ENGI 9420

Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science

Engineering Analysis

c Y.S. Muzychka, 2015
ENGR 9420 - Engineering Analysis: Introduction to Engineering Analysis 2

1 Introduction to Engineering Analysis

1.1 Introduction
In this course we are mainly concerned with solving problems described by ordinary and
partial differential equations encountered in Civil, Chemical, Electrical, Mechanical, Ocean
and Process Engineering disciplines. As an extension to previous courses where students
focused mainly on modelling using simple ordinary differential equations, we will examine
many advanced solution techniques for both ordinary and partial differential equations.
Most students have had a brief introduction to topics related to both types of equations.
We will consider several new methods including: separation of variables, integral transforms,
similarity transforms, variational and weighted residual methods, among others.
As we shall see shortly, two and three dimensional field problems occur in a wide range
of engineering applications. These include fluid dynamics, heat transfer, solid mechanics,
electro-magnetics, dynamics, and hydrology to name a few.

1.2 Fundamental Equations in Applied Analysis

We will briefly review some of the more common field equations encountered in engineering.
They are provided without derivation, mainly for reference purposes. The student is referred
to the references at the end of the section for books detailing the history and derivation of
these equations. This review is not intended to be exhaustive, but mainly to enlighten
students on the formulations of problems in other fields. We also have left out discussion
of boundary conditions and initial conditions for each of these areas of application. We will
discuss these issues later in the course when dealing with specific problems. We will also
consider many one dimensional problems which arise in applications of these equations.

1.2.1 Fluid Dynamics

Incompressible fluid flow is governed by the celebrated Navier-Stokes equations. These equa-
tions for constant properties are (Schlichting, 1979). The velocity field is defined as the vector
~v = ui + vj + wk.
Continuity
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0 (1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Momentum Equations
 2
∂ u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
  
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p
ρ +u +v +w = ρgx − +µ + + (2)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v
  
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p
ρ +u +v +w = ρgy − +µ + + (3)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2
∂ w ∂ 2w ∂ 2w
  
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p
ρ +u +v +w = ρgz − +µ + + (4)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
ENGR 9420 - Engineering Analysis: Introduction to Engineering Analysis 3

More general expressions are derivable for the special case when fluid is not assumed to
be incompressible. They are beyond the scope of this course. However, we will examine some
special cases of irrotational flow which yield Laplace’s equation for the velocity potential.

1.2.2 Plane Theory of Elasticity

In the two dimensional plane theory of elasticity the basic equations which describe the
equilibrium of a small rectangular element subject to gravitational forces are (Timoshenko,
1970):
Equilibrium
∂σx ∂τxy
+ =0 (5)
∂x ∂y
∂τxy ∂σy
+ + ρg = 0 (6)
∂x ∂y
Compatibility
∂ 2 y ∂ 2 x ∂ 2 γxy
+ = (7)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x∂y
where the strains for the plane stress condition are defined by:
1
x = [σx − νσy ]
E
1
y = [σy − νσx ]
E
2(1 + ν)
γxy = τxy
E
where E is the elastic modulus of the material and ν the Poisson ratio.
The equation of compatibility can then be written in terms of the stresses as:
 2
∂2

∂
+ (σx + σy ) = 0 (8)
∂x2 ∂y 2
If we have a condition of plane strain, we have, in addition to the equilibrium equations:

σz = ν(σx + σy )

and the strain equations become:

1
x = [(1 − ν 2 )σx − ν(1 + ν)σy ]
E
1
y = [(1 − ν 2 )σy − ν(1 + ν)σx ]
E
2(1 + ν)
γxy = τxy
E
ENGR 9420 - Engineering Analysis: Introduction to Engineering Analysis 4

Substitution of the strain equations into the equation of compatibility, under the assump-
tion of plane strain, yields the same result as Eq. (8).
Finally, if we introduce the concept of a stress function φ and define:

∂ 2φ
σx = − ρgy (9)
∂y 2
∂ 2φ
σy = − ρgy (10)
∂x2
∂ 2φ
τxy = − (11)
∂x∂y
we may satisfy the equilibrium equations identically, and most problems then reduce to the
solution of the equation of compatibility, which now becomes:

∂ 4φ ∂ 4φ ∂ 4φ
+ 2 + =0 (12)
∂x4 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂y 4
This is the biharmonic equation. The biharmonic equation is a fourth order partial differ-
ential equation. We will examine a few solutions to problems from plane elasticity theory
which are modelled by the biharmonic equation.
A non-homogenous biharmonic type equation also appears in elasticity problems involv-
ing the deflection of thin plates:

∂ 4w ∂ 4w ∂ 4w p(x, y)
4
+ 2 2 2
+ 4
= (13)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y D
where w is the deflection of the plate, the parameter D is the plate rigidity:

Et3
D=
12(1 − ν 2 )

and t is the plate thickness.

1.2.3 Vibrations in Distributed Systems

We will now examine a few equations related to the vibration in distributed systems. These
include vibrations in strings, membranes, and shafts. Mechanical vibration in distributed
systems is modelled using the wave equation. For simple strings the deflection w is modelled
using (Meirovitch, 1968):
∂ 2w
 
∂ ∂w
T (x) = ρ(x) 2 (14)
∂x ∂x ∂t
where T (x) is the tension in the string and ρ(x) is the mass per unit length. For constant
tension and density we have:
∂ 2y 1 ∂ 2y
= (15)
∂x2 c2 ∂t2
ENGR 9420 - Engineering Analysis: Introduction to Engineering Analysis 5

p
where c = T /ρ.
In the case of a two dimensional membrane with constant tension T and mass per unit
area ρ, we have:
∂ 2w ∂ 2w 1 ∂ 2w
+ = (16)
∂x2 ∂y 2 c2 ∂t2
p
where once again c = T /ρ.
For beams undergoing transverse vibrations we find the following equation of motion:

∂2 ∂ 2w ∂ 2w
 
EI(x) + m(x) =0 (17)
∂x2 ∂x2 ∂t2

where EI(x) is the local stiffness and m(x) is the mass distribution. For a beam of constant
stiffness and mass we obtain:
∂ 4w 1 ∂ 2w
+ =0 (18)
∂x4 a2 ∂t2
p
where a = EI/m.
Additional equations will be considered later in the course, namely torsional vibrations
in shafts and vibrations in circular membranes.

1.2.4 Conduction and Diffusion

Heat conduction and diffusion with and without convection (or advection) will also be con-
sidered. For the general case of heat conduction when there is motion in a fluid (convection)
or motion of a solid (advection), the general energy equation is (Ozisik, 1993):
 2
∂ 2T ∂ 2T
  
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ T
ρCp +u +v +w =k + + 2 + Ṡ (19)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z

where T is temperature, u, v, w are velocity components, ρ is density, Cp is the heat capacity,

k is thermal conductivity, and Ṡ is a distributed heat source. The energy equation has several
special forms, namely:  2
∂ 2T ∂ 2T

∂T ∂ T
ρCp =k + + 2 (20)
∂t ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z
which is often referred to as the heat diffusion equation for unsteady heat conduction,

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T Ṡ
2
+ 2
+ 2
=− (21)
∂x ∂y ∂z k
which is the steady Poisson equation, and

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
+ + =0 (22)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
which is Laplace’s equation for steady heat conduction.
ENGR 9420 - Engineering Analysis: Introduction to Engineering Analysis 6

In the case of mass diffusion a similar equation results (Crank, 1975):

 2
∂ CA ∂ 2 CA ∂ 2 CA

∂CA ∂CA ∂CA ∂CA
+u +v +w = DAB + + + RA (23)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

where CA is the concentration of species A in a medium B, DAB is the diffusifity of A in B,

and RA is the rate of generation of A through chemical reaction. Frequently, since only one
component is being modelled, the subscripts A and B are often dropped and implied.
The convective diffusion equation also simplifies under the same conditions as the con-
vective conduction equation, namely:
 2
∂ CA ∂ 2 CA ∂ 2 CA

∂CA
= DAB + + (24)
∂t ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

which is Fick’s law of diffusion, and

∂ 2 CA ∂ 2 CA ∂ 2 CA
+ + =0 (25)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
which once again is Laplace’s equation for steady mass diffusion.

1.2.5 Hydrology
Fluid in porous media is of interest to reservoir engineers and hydrologists (Bear, 1972). For
very low flow rates (seepage) of an incompressible fluid, the field of hydrology frequently
utilizes Darcy’s law for modelling fluid flow through porous media. The specific fluxes are:
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
qx = −K , qy = −K , qz = −K (26)
∂x ∂y ∂z
where
p
φ=z+ (27)
ρg
is the piezo-metric head or hydraulic potential.
Under the assumption of an isotropic and homogeneous medium, combining all three
with the equation of continuity for a porous media gives:

∂ 2p ∂ 2p ∂ 2p
+ + =0 (28)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
assuming that the permeability K, of the porous media is constant. Once again, we Laplace’s
equation arise, but this time in terms of the pressure field. Once the pressure field is found,
the components of flow follow from Darcy’s law.
ENGR 9420 - Engineering Analysis: Introduction to Engineering Analysis 7

1.2.6 Electromagnetic Fields

In engineering field theory, two equations found frequently in the analysis of electrostatics
and electro-magnetics are Laplace’s equation and Poisson’s equation. These are derived as
special cases from the more general Maxwell equations. Solutions to these equations are the
basis of books such as Bradshaw and Byatt (1967) and Binns and Lawrenson (!973), or the
more general treatise by Moon and Spencer (1960).
In the case of an electro-static field, Maxwell’s equations reduce to the following:

∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ρ
2
+ 2 + 2 =− (29)
∂x ∂y ∂z 
where φ is the electrical potential, ρ is the charge density, i.e. ρ = ρ(x, y, z), and  is the
permittivity of the medium. Frequently, we encounter problems where by the charge density
is assumed to be zero and the above equation simplifies to Laplace’s equation:

∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
+ + 2 =0 (30)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z
In the case of current carrying conductors, the magnetic field is characterized by the
following vector equation:

∇2 A = −J (31)
which is a vector Poisson equation, i.e each component in the i, j, k directions is also a
Laplacian operator in three dimensions. However, for a cylindrical electrical conductor of
arbitrary cross-section, if the current is only flowing in the z-direction then this simplifies to:

∂ 2 Az ∂ 2 Az ∂ 2 Az ρ
2
+ 2
+ 2
= − = −µJ (32)
∂x ∂y ∂z 
where µ is the permeability of the medium and J is the current density, i.e. J = J(x, y, z).
It is easy to see that several fundamental problems are governed by Laplace’s equation
and Poisson’s equation. We will explore additional concepts related to vector operators in
a later section, namely transformation of the above equations into cylindrical and spherical
coordinates, as well as general orthogonal curvillinear coordinates.

1.3 Solution Methods

Students will be exposed to a sampling of solutions techniques. These include:

• scaling methods

• separation of variables

• integral transforms

• similarity transformations
ENGR 9420 - Engineering Analysis: Introduction to Engineering Analysis 8

• weighted residual methods

• variational methods

• integral methods

It is hoped that students will learn the basics of these techniques and through additional
self instruction learn more advanced elements related to problems in their field of interest.

References
Bear, J., Dynamics of Fluid Flow in Porous Media, Dover, 1972.

Binns, K.J. and Lawrenson, P.J., Analysis and Computation of Electric and Magnetic Field
Problems, Permagon Press, 1973.

Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E., Lightfoot, E.N., Transport Phenomena, Wiley, 1960.

Bradshaw, M.D. and Byatt, W.J., Introductory Engineering Field Theory, Prentice-Hall,
1967.

Crank, J., Mathematics of Diffusion, Oxford, 1975.

Lindsay, R.B., Mechanical Radiation, McGraw-Hill, 1960.

Meirovitch, L., Analytical Methods in Vibrations, Macmillan, 1969.

Moon, P. and Spencer, D.E., Field Theory for Engineers, Van Nostrand, 1961.

Ozisik, N., Heat Conduction, Wiley, 1993.

Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, 1979.

Timoshenko, S.P. and Goodier, J.N., Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, 1970.

Ugural, A.C. and Fenster, S.K., Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity, Prentice-Hall,
1995.