Baerdemaeker, 2007), to detect faecal contamination in food (Kim et

157 al., 2003), on vegetal tissue containing chlorophyll (Noh and Lu, 2007). Hyperspectral transmission

158 imaging is applied to the online estimation of internal constituent concentrations and internal

159 defects of foods (Schmilovitch et al., 2004).

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160 A disadvange of hyperspectral imaging is that, due to artefacts, noises or undesired signals,

161 the direct qualitative/quantitative analysis of the original hyperspectral data can’t be carried out and

162 requires specific pre-processing procedures (Quin et al., 2017) to reduce various useless signals.

163 When reflectance measurements are performed, artefacts caused by pixel-to-pixel signal variations

164 are corrected using white diffuse reflectance panels having reflectance factors close to 100%. In the

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165 case of fluorescence flat-field corrections, materials such as white inkjet paper, fluorescein, and

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166 thodamine B are used for the different spectral region. In Raman measurements, since the scattering

167 signal is covered by the stronger fluorescence signals, the latter is removed used algorithms such as

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168 polynomial curve fitting and others (Schulze et al., 2005).

169 As can be inferred from the research of Wu and Sun (2013b), most of the applications of

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hyperspectral imaging concern the analysis of solid food products. Meat and fish have been
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171 analysed for information concerning tenderness, water, fat, protein, water holding capacity, colour,
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172 pH, sensory aspects, contamination, adulteration, and classification mainly through reflectance

173 mode in the ranges 400-1100 and 900-1700 nm. Hyperspectral imaging has been successfully
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174 applied to the quality and safety assessment of fruit and vegetables with reflectance mode in the
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175 range between 400 and 1000 nm, to determine contamination, bruises, surface defects, insect

176 damages, microbial diseases, starch index, firmness, soluble solid content, sugar content, bitter pit,
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177 and chilling injury. Hyperspectral imaging was also used for the determination of lycopene, lutein,

178 β-carotene, chlorophyll-a, and chlorophyll-b concentrations during the ripening of tomatoes. Grains
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179 have been successfully analysed for colour classification, classification of vitreous and non-vitreous

180 wheat kernels, insect damages, contamination, and mycotoxins. The ranges usually considered

181 were: 400–1000, 700–1000, 960–1662, and 1000–2498 nm. Hyperspectral imaging has also been

182 investigated to be used for egg quality inspection, acrylamide prediction in cooked potatoes, and

183 detection of internally damaged almond nuts, internal edible meat content in crabs, and internal

184 parasite in clam.

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186 4. Applications of hyperspectral imaging for characterization of liquid based food products

187 The application of hyperspectral imaging to liquid based and semi-liquid foods is much less

188 investigated, although digital image analysis has been successfully used in many fields, including

189 colour measurements of juices, monitoring of juice concentration, characterisation of milk protein

190 foams, measure of lipid hydroperoxides in refined oil (Stinco et al., 2014; Licodiedoff et al., 2013;

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191 Ewer et al., 2016; Chotimarkorn et al., 2005). Only recently, investigative and exploratory studies

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192 concern the application of hyperspectral analysis to oils, turbid liquid foods, and semi-liquid foods

193 as described hereafter. The main applications of hyperspectral imaging to liquid and semi-liquid

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194 foods are also summarized in Table 1.

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196 4.1 Hyperspectral imaging and oil analysis

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197 Hyperspectral imaging has been successfully applied to classification, identification of
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198 adulteration, and evaluation of quality parameters of oils.

199 Guo et al. (2014) were able to classify edible oils and waste cooking oils based on their
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200 spectral characteristics. The authors acquired spectral data in the range 350~2500 nm and, applying
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201 unweighted distance method and interior square sum distance, they were able to accurately classify

202 those oils into the corresponding 22 types.

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203 The application of near infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) to the identification of

204 sesame oil was investigated by Xie et al. (2014). They obtained hyperspectral images of four
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205 varieties of sesame oil in the spectral region of 874–1734 nm in the reflectance mode. Competitive

206 Adaptive Reweighted Sampling (CARS), Successive Projections Algorithm (SPA) and x-Loading

207 Weights (x-LW) were used to identify the most significant wavelengths. Based on these

208 wavelengths, two classified models, the Least Squares-Support Vector Machine (LS-SVM) and the

209 Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) were used. When only 7 wavelengths (938, 1160, 1214, 1406,

210 1656, 1659 and 1663 nm) were used, SPA-LS-SVM and SPA-LDA models obtained the results

211 (95.59% and 98.53% of classification rate in prediction set). Deng et al. (2013) applied

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212 hyperspectral visible–near infrared spectroscopy on distinguishing different brands of sesame oil.

213 Vis–NIR reflectance spectra in the range of 325–1075 nm were measured but only the wavebands

214 between 458 nm and 699.73 nm were considered to achieve a high signal-to-noise ratio. The

215 selection algorithm named Support Vector Machine-Multiclass Forward Feature Selection (SVM-

216 MFFS) was used to reduce data dimensions and to make the hyperspectral technology more

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217 applicable.

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218 Martinez Gila et al. (2012) used hyperspectral imaging for the online prediction of acidity,

219 peroxide index, and humidity content of virgin olive oils. The authors evaluated 3 component

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220 selection algorithms in order to search the wavelengths that better correlated with the

221 aforementioned parameters. They were Genetic Algorithm-Multi Linear Regression (GA-MLR),

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Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO), and Successive Projection Algorithm-
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223 Multi Linear Regression (SPA-MLR). The results were compared to those obtained by applying
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224 recognized analytical method. Concerning acidity prediction, the best root mean square error

225 (RMSE=0.0949%) and regression coefficient (R=0.98) were obtained with the GA-MLR method.
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226 In the case of peroxide index and moisture prediction, the best results were reached with the SPA-
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227 MLR selection method (RMSE equal to 0.0316% and 0.0006, respectively; R equal to 0.99 for both

228 the parameters).

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229 Visible-near-Infrared hyperspectral analysis has been used in evaluation of quality of frying

230 oils (Kazemi et al., 2005). The reflectance spectra of the oils were analysed within the range 400-
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231 1750 nm. Parameters such as acid value, total polar component, and viscosity were predicted by the

232 established calibration models. In particular, by applying the Partial Least Squares (PLS) calibration

233 model using a spectral range of 400-1750 nm, acid value, total polar component, and viscosity were

234 predicted with R2 values of 0.95, 0.98, and 0.91, respectively if compared to the values obtained

235 through official methods of analysis. When the calibration models where applied using the spectral

236 regions of the most variations (named Feature Wavelength Ranges: 450-550, 850-950, 1140-1180

237 and 1200-1300 nm), acid value, viscosity, and total polar components were predicted with R2 of

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238 0.93, 0.92 and 0.92, respectively. The main advantages of the visible-near-infrared spectroscopy

239 include the capability to quickly and simultaneously predict oil quality parameters.

240 As can be inferred from the applications described, an important advantage of hyperspectral

241 imaging when compared to physical-chemical analysis is that it is a chemical-free method and

242 generally requires only a minimal preparation of samples. Therefore, hyperspectral imaging reduce

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243 time, costs of reagents and of waste treatments (Wu and Sun, 2013a). Hyperspectral imaging is

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244 sensitive to minor constituents but doesn’t have good detection limits if compared to the traditional

245 chemical analytical methods (Gowen et al., 2007).

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246

247 4.2 Hyperspectral imaging of turbid liquid and semi-liquid foods

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Hyperspectral imaging in a reflectance mode combined with the inverse algorithm can be
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249 used for the fast determination of the optical properties of fruit and vegetable juices and milks. Qin
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250 and Lu (2005, 2007) used a hyperspectral imaging system to acquire spatially resolved steady-state

251 diffuse reflectance within the spectral region between 530 and 900 nm from 6 fruit and vegetable
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252 juices (one citrus, one grapefruit, 2 orange, one mixed orange-pineapple, and one vegetable juices)
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253 and 5 milk samples having different fat levels (full, intermediate, and skim). The absorption

254 coefficient value was zero from 530 to 900 nm for the orange and citrus juice samples and was zero
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255 after 620 and 710 nm for the grapefruit juice and vegetable juice, respectively. The grapefruit and

256 vegetable juice samples appeared red whereas the other four fruit juice samples were similar in
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257 colour and appeared from yellow to orange. The differences in scattering coefficient values among

258 the three orange juices could be attributed to the their different particle concentration levels and

259 particle sizes. Values of the absorption and reduced scattering coefficient at 650 nm were showed

260 high correlation coefficients (0.990 and 0.989, respectively) with the fat content of the milk.

261 Hyperspectral radiometry combined with machine learning technique has been successfully

262 used for detection of adulterants (soda, urea, water, and detergents) in milk (Kimbahune et al.,

263 2016). The spectral irradiance was measured in the range from visible to near-infrared irradiance

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264 (350-1050 nm). The best model for detecting type and level of adulteration due to soda, urea, water,

265 and detergent in milk was found to have correlation coefficients of 0.9919, 0.9997, 0.9887, and

266 0.9938, respectively.

267 Since concentration of fat in milk varies spatially, hyperspectral line scanning has been

268 successfully used to measure size distribution of fat globules in milk during homogenization

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269 (Gowen et al., 2009). Hyperspectral line scanning can also be used for automatic non-destructive

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270 quality control of the cheese-making process. In fact, it is suitable to analyse the changes in the

271 light-scattering properties of milk due to modifications in the size and distribution of fat globules

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272 (Gowen et al., 2009).

273 Skytte et al. (2015) presents preliminary results for discriminating different yogurt

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microstructures using hyperspectral (500-900 nm) diffuse reflectance images. The authors
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275 compared this technique to the confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM). The results showed
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276 that hyperspectral diffuse reflectance imaging can be as discriminative as the CSLM images in

277 certain cases, although the performance depended on the chemistry of the samples. In particular,
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278 hyperspectral diffuse reflectance imaging is more discriminative then CSLM at the shorter
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279 wavelengths.

280 Microstructure of dairy products affects their optical properties. Abildgaard et al. (2015)
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281 measured optical properties of commercially available milk and yogurt products with three different

282 levels of fat content, basing on hyperspectral images of diffuse reflectance in the wavelength range
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283 470-1020 nm, so analysing the absorption bands of both milk fat and water and the reduced

284 scattering properties of the samples. The measured reduced scattering coefficients allowed the

285 discrimination between initial and final state of fermented milk products. Instead, the absorption

286 coefficients together with the reduced scattering properties allowed a clear discrimination between

287 levels of fat contents.

288 Hyperspectral imaging has been used for non-destructive internal quality assessment of eggs

289 including freshness, bubble formation or scattered yolk (Zhang et al., 2015). Hyperspectral images

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290 of eggs were acquired in the transmittance mode in the spectral range of 380–1010 nm. According

291 to the results, successive projections algorithm (SPA) combined with support vector regression

292 established a detection model for freshness having a determination coefficient of 0.87, whereas eggs

293 with internal bubbles and scattered yolk were discriminated by support vector classification (SVC)

294 model with identification accuracy values of 90.0% and 96.3%, respectively.

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295 Abdel-Nour and Ngadi (2011) evaluate the ability of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) to classify

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296 the eggs according their content in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Three types of eggs

297 were analysed: normal eggs, eggs containing 75 mg and eggs containing 125 mg of

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298 docosahexaenoic acid. The hyperspectral transmittance images were collected in the spectral region

299 of 900–1700 nm. K-means analysis allowed the classification of eggs into the three types with an

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accuracy of 100%. A partial least-squares regression model was used to link the region of interest of
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301 the egg images with results obtained from the chemical analysis. The correlation coefficients

between the measured and predicted values of α-linolenic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic
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303 acids were 0.94, 0.73, and 0.87, respectively.

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304 The applications described above highlight the ability of hyperspectral imaging to
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305 simultaneously determine the contents and distributions of several components of the same sample

306 (Wu and Sun, 2013a).

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309 Conclusion

310 The optical properties of foods are correlated to their microstructure and composition.

311 Hyperspectral imaging represents an efficient and non-invasive inspection technique able to

312 investigated the food optical properties and, when combined to suitable classification models, to

313 give information concerning their composition and structure. This review describes the state of art

314 of the application of hyperspectral imaging to liquid and semi-liquid food products. This technique

315 has been successfully applied to the study of the optical properties of oils, juices, milk, yogurt, and

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316 eggs in order to attain classification, identification of adulterants and defects, and compositional

317 data. These results encourage the use of hyperspectral imaging for the analysis of other liquid and

318 semi-liquid foods such as beverages, sauces, and creams.

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320 References

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Table 1
Summary of the information concerning image acquisition mode, product, wavelength range, image processing and modelling in papers published
on hyperspectral imaging applied to liquid and semi-liquid foods.

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Acquisition mode Product Wavelength range Image processing and modelling Reference
Transmittance Eggs 900–1700 nm K-means Analysis and Partial Least-Squares Abdel-Nour and Ngadi (2011)

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Regression
Reflectance Milk and yogurt 470-1020 nm Abildgaard et al. (2015)

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Reflectance Sesame oil 325–1075 nm Support Vector Machine-Multiclass Forward Deng et al. (2013)
Feature Selection (SVM-MFFS)

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Reflectance Milk and derivatives 400-1000 nm Gowen et al. (2009)
Reflectance Edible and waste cooking oils 350~2500 nm Unweighted Distance Method and Interior Guo et al. (2014)

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Square Sum Distance
Reflectance Frying oils 400-1750 nm Partial Least Squares calibration models Kazemi et al. (2005)

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Irradiance Milk 350-1050 nm Root Mean Square Kimbahune et al. (2016)
Error (RMSE) and Correlation Coefficient

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(CC)

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Reflectance Virgin olive oils 900-1700 nm Genetic Algorithm (GA), Least Absolute Martinez Gila et al. (2012)
Shrinkage and Selection Operator, and
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Successive Projection Algorithm (SPA)
Reflectance Fruit and vegetable juices and 530-900 nm Inverse Algorithm Qin and Lu (2005, 2007)
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milks
Reflectance Yogurt 500-900 nm 24 Factorial Design Skytte et al. (2015)
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Reflectance Sesame oil 874–1734 nm Least Squares-Support Vector Machine (LS- Xie et al. (2014)
SVM) and the Linear Discriminant Analysis
(LDA)
Transmittance Eggs 380–1010 nm Successive Projections Algorithm (SPA) and Zhang et al. (2015)
Support Vector Regression
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Highlights

• This review investigates the application of hyperspectral imaging to liquid foods

• Computer vision and principles of hyperspectral imaging are introduced

• Applications to oils, juices, milk, yogurt, and eggs are described

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