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@gR@E OF THAT OOG

 T - 10

T - 11

Wh y d oe s an in,jur y to a pe ri phe r a1 ne rve

T HORA GI G r e s u lt in a I lac ctd p ar a lys is , atr ophp of
SP INA L T-12 mus c ie s , tis s ue d e ge ne r ation, and loss
GORD of s ens ation ?

T - 13

Wh y d oe s a c ord 1e s i on anter i or
L-3 to thi s leve 1 oftenr e s u1t in a s past ic
para1ys i s of the pe lvi c appe nd age †

LU MBA
R S PINA
L C ORLi

Why d oe s a cord les ion poste r tor to

this leve I us ma fly re s ult in a f la c cid
paralys is of the pe lvi c appe nd age s †

SAG RA L
SPIN A L
G ORD What s ymptoms wou ld you expe ct to s
ee with a ver tebr a1 in jur y poster ior
to the te rminati on of the s pt na I cor d †
GOG G YGEA L
S PI NA L GORD

-3
 THE NE URO L OGI CA L E XAMINAT ION

(Extr acted in lar ge part f r om Me Gr ath ' s New.r olo gic a1 Ex am in ati on of the Dog ,
Le a and F‘eb i ger , Ph ilad elphi a, 1960)

I. The EXAMINAT ION OF THE SE NSOR Y BY STE Mr e quir es a knowle dge of

the cour s e of the chief s ens or y path s fr om the per iph ery of the body to the br
ain. Tests for s kin s en s ation may b e c ar r ied out by palp ation and pin
pr icking. C or r e s pond in g ar e a s on b oth s ide s of the body should be te st ed Jor
comp ari s or. Atte mpts may be made to demon.str ate c o mplete lo s s of
pain s eus ati or (ane sth es ia), s mall degr e e of pain 1o s s (hype sthe sia),
and localiz ed exagger ation of pain (hype r e sthe sia). In test ing s upe rfic
ial
sensation, one should begin in th e ar ea of le s s s en s ation arid move towar d
ar eas of gr e ate r s e ns ation; e. g. , pin pr ick Ir om an arie s the tic to a nor m al ar e a
or from a normal to a hyper e sth etic ar ea. Deep pres sur e pain may
be manif e st ed by pinching the Achille s tendo n or pr e s s ur e o n the te s ti cle
or eyeb all. Tests Ior de ep s errs ation {propr iocepti ve} m ay be mad e by
for c ed mo ve ments of the limbs , as plan ing them in abmor ma1 po s iti or s
or po s tur e s . Each or g as of s peci a1 s errs e m ay be ex amined specific ally
and individu ally.

II. The EXAMINAT ION OF THE MO TOR S YSTE M should include an ins pection
of the extr emities and other or gans that ar e under mus culare out rol.
Patholo gy of the bone s , joint s , or mu s c le s mu st b e ex c lud e d a s the c au s e
of lo s t func tion of the part. The postur e o I e ach limb should be noted, as
well as the pr esence of mus cle atr o phy or hype rtr o phy. The mus cle s
should be ins pect ed, es pecially of the affe cted limb or limbs , for toni city.
Change s in mus cle tone Ir om the nor mal ar e char acte r ized by a stiff, r i gid
s tate , or
a lo os e , flac cid condition. Voluntary move ments , iI any, of the affe cted par t or
extr emity should be obse r ved; i. e. , w alk or run ani cal.

III. The EXAMINAT ION OF THE REP LE XE S i s d is cu s s ed, b e ginn ing on page 6.
 -2-
CAUDAL VIEW GF LUMBAR
VERTEBRA

t7

Spinous Process Q. Dura Mater

2. Cranial Articular Process 10. Arachnoid

Caudal Articular Proce ss 11. Longitudinal Vertebral

Sinus
Accessory Process 12. Ventral Root

Transverse Process lj. Dorsal Root Ganglion

6. Nucleus Pulposus lh . Sp inal Serve

6'. Fibrous Ring 19. Dorsal Branch

6: Dorsal Longitudinal Ligament 16. Ventral Branch

Epi&ural Space l}. Ramus Communicans

8. Subarachnoid Space 18. Sppathetic Trunk Ganglion

 -3-
ST RU C T URE OF THE NE R VOU S S YST E M

T he NE URON, cons is ting of the ne r ve c ell body and all it s pr oc e s s e s (liber s ),

i s the s tructur al and func ti ocal un.i t of the ner vou s s y ste m.

Any in jur y which s eve r s a ner ve fib e r w ill res

ult in de ge we r at ion of th at par t of the fib er s
epar ated from the cell body.

The NERVOUS S YST E M, (for the pur po s e of de s c r Option only), may be sub-
divided into -.

I. The CENTRAL NERVOU S SYSTE M, cons isting of the br ain and th e

s pin al co rd; and -

II. The PE RI PHE RAL NE R VO US SYST EM, cons isting of (in the do g) -

a) lZ pairs of Cranial Nerves and their ganglia.

b) 3 6 parr s of Spinal Nerve s and their g anglia (8 Cervic a1, 13 Thor a c ic ,

7 Lumb ar , 3 Sac r al, and 5 Cocc yge a1 ne rve s ).

c) Autonomic Ner vous Syste m, w ith Symp ath etic and Par asympath etic
component s , is int r ic ate ly as s o ci ated with the cr aural and s pinal
ner ves, but d ifler s in function (involunt ar yr e gul ation of activity of
s moo th mus cle, heart muscle , and gl and s ) and in the de tails of
struc ture (2 ne uron chain), and distr ibutior (usually a dual contr o1,
inhibition and acceler ation, tor each vis cer al or g ari).
 I at d er mi s e pid er m is

A S PINT L N E RV E INJ UR Y AF F L CTS

T HES E KIN DS OF F I BERS

pressure

,te m pe r at ur e
AF U )fREN
NERVE
FI BJf RS
r op r io c e p I or s

S ENSORY

s ke let a 1 mu s c 1e

SOMS TI C
EN F E R ENT

VIS C CRA L
EF F E RENT

MOT OR tendon

t o er e c t o r

nd s

fat derrnis epidermis

to s mo oth rn u s c le of
blood
ve s s e l
 THE PERIPHERAL NERVES (GENERAL)

A PE RI PHE RAL NERVE trunk is compo s ed of many ner ve fib er s whi ch ar

e of two fund ament al func tio cal type s -

1. SENSOR Y o r AF BE RE NT SIB E RS c ar ry impul ses to the br ain and s pinal

cord. Thes e fib er s ar e s timul ated by means of r e c e ptor s (c ell s or gr
oup s of ce 11s in per iph er al ar e as wh ich ar e s pe c ific ally s ensitive to
var ious type s of s timul i).

a) Exte roc e ptor s ar e r e c e ptor s th at or e s en s it ive to touch, pre s sur e, pair,

tempre atur e, odor s , gu s t ato ry ag ent s , s ound, and li ght.

b) Pr opr io c e ptor s ar e r e c e ptor s th at ar e s errs iti ve to ten s ion, pr essur e,

and pos ition change s in mus cle s , lig ame nt s , tendon s, bone s , and jo int s.

2. MOTOR or EF BE REN T SIB E RS c arr y impuls es Ir om the br ain or s

pinal co rd to elfe ctor or gans
(mus cl es o r gl and s ).

a) Somatic elfer erit libe r s supply the st r iate d mus cle s of the bo dy.

b ) Vi s c er al eIJer ent (auto nomic ) fib er s s up ply the s mo oth mu s c l e, the

c ardi ac muscle, and the glands of the bo dy.

The S toms orS i n s of an In urto a Per iph er al Ne r ve ar e buta r efle cti o n

fibe r s that ar e contained in that ner ve (s e e d r awin g, pa g e 4).A rie r ve injury is manifested by an impair ment of neur o1o g
o phi c s ph e r e s .

li Mo tor lo s s r e s ults in a flaccid par aly s i s (mus cle s have no tone - soft and
flabb y).

2. Sensory involvement mayr e sult in pain (due to par ti al or irr it ative le s ions )
or th e l os s of var iou s s e ns at ion s (as al ge s ia, ane sthe sia, etc. ).

3. Tr o phic di s turb ance s ar er e late d to irnpari ed nutr ition al and met abo1i c
activi ties in ti ssues which ar e partly nuder rieu r oge sic c ontr o1. The s e
d is turb ances includ e slow healing of w ounds , ulc er atio us, mu s cl e atr ophy,
deg en er ati on of bone s, jo int s , etc.
 -6-

THE ANATOM Y OF RE F LE XE S

1. A re c epto r, such as a special s ens e or g an, cut ane ous end or ga n, or a

neuromu scular spindle, the stimulation of which initiates an impulse.

2. The affe r ent (s errs or y) neur on, which tr ans mits the inn pul s e th r ough
a per iph er al ner ve to the centr al nervons system, wher e synaps e occur s
with a conne cting neur on.

3. A connee ting neuron, whic h r elay s the im puls e to the effer ent neuron.

4. The effer ent (moto r) neu ron , known as the lower mo to r neur on, passes
outw ar d in the ne r ve t runk and del ive r s the impul se to an effe cto r.

5. An effe cto r, eithe r a muscle or a gl and, pr oduc es the r es pons e.

Reflexe s ar e inbor n stimulus - respons e me ch ants ms. The ins tinctive

behavio r of lower animals is goveme d lar g ely by r e flexe s; in h ig her animal s,
such as the dog, beh avio r is mor e a matt er of condition ing, and r efl exe s ar e
sub ord in ated as bas ie defeuse mechanis ms. Reflexe s can be utilized fo r the
pur po s e of loc aliz ing patholog ic pr oce ss es in the br ain, the s pinal cord, and
the per iphe r al nervous systern.

Rerne mber that ar e flex is a te st of both the affe rent and the effer ent limbs of
the arc , which may be car r ied in differ ent per iphe r al ne rve s (i. e. , s c r atch
r e flex; come alr e fl ex}. Inter ruption of the r eflex ar c at any point will abolis h
the re spons e.
 -7-

THE UPPER AND THE LOWER

MOTOR NEURONS

MOTOR AREA
OF G ORTE
SENSORY AREA
OF GORT EX THALAMUS

EXAMPLE OF A
SENSORY PIB ER IN
AN ASG ENDING EXAMPLE OF AN
T RAG T J UPPER MOTOR
NEURON IN A
DESCENDING TRAC T

THE LOWER MOTOR

NEURON
 -8-

The LOWER MOTOR NEURON (see dr awin g on page 7) is the e s s ential

motor cell concerued with skeletal muscle activity. The lower moto r neur or
is the ”flnal common pathw ay, ” be cans e, even though it i s acted upon by fiber s
fr om the br airi (co rticospinal, rub rospinal, ves tibulos pinal, r eticulos pinal,
tecto-
spinal} as well as by intr asegmental and inter segmental r eflex neurons in the
spinal cord, it is the ultimate pathway through which neur al impuls es r each
the runs cle.

Lesions affe ctin g the lower motor neurons may be loc ated in the cells of the ventr
a1 gr ay column of the s pinal cord, or in the b r ain stem for the cr anial
nerves, or in their axons which ar e contained in the per iphe ral ner ves.

Symptoms of low er mo tor neuron le s ions include flaccid par alysis of the
involved mus cl es, mus cle atrophy, and ti ssue degene r ation. Reflexe s of the
involved mus cle s ar e abs ent, and no path ol ogicr eflexe s ar e obtainabl e. Injury
to .a per i ph er al ne rve, then, evidenc es a lower motor neuron par alysis as well
as the lo s s of s ens ation fr om the part of the body supplied by that nerve.

The UPPER MOTOR NEURONS convey impul s e s from the br ain to the 1ower
motor neurons and ar e es senti al to normal voluntary muscular activity. Their
axons pas s down the s pinal cor d in de s c ending tr acts such as the cor tic o s
pinal tract to synaps e with the lower motor neurons . Lesions
of the upper mo tor neurons may be located
anywher e in the br ain o r the s pinal cord above the level of the lowe r motor
neurons with which they synaps e.

The brain of higher animals has developed into a central regulating mechanis m
which is conce rned with initiating and inte gr ating the r eflex ar cs of bas ic limb
movements which have been laid down in the s pinal cord. Since the lower motor
neurons ar e normally under partial inhibition by the higher cente rs in the brain,
an iipper motor neuron par alysis r ele as e s this irihib ition and exaggerated spinal
reflexes result.

Symptoms of upper mo tor neuron Ies ions include spas tic par alys is of the involved
mus cle s , little or no mus cle atr ophy (other than atrophy of d i s u s e ),
and hyper active deepr eflexe s, and the presence of pathologi c r e fl exe s . Cons
cious per ce ption of s ens ations (such as pain, etc. } i s al so lo st when les ions
involve the senso ry pathw ays in the cor d or br ain.

Spinal shockrefers to the depression ofrefexes thatfolows soon after

spinal cord transecGon, and is beWevedto be due toloss of stirnulaMon
frornhigher levels. Spinal shockls usually transient (an hour or so
inthe dog), andis foMowed by a period ofincreased refex response.
 -9-

RE F LEXE S U T IU ZE D IN T HE NE URO LOGIC E XAMINAT ION OF THE DOG

Extr acted fr om Mc Gr ath

I. S PINAL REF LE XE S

Th e r ellex ar cs of b as ic limb movement s have been laid down in th e s p in al

c o rd. They ar e seg ment al (loca1) r eflexe s oJ the cord, and may be
demor s t r ated in nor mal animal s and in anirrials with a s ever ed cor d, pr o
- viding the tr an secti on of the s pin al co r d do e s not invo1v e th e l e vel of th e
r efl ex.

No rmal Spinal Reflexe s .•

1. The Flexo r Reflex - Pr ess ing or p inching of the foot padr e s ults in a
flexion of the limb at all jo int s. Se g ment s of the eo rd involved in the
r efl ex :

Hindlimb: Lumbar 4-5-6-7,

Sac r al l- 2 - 3.
Forelrnb: Cervical 6-7-8,
Tho r ac ic 1- 2.

2. Knee berk - Tapping the pate 11ar 1ig ament which conce cts the patella
with the tib ia r esults in a shar p conrt ac tion of the exten so r mus c le s of
the stifle jo int. Seg ment s of the co rd involved in th isr e flex •.

Hind l imb •. Lumb ar 4 -S -6.

3. Ex te us or Th ru st Re flex - Applying pr es s ur e to th e pad of the p aw s s o

a s to s pr e ad the toe s s lig htly results in a quick exten s ion (thrust) of the
limb. Seg ments of th e c o r d involve d in thi s r e Al ex .•

Hind l im b.• Lumb ar 4 - 5 -6 - S ac r al 1.

7, to re limb .• Ce r vi c a1 6 - 7 - 8, Thor ac ic 1.

Cl in ic a1 E valuation of Sp ical Reflexes .•

T he s pi n a1r e fl ex e s ar e of par ti cul ar c linic al sigwifi c anc e in the do g

pr e s ente d w ith par e s i s o r par aly s i s of a limb o r limb s. With th e exc epti on
oJ lo c a1 limb pathology, su ch a s a Mr a ctu r e of a long bone, ar thr iti s, etc. ,
s uch sy mptom s ar e most commonly the r esult of path ology of the v er teb r al
c o lumn.

a) IN the hind limbr e fl exe s ar e de pr e s s ed or ab s eat, the lesion usually is

locali z ed in th e low er lumbar ar ea. Roentgen examination should includ e
the lumbar regrow fr o m L4 po ster to r ly.

b ) In such an animal, the hind limb r eflexes may be mor e de pr e s s ed or

ab s ent on one s ide. This then sug ge sts an ip s il ater al or s am e s ide Ie s ion.
If X -r ay ex am in ation is carr ied out, later a1 view s of the lower lumbar
ver tebr a with the affe cted s ide down ar e indie ated.
 -10-

c) If the hind limb spinal refl exe s ar e pr es ent, this indicat es pathology of
the ante r ior lumbar or thor acic sp ine. Exagg er ated refle xr e ac tio n in
the hind limb s usually implie s r ather exten sive cord pathology in the ante r ior
lumb ar or thor acic cor d, th e ex agg e r atedr e s pons e being a
type of r ele as e phenomenon (see uppe r mo tor ne ur o n par alys is ).

d} Oc cas ional animal s ar e pr esented with spas ti c par aple g ia in whi ch the flexor
r efl ex and kne e jerk ar e diffi cult to el icit due to extr eme exten sor
hype r toni city. This is seen e s pe c ially in dogs with he rni ated inte r ver te -
br al discs betw een T 2 - L 3. II th er e i s co rd c om pr e s s ion and ir r it ati
on, the exte nsor spaci city usually suggests an ineo mple te cor d l e s ion.

The for elimbr eflex es should always be examined in the dog pr e s ented with for e
limb par esis or par alys is , and e s pe ci ally in animals manif e sting tetr a -
pleg ia, pr ostr ation, or bilater al tor ele g par alys is. to r ele g par alys is is
obser ved most commonly in as s oc iation with tr aumati c injur y of th e r adi al
ne r ve , b r a chi al plexu s , or s pinal cer v i c al r oots .Pe r ipher a1 ne r ve
invo1ve - ment is usually char acter i z ed by a complete motor and s e n
so ry los s.
Animals eaidencing tor elimb par esis or par alys is due to mor e c entr al
patholo gy r ar ely show th e marked ne ur olo gic deficit of the tr aum ati c
pe r i phe r al s yndr ome. Bilat er al for e limb par alys is and tetr aple gia
usually imply mor e centr ally, r ath er than per iph e r ally located Ies ions .

a) Depr es sion or ab s ence of the to re limbr efl ex e s us ually impl ies a le s

ion invo lving G 6 - 7 - 8; T1. Unil ate r al d epr e s s ion o r ab s enc e of for e
limb
r e flexe s sugg e st s an ip s ilate r al or s ame s ide le s ion of the s p ine.

b} In the animal with bil ate r al fo rele g par alys is and / or tetr aple gia, the pr es
ence or exag ge r ation of the tor e li mb re flexe s suggest s a ver tebr al c
olumn or cho rd 1es ion in the anter io r c e rvi c al a r e a o r abo ve c 6 (s e e uppe
r rroto r neiir on par alys is ).

At the initial examinatio n, spinalr eflexes or any we ur ol o g ic r eflex has a

minimal value tor pr o gno s i s . If depr es sed or absentr e flexe s gr adually
incr eas e and impr ove w ith time , a sugg es tion of pro gno etic impr ove me nt
may be g iven. In most cas es multi p1e n eur olo g ic exam ination s in the s ame
animal ar e essentia1 for prognosti c,inte r pr etation.

Abnor mal Spinal Refl exes:

1. The Cro s s ed Exte ns or Re flex - In the r ecumbent anim a1, flexio n of one
limb in respons e to pinching the foot pad (flexor r e flex) is accompanted
by exten sion of the oppo s ite or conrt alat eral limb. This is an obvious
s pinal r eflex to compen s ate for the (the or e ti c a1) lo s s of suppo rt by the
flexed 1imb. Thisr e actionr ar e ly i s ob s e rved under cli ni c al co ndi tion s,
but when pr escut, is indi cative of an ext errs ive tr ans ver s e c or d le s ion.

2. The Scr atch Rell ex - The s cr at ching mo v ernent of flex ion and exten s
ion of the hind limb occur s when a s timulu s is applied to the fl ank and
shoulder ar ea of the animal. In a spinal animal, (low c er vic al tr ans e ctio n)
the r eflex will always occur, providing an ade quat e s timulu s is suppli ed.
Ther efl ex may be elic ited in a nor malanimal; howe ver , it c an not b
e pr edi cted as to whe ther or not it will occur. The br ain rn a inhibit the
lower motor neur ons and r e ve at th e mo vem e at in th e no rmal animal.
 Spinal Visceral Reflexes.’

Mi ctur ation, although es senti ally reflex in natur e, i s initi ated usually by an effo rt
of the animal ' s will. Ther e ar e s e ver al ne r ve c e nte r s in the
s pinal cor d (e s pe e i ally the s acr al segment s) that ar e concer n ed in the
mictur ation r eflexe s, but the voliti oral act of mi ctur ation is trite gr ated at
higher le vel s of the c entr a1 ner vou s s yste m, name ly the hypo thal acic
area andthe cerebral cortex.

Les ions of th e s pinal eord of the do g, r e g ar dle s s of loc ati o n, may b e

a s s o c i ate d with d is turb ances of ur ination. Most t /p ieally, ther e is at fri st
r ete ntion followed by inc ontinenc e . Th er etention of ur ine or continual
r esidua1 ur ice in the bladder may le ad to inflammation or cystitis.

The cof on and r e c turn may al so be afle cted by spin a1 co rd o ath ol ogy.
Such signs as bec al retention or incontine nce ar e obser ved fr
equently with low lumb ar or s acr al s p inal cord le sions . See
pelvic and pudenda1 rier ve s on
page 2 3.

II. A T T IT U DINAL AND POSTU RAL REAC TIONS

u sr elation ship, even though dilfer entattitude s and pos tur es mayb e as s ume d.In gene r a1, the ser e actions depend on the continuity

compl eti on of th e r e flex.

1. Toriic Ne ck Reflexe s .
P a s s ive l y flexing or r at s ing the he ad dor s ally, so a s to bend the
neck upwar d c au s e s inc r e as ed exte nsion in the for elimbs arid par ti al
flexion in the hind limb s. Vent r a1 head flexion shouldr e s ult in s e
mi -flex ion of the tor eli mb s and exten sion of the hind limb s.

2. Suppo r tin g Re actions .

The animal is held so that the hind limb s may be 1ow e r ed to the g r ound. They
nor m ally s hould stiffen in exten sion and suppo rt the weight as the
paws touch the gr ound. II hind limb spinalr efl ex e s ar e pr e s e nt, but
ther e i s an ab s en c e of thi s r e action, it indi cate s a l es ion anter i o r to
the thi rd lumbar cor d s e g me nt.

3. Righting Reaction
The ability tor e main r ight s ide up is a univer s al pr o pe rty of an imals.
Receptor s to r per c e ption of change s in pos it ion of the he ad ar e loc
ated in the inne r ear. The ce nte rs tor uni ver s al r i
ghtingr efl exe s li e chiefly in the medull a and midbr ain, and in the cer
ebr al c or tex Jor o ptic al
r igh tingr eflexe s.
a) Drop antmal ups ide down to s ee if it e an l and on it s fe et.
b ) Lift animal by the pelvis to see if the he ad is held in a nor ma1
po s ition as the body is tur ned fr om one s ide to the othe r , or if the
he ad i s s imply allow ed to hang down.
c ) Th e animal is plac ed for cibly on its s ide to see if it willr ight its elf.
 -12-

Th e r ig htingr e action s ar e especially abno r mal with ves tibul ar path - olog
y, s uch a s a middle ear tale ction and foca1 le sions of the ve s ti -
bular nuclei or rt acts . In these animal s, abno r m alitie s o I th er i ght ing
ability ar e manife ste d by he ad tilt s, r o11ing mo ve me sts , e tc.

4. Pl ac ing Re actions.
A primar yr equri e m ent tor nor cal s tand ing i s th at th e fe et s h ould be
plac ed in the proper positi or to fi e ar w e ight. Wh en the an ical is 1ow er
ed tow ar d a s uppor tin g sur lac e, vi s u al and / or varions exte
roceptive and
pr opr ioceptive stimuli resulting Ir om c ont a c t with a suppor ting str fac e
eli cit a p1a cingr e ac tion (the le gs ar e br ought fr om a non- suppor ting pose
into a standing position).
a) L ow er th e animal towar d the gr ound to s ee if the fe et ar e pos iti one d
pr ope rly to be ar we i ght.
b) Hold an.imal in th e at r with one hand under the th or ax and the
other hand nude r th e rnuz zle so a s to ele vate the head to exclud e vision.
With the Jor ele gs h arig ing Mr e e and de pe ride at, move the animal for w ar
d tow ar d the ed ge of a table to make contac t w ith the Ir ont of the fo r e -
p aw s . The s1i gh te st c ont act of the paw s wi th the t able shouldr e suit in
as immed iate and accur ate placi rig of the fe et, s ole s down, on th.e table
sur face.

The placingr e action may be initiated by tactile or visual stimul i.

Disturb ances in the norm alr e s port s e may oc cur w ith the le s ions loc ate d
anywh.er e in the s en s o ry or mo tor ar c (per ipher a1 wer ve s , s pi cal c o rd,
b r ain stem, and cer eb run ).

5. Ho ppi rig Re ac tio us.

The s e ar e e s s eritially cor r e c tive move meat s of th e le g s which s er ve
to maint ain a standing postur e unde r conditions invol ving d is plac eme at o( the
body in the ho ri zont al plane. Hold th e animal so that it st ands on one
1 e g. On movement of the body Iorwa rd, backw ar d, or to e ith e r s ide,
the le g ho ps in th e dir e ction of the di s plac emeat so that the foot is kept
dri e ctly node r the sh ould er or th e hip.

The hopping r e action may be evalu at ed in a s in ilar manne r as the

plac ingr e action. This is essenti ally a proprioce ptiver e action to chan ges
in the body g r avity.

III. C RANIAL BE RVE REF LE XE 5 ar e indi cated with the Cr ani al Ner ve s , p age 14.
 - 13 -

.OLFACTORY
”
.OPTIC

CULOMOTOR M.
OCHLEAR N
ABDUCEN

TRIOEMIN

.FACIAL jy.

ACOUSTIC N,
COCHLEAR
TABULAR

.GLOSSOPHARYN GEAL N.

SPINAL
ACCESSORY N.

H YPOGLOSSAL M.
 - 14 -

T HE C RANIAL NERVES

i. OLFAG TORY N. - Rhinitis may involve the br ain di r ec tly, becaus e the subar
achnoid s pac e follow s along the olfacto r y ner ve fiber s thr ough th e cr ibr
ifo r m plate to the olfacto ry ar ea of the nas al c avi ty.
Signs of par alys is and /or te sts - In dog s , clove s , l ave rid e r, ani s e ,
as af etid a, benzo1, and xylol appe ar to s ti mul ate only the olfacto ry or g ans .

II. O PT IC N. - Thi s cr ani al ne r ve c an b e examined directly w ith an o phth a1-

mo s cope (Papilledema, optic atr ophy, detached retina, etc. ). The
cer ebral dura and under lyin g ar achno id with it s cer eb r ospinal Iluid -Iill ed
s pace sur r ound s the optic ner ve up to the s cle r a (eye e nucl eation).
Sign s of par aly sis and / or te st s - Retinal Reflex (aff e r ent arm of) - th row
cotton ball at plasti c sheet held befor e the eyes. (Air curr ent s mu st b e
eliminated to exclud e bl inking caus ed by a cor ne al r e Alex. )

III. OCU LOMOT OR N. - moto r to most of eye mus cle s (dor s al, me dial, ventr a1,
r e cti, ventr al ob1ique ). Motor to le vator pat peb r ae mu s c le (wh i ct el e vate
s the uppe r eyelid). Par as ympath etic fiber s in this ner ve supply the e ili ar y
mus cle (accommod ati on) and the const ricto r mus cle s o I the pupil.
Sign s of par alys is and /or te sts - Par alys isr e s ult s in dr o oping of th e upper
eyelid, dilatati on of the pupil, and de viation of the eyeball to the later al
s ide and d ownw ard. Pupill ary r eflex (eIf e r ent arm of) - Nor ma1 pupil
cons tr icts in re spons e to light shined into eye.

IV. TROCH LE AR N. - motor to the do r s al oblique mus c1e. Par aly s is move s
the axis of vi s ion upw ard and inw ard.

v. TRIGE M INAL N. - in g ener al i s s ens o ry fr om th e s kin and mo s t of th e

d e e pe r s tru ctur es of the he ad, and is motor to the muscle s of ma s ti c ation.

1. Maxillary N. - s e ns o ry fr om low er e yelid, r o of of or al cavity, upper

te eth, nas a1 cavity, skin of no str ils and uppe r lip.
Test Jor s errs ation fr om above ar eas by palp ation, pinc his g› or pin
pr ickin g.

Z. Ophth al mi c N. - s ens ory from upper eye lid and medi al canthu s, eyeball,
poste rio r part of wasal cavity, fr ontal region inc lud ing s inus , s kin of
c and a1 part of ”nose. "
Test tor sensation Ir orn ab ove ar e as - Cor ne al r eflex (afte re nt ar m of) -
Air cur r erit fr om syr ing e di r e c ted at co rue a fr om th e late ra1canthu s of
e ye (out of I ie 1d of vi s ion} nor mallyr e sults in blinking. (Vis ion mus t be
exclude d to eliminate the r etinalr e flex. )

3. M andibular N. - s en s or y from floor of or

a1 c avity, cheeks, lower lip, lower te eth, ante r ior two
-thirds of tongue (not taste ), skin of the later al cr an rum and b
a s e of e ar. Moto r to the mus cl e s of re as tic ation.
Sign s of par aly s is and / or te sts - T e st fo r s en s ation from above ar eas.
Ability to chew is impari ed. Unilater al moto r par aly s is rnayr e s ult in
s light devi ation of lower jaw tow ar d th e nor m al s ide ; b ilat er a1 p ar alys is r
e s ults in a dr o pp ed jaw (dumb r abie s ). The mas s e ter and te mpor al
mus cle s may atr ophy,
 -15-

VI. AB DU G EN T N. - mo to r to the l ater a1r e ctu s and r etr ac to r mu s cle s .

Par alys isr e s ult s in r o tatior of th e eyeb all towar d the medi al canthu s.

VII. FAC IAL N. - Pa s s e s a loeg the ro of of the m id dl e e ar and i s thu s vuln er

able in middle ear irif e c tions . It is motor to the muscles of f a ci a1 expr ess
ton (ear s, lips , che eks , eyel ids ). Seusory (for taste ) fr ore ante r
ior two- thir ds of tongue. Par as ympath etic liber s in the fact al wer ve s up ply
all the g l and s of th e he ad ex c e pt the par otid s ali var y gland.

Signs of par aly s i s and / o r te sts - In a co mplete par alys is, all the s upe rfi c ial mu s
cle s of the he ad ar e flaccid. The ear dr o o ps , th e eye lid r e mains open, the
rior cal line s ar ound the che ek s , mu zz le, and fac e ar e s mo o th ed out.
Eyelid cas not clos e when the co rue al or r etin alr eflexe s ar e te st ed. This
is essenti ally a motor par aly s is and exc e pt Io r taste , ther e is no los s of
s ens ati on fr o m the skin and mucous membr anes.

VIII. ACOUST IC N. - in r e al ity, is composed of tw o s e par at e ne rve s , the c och 1e

ar and the ve s tibul ar.
I . G o ch1 e ar N. tr ans mits impuls es which or ig in at e in the c o chle a, a par t
of the innere ar , whi ch i s a s pe ci ali z ed r e c e pto r to r s ound.
Sign s and / or symptoms of par alys is - De afne ss isr a ther e as ily te sted by
calling the dog' s name o r no ting its r eaction to v ar ious nois es, i. e . , hold
w atch near ear, but out of an inn a1 ' s field of vi s ion.

2. Vestibiil ar N. be g ins w ith r e c e pto r s in th e utr i cle, saecule, and the

ampull ae. It tr ans mits propr ioceptive impuls es initi ated by chang es in
pos ition of th e h e ad. The e ntir e vestibular mecha nism is as impo r tant
dynamic appar atus which is continu ally dischar ging stimuli into the ne r ves
which supply skel etal airs culatur e, i. e. , he ad tilt with middle ear
infection.
Sign s and / or symptoms of par alysis - Sympto ms may include nystagmu s ,
h e ad tilt, rolling movements , ci r clin g, hypo torii a or hyper toni a, inco or
d i - n ation, and prostr ati or. Postur al and attitudinal reflexes ar e abno r
rria1.

IX. G LOSSO PHAR YNGE AL N. - Moto r (w ith Vagu s N. ) to mu s cl e s of ph ar ynx.

Sensory, includin g taste, fr omr oot of tongue, phar ynx, tons ils , middl e ear ,
c ar otid s inus . Par as ympathe ti c lib er s in thi s ne rve supply the par otid
s alivar y gland.
Sign s and /or syrnptoms of par alys is - Los s of s ens ation fr or phar ynx, r o ot
of tongue. Phar yngeal (g ag )r e flex is lost on affe cted side. Some difliculty
in swallowing w ill b e no ted. The car otid s inus r eJ1ex h as its affe r ent ar m in
thi s we rve. Mr e s s ur e o ver the s inus nor mally pr oduc es s l ow ing of th e he ar
t and a fall in blood pressur e.

X. VAGUS N. - Motor arid s errs ory to the larynx and (with Glos s oph aryng ea1 N. )
to the ph ar ynx and s oIt palate. Seeso r y fr om part of exte real ear carial and Mr om
tho r ac ic and abdominal vis cer a. Par as yep athetic Jiber s in th is rie r
ve
s up ply th e thor ac ie and abdominal o r g an s , c aus ing slow er heart r ate ,
c oris tr i cted br onchi oles, incr e as ed b r on c hi al s e cr eti on, incr e as ed pe r i s tal s i s ,
r elax ation of pylor ic s phinc ter , s timul ation of (d i ge s tive ) glandul ar s ecr e
ation.
 - 16 -

Signs and / or s ymptom s of par alys is - Los s orimpair ment of vo ic e. Dys pne
a due to flac cid vocal cords. D iff icult swallowing as sociat ed with re gur g it at ion of
fluid s thr ough nos tr ils . Pa r alys is of s oft palate and los s of g ag r e flex.
Cough is a co ns tant symptom of vag al ri r it ation. Dilatation of stomach,
tachyc ardi a, etc. , may r e sult fr om vagal par alys is , wh ile diar rhea may
r e sult fr om vagal irr itation. (An inter e sting example of r efe rr ed ”pa in” is
the vomiting done by a young dog w ith an e ar infl ammati on. Sinc e the vagus
is sens ory fr om both rhe exte rnal ear canal and the stomach, the dog may
vomit becaus e the br ain I ails to dis tingu is h the t rue s our c e of the i r r it at ion.
)

XI. (S PINAL) ACCE SSOR Y N. - part of this ner ve i s dist ribut ed w ith the
vagu s while the s pinal portion is moto r to the tr apes ius and part of the ste mo c e ph - ali
cu s and b r achio cephal icus mus cl es. Ner ve injury is manife sted by s
igns of we akne ss, par alysis, and at rophy of the involved mus cle s.

XIL HY POG LO SSAL N. - motor to the mus cle s of the ton gu e. Injury to th e ne r
ve c aus e s par alys is of one -half of the tongue. When the to ngue is
pr o trud ed, it deviate s toward the par alyz ed side. The muscles on the
affe cted s ide of the tongue atro phy.
 - 17 -

S UP RA S CA PULA R

A XIL LA RY

MUS C U LO C UTANE OUS

ULNA

MEDIAN

RA DIA L

MedialView of Forelimb

illu str ating the relative cour se and

distr ibution of the maj or ne r ve s to
the fr ont leg of th e dog.
 - 18-

T HE MA I OR NERVES OF T HE F ORELI MB

The nerv es of the for e limb ari se fr om the brachia I plexu,s The bra chi a1 p lexus
is Ior me d b y the v e ntr a1 br an che s of the la st 3 Ge rvi c at and the fir s t Z Thoracic
nerves (C 6 - 7 - 8, T l- Z) .

S U PRAS CA PU LA R NERV E - 6th ( 7) G e rvi c a I c orripone nt s .

Mot or - to s ct pr as p rna tiis and infr aspinat us rnus c ie s .
Signs of Par a 1ys i s - T he 1os s of exte usor acti on b y the s e mus c Ie s
on the s how ld er is d iffi cult to d ete ct . T he s e mms c Ie s s e rve larg ely
as later a1 ligaments for this joint . A t r oph y i s pr on our c ed and the
s pine of the s c apula becomes pr ornine nt (Swe eny) .

A XI L LA RY NERV E - ( 6) 7th ( 8) G e rvic a1 components .

Motor - to cer ta in I lexo r s of the s hould e r ( ter e s maj or , ter e s
mino r , d e It ord e us , part of s ub s c a put a r i s mus c le ) .
S e us or y - fr om the s kin of the d or s o 1at er at as pe ct of the tr ue
ar m or br a chi rim .
Signs of Par a Us i s - S mall ar ea of c utaneous d e s errs iti tati onon
the later al s i d e of the ar m , b ut ther e is no pr ono unc e d los s of
flexi on of the s hould er joint . (P lexion of the s ho uld er ap par e nt I y
c an be ac c omp li s he d b y the s yner gisti c act ion of s uch rnus cle s as
the long he ad of the I r ie e ps and the latissimus d or s i . )
T e st - F Ie xor Ref le x ( s hon ld e r) w e ake ne d in a xi llar y
para 1ys i s .

RA DIA L NERV E - 7th 8th Ge rvi c a 1, 1st 2 nd Thor aci c comporient s ,

T he e ntir er ad ia 1 ne rv e may be in jur e d by fr act ur e s of the fi r s t ri b
o r t r aumati c avu1si on of its r oot s fr om the s pina1 cor d .
Motor - to all the exte usor musc Ie s of the e lb ow , the c ar pus , and
the d igit s .
Seusor y - Ir om the s kin on the d o r s a1 and lat er a1 part s of the
lore arm and the d or s a 1 a s pe ct of the paw,
Signs of Para lysis - The leg can bear no weight when the enti re
r ad i a 1 ne rve is in jur ed . This is pr imart ly d ue to the par alys is of
the ext ens or s of the e lbow . This jointr e main s f lexe d when wa lktng .
Whe n the ne rve is irijiir ed di s ta1 to the br anche s which s upply the
trice ps mus c 1e , the para lysis is much ie ss mar bed . F r a ct or e s of
the humer us ma y e as i ly invo1ve thi s part of the r adia l nerve . The
elbow c an be exte nd ed , but the r e i s a tend enc y to lan uc kle ove r onto
the d or s at sid e of the paw when w a lking . After a time , the par alys is
may be d iff ic alt to d et e ct , but the c utaneous d e s ens i ti z ati on i s
d i ag no s tic .
T e st - Ext ens or Thr us t R ef 1ex, S u ppor ti ng and P lac tag Re
actions are absent inr ad ia1 par alys i,s
MUS GB LO G U TA NEOUS N ERV E - 7th Ce rvi ca 1 c ompone nt .
Motor - to s pecial f lexor s of the e lbow joint (bic eps and br ac hia li s
mus c Ie s) .
S errs or y - fr om the s kin on the me d ia I s ide of the for ea rm . An
anas tom ot i c br anch joins the med ian ner ve and is d i s tr ibut ed wi th
it .
Signs of P ar alysis - P ar alys is of thi s nerve causes little change
in gait. Ther e appear s to be a s li ght str a ight e ning of the ang Ie of
the e 1bow joint . With s ome d iffi cult y, the elbow c an s till be f Ie xe d
( as when r ais ing th e paw t o the e d ge of the ta b1e) . T hi s abi li t y i s
pro bab ly d ate to the f le x o r a ct iDTl Oh the e lbow joint bY the e xte us o r
mus c le s of the c ar pu s and d igit s which or igi nate on the humer us .
S kin i s d e s e us i tize d on the me d ia 1 s id e of the fo r e ar m .
T e st - F lexor Reflex ( e lbow) w e ake ned in m us e ti1oc utane ons
par alysis .

MEDIAN AND U LNA R NERVES - 8th G e rvi ca1, 1s1 2nd Thor acic
compon ent s .
Motor - to all the f lexo r mus cle s of the e a rpms and digits .
Sens or y - (t o gether with the ana s tomotic br anch of the mus c
ulo- cutaneoiis ne rve) fr om the skin and pads on the votar s ide of
the paw . S e ns ati on fr om the s kin on the c aud a 1 s id e of
the for e arm
and the d or s o - late r a1 aspect of the 5th d igit is medi ate d s o1e ly b y
the u luar nerve .
Signs of Par a lys i s - Los s of both the s e ne r ve s caus es litt Ie alter -
ation of gait . Ther e is s ome sinIcing of the car pus and I et loc Ie d ue
t o the 1os s of t one to the f lexor s of the s e joint s . In jur Z to the ulna r
ne rve d oe s c aus e d e s e us itiz ation in the are as which ar e s upplie d
s o 1e ly b y it . T he v o tar a s pe ct of the paw i s c ompletely d e s e us iti ze d only
when 3 ne rve s , the med i an, the u luar , and the mus culoc at ane ous a r e
in jur ed . A ctive f lexi on of c ar pus i s lo st .
P UD ENDA L N. >

F EELOB.A L N.
OBT URA T OR N.

S APHENOUS BRANG H

SCIATI

PERONEA L N.

TI BIA L N.

Medial View of Hindl imb

illustr ating the re1ative cour se and

dis tr ibution of th e major ne r ve s to
the hind le g of the do g.
 T Hif MA FOR NERV ES OF T HE HINDLI MB AND PELVIS

The nerve >- of the hind limb ar is e from the lumbo sac ra1 plexus . The 1u.mbos a e ra
1 p lexus is formed b y the ve ntr a 1 br anch es of the las t 4 Lumbar and the 3 S acr a1
nerve s (L 4- 5- 6- 7, S 1-Z - 3 J.

OBT URAT OR NERV E - (4) 5th 6th L iimbar components . It is

vulne ra ble to tr a mrna as it c our s e s d own the s halt of the i lium .
Motor - to the mus c Ie s which add u ct the thigh ( ext e r na 1 obt ur at or ,
pe ctlne us, add act or , and gr aci li s mus c le s) .
Si s o a alys s - The pelvic append ag e s lid es late ra11y on a
s mooth s urf ace in a unilat er a1 obtor at or ne rve in jur y. The ant ma1
lite ra11y ''d oe s the s p1it s ' ' on s uch a s url a c e , with a bilater al
obt ur at or ne rve le s ton . T he ant ma I w alks quite norma lly on a
''non - s kid" s urfa ce.

FEMORA L NERV E - 4- 5- 6 Lumbar component s .

Motor - the the major extens ors of the s tif 1e joint (quad ri ceps
femoris ) and to the i li ops oas and s ar tor ins mus c Ie s .
S ens or y - s aphenou s br anch is s ens or y Ir om the s kin on the me d
ia 1 s iirf ac e of the thigh, stif le , ieg , and paw ,
Signs of P ar alys is - The s tifIe joint can neit her be exte nd ed nor
fixed to pr event the co11aps e of the ie g when bear ing w e i ght . (The
s tifle is the k e y joint of the hind llm b. ) When wa lking , the d og
must take a quic k step with the unalf e ct ed le g to pr event the cornplete
co11aps e of the para lyzed Ie g whi Ie it is be ar i ng w ei ght . De s e us iti
za- tion occurs in the ar ea supplied by the S aphe nous br anch of the
F emo ra 1 ne rve .
T e st - Ext errs or Thr us t (s tif le,)

PERON EAL OR SIB ULAR NERVE - a ter mina1 br anch of S ci ati c

nerve , is vulner able Io rt a uma as it c r o s s e s the lat e ra 1 a s pe ct of the
s tif Ie joint quite s uper ficiall y .
Motor - to the mus cle s which f lex the hock and extend the digits .
Sensor y - fr om the d or s a 1 as pe ct of the d is ta1 part of the tr ue Ie g,
the hoc lx, and the paw .
Signs of Par a 1ys is - Le s i ons of thi s nerve resu1t iti a s tra ight eninpp
of tb e hoc k and a te nd enc y I or the d og t o knuc k1e over ont o the
d or s um of the fet loc k and di gits . Although the hock can not be
flexe d , the d og s oon ie ams to plac e the foot pr oper ly ñ y a gr e at er
I lexi on of the hip and ext e us ton of the s tif Ie joint s . The d or s a I
as pe ct of the paw is ane s theti zed in thi s par alys is .
Test - F Ie x or Ref lex (hoc k) .
T I BIA L NERV E - a te r mina I br anch of S ci ati c ne rve , d e s c e nd s in
c ont act wi th the c aud al as pe ct of the s tif Ie joint .
Motor - to the mus cIes which exte nd the hoc k and flex the d i g it s .
S errs or y - from the slain and pad s on the plant ar as pect of the paw,
Signs of P ar a lys is - T he hoc k jointr e mains Ilexed whe n the d
og i s wa lking , and , when w e i glut i s support ed on the
affe cte d 1im b, thi s I lexion is
accentuate d . S e us ati on i s lo s t fr om the p lantar
a s pe ct of th e hind paw.
T est — Exte usor Thr ust Ref lex (ho c k) .

S CIA T IG N ERV - ( 5) 6th 7th Lumbar , 1 (2) Sacr a1 component s .

This ner ve is vu lner able within the pelvic cavit y ( pr e s s ur e , fr a c tur e s
of the i li rim) , and i t is end anger e d by rt a uma and s or gi c al pr o c e d ure s
ne ar the pr oxima1 e nd of the fe mur . Irr it ating inje ctions into the
c and a I thi gh mu s c le s ma y a lso inv olv e thi s ne rve .
Mot or - The pe r one a1 and ti bia 1 ne rve s which have alr ead y be e n
d e s cr ib e d ar e the tw o ter mi na1 br anc he s of the s c iatic nerve. In
addition, this 1arge nerve supplies the massive cauda1 thi gh mus c Ie s
whic h he lp to extend the hi p and flex the st ifie joints . Br anc hes
give n off w i thin the pelvis supply fihe g 1st ea 1 and othe r mus cIes
whic h exte nd and abduct the hip.
Sensor y - In ad d iti on t o s ens or y c omponents of the tibi a1 and peroneal
nerve s, the sctatic nerve tuner vate s the slain on the ca nd a 1 and
later at sides of the true Ieg .
Signs of Para lbsis - G utaneous d e s en s iti zati on exist s below the
s tif1e exc e pt for the me d ia I s id e of the Ie g, ho c lx, and paw (this via
F e mor at N . ) . T he gait is mar ked ly alter ed bY para lysis Of the
mus c le s to all the joint s be1ow the stif Ie, only the ext ens or s of this
jo’tntr e ma in I un cti ona 1. When the s c rat ie ner ve is in jur ed at the
Ieve1 of gr e ater s c i ati c for amen, the hock of the affe ct ed ie g aim-
Iess ly and passively Ilexe s and extend s as weight i s shifted or the
appe nd age . T he Ie g d oe s not c olla ps e whe n be artng weight be ca us e
the fe mor a 1 nerve fixe s the s tif1e joint . The ant ma 1 s tand s "knuc k1ed
over " on the d or s at s id e of the paw . T he hip )oint r emains f unc ti onal,
d e s pite the par a lysi s of the c aud a1 thigh mus e Ies . The action of thi s
joint is ap par e nt ly maint arued b y the g lut ea 1, obt ur a tor , and I em or a1
ne rve s . In jur y t o the e ntir e s c iatic nerve within the pelvi e cavit y
w ould inc Inde the br an che s t o the glutea1 and to the s mall pe lvic
assoc iation muscles . In add iti on to the s ympt oms d e s cr ibed ab ove,
para lysis of the s e ext e us or and abd u ct or mms c Ie s of the hip yr ould
r e s tilt in I text on of the hi p jot nt and the dr aw ing of the affe cte d limb
towar d the mid line . ( Only the f ear or a I and the o bt ur at or ne rv e s
rcrnain functional.)
 -23-

PUDENDA L NERVE - 1- 2 - 3 S acr a1 component s..

Mot or - to exte rna1 ana 1 s phinct er and the s ke Ie ta l mus c Ie
s as s oc iated with the penis , vulva , and ure thr a .
Sens or y - fr om penis or clit or is , and the skin of the anal open -
ing , the vulva, and part of the s cr otum .
Signs of Para1ys is - Anes thes ia in the are as indicat ed above .
Refaxed ext e rna I anal s phincter .
T e st - Ana 1 Ref lex (I ouc hing s kin near ana I orifice
norma11y re s ults in visible contr action of ana 1 s phincter .

PELVIS NERVE - those fiber s in l- 2 S ac rat components which

are par as ympatheti c unite to form the pelvic nerve .
Motor - .to the s mooth mms cle and gland s of the pe lvic cav it y
(r e ctum, bladd e r, et c. ) whi ch, upon action, cause urination,
conrt d efe catton, and erection.
Sensory - fr om the pe lvic vis cer a.
Si us of P ar a lys is - Ab s enc e or alte ration of pe lvi c vis cera I r
ef lexe s (ur ination, d efe cation) , and er ec tion.