Interfacing with the robot

Industrial robots usually work in unison with other parts of the processing equipment such as work
parts, conveyors, tools and CNC machine tools. A means of coordinating all the activities including the
robot workstation is required. Some of the activities that are to occur will be sequential and some
activities will be simultaneous. To make certain that the correct sequence is maintained a workstation
controller must be used.

The workstation controller has overall responsibility for regulating the activities. An example of a robot
workstation could be as follows:
1 a CNC machine tool machines a bollard for mounting to a 6.0 metre work boat
2 a conveyor delivers the part into the work station
3 a robot picks up the part and loads it into the machine
4 the machine closes and performs the machining
5 the robot then unloads the finished part and sets it on to the finished part conveyor
6 the process is repeated.

The workstation controller would have to ensure that:

1 the machine is stopped and the door is open when the robot tries to load the part
2 there is no part still in the machine before loading
3 the robot is clear of the machine before the doors are shut and the machine started.

Some of these activities occur sequentially and some simultaneously. The controller would have to
operate the conveyor while the CNC machine was in operation and the robot would need to be
stopped from entering the machine.

When the part on the conveyor was delivered up to the robot the conveyor needs to be stopped to
prevent a build up of tangled parts, from which the robot cannot pick up. When a part is not available
for processing then the robot would be stopped and the process of machining not started.

To enable the controller to carry out these functions it must receive signals from other devices in the
workstation and communicate signals to other parts. These signals would usually come from interlocks
and sensors.

Interlocks

An interlock is a device, which prevents the workstation sequence from continuing until a certain
condition, or set of conditions has been satisfied.
In a robot there are out going signals and incoming signals. The use of interlocks provides an important
benefit in the control of the work cycle because it prevents actions from happening when they
shouldn’t and it causes actions to occur when they should. Interlocks are needed to help coordinate
the activities of the equipment in the workstation and to help stop any damage of one component by
another.
When using interlocks to control situations, you need to consider the following:

1 the normal sequence of activities that will occur during a cycle

2 the potential for a malfunction when one of the limit switches, pressure switches, photoelectric
or any other device fails to operate.

The robots usually come with an RS232, USB, or PS2 port for connecting to other components and
sensors. There is usually a place for connecting the external memory, for example a memory stick.

Interfacing with the controller

The robot mechanism is usually hard-wired to the controller. In order to change the program it is easy
to change from the repeat mode to the teach mode to teach new positions. In order to teach new
positions the production process will be stopped while the robot learns the new moves.

Teaching and Programming Methods for Robots

There are a number of ways a robot can be taught to perform a certain task. When the robot is actually
driven from one position to another, as part of a sequence of movements the method is known as
teaching.

If a sequence of moves is created without having to use the robot during this stage, the method is
known as programming.

Teaching Methods

The methods used to teach a robot fall into one of the following categories:

1 Teach in
• where the robot is moved by means of switches
2 Teach through
• where the robot is moved by hand through the path required
3 Teach offline
• where the program is produced on another computer and then transferred to
the robot when required.
Teach in

This is the most common method used today to create a program.

By using a 'teach pendant' or 'teach box', the programmer simply
moves the end effector to the desired position, by pressing a certain
sequence of buttons or switches, and then records that position.
The controller stores that position away in its memory. In this way
the program is gradually built up until the desired sequence is
completed.

On some of the more recently produced robots the teach box has
been modified to make teaching more efficient. Instead of pressing
buttons or switches, the robot is moved by using a joystick. This has
the distinct advantage of allowing the operator to watch the end
effector for the majority of the time, instead of looking at the teach
box each time a move is made to be certain the right button is
pressed.

Teach Through

In this method of teaching the robot is actually lead through the sequence of moves. This can create
problems if the robot is rather large, as the operator has to overcome the weight of the robot as well
as the friction in the arm joints, and transmission systems used to drive the various links.

This may be overcome to some extent if the robot has some form of counterbalancing device that
supports the static weight of the arm, or by using a ‘master robot’; that is simply a frame with position
feedback devices attached at identical points as the ‘slave robot’. When the master robot is moved,
the slave robot moves the same amount. In some cases, the master robot can be used to create a
program offline. This eliminates the need for the robot to be taken off-task.

It should be noted that when the controller is set in teaching mode all movements made by the
operator will be recorded. For this reason the positional accuracy achieved is not very high.
Teach Off line

A quicker process is to program the robot off line and then download the new program either via the
network connection or through the external memory.
The new program must be tested for a full cycle to make sure there are no mistakes.

Programming Methods

By using an external computer a robot may be taught by:

• expressing positions in terms Cartesian co-ordinates.

• using a shifting co-ordinate system
• incorporating a Vision system and pointer
• with the aid of a CAD system.

Cartesian Co-Ordinates

When a specific point is defined at the end effector, co-ordinates in the x,y,and z planes can be taken
from a reference position

Shifting Co-Ordinates

Using a special command, the co-ordinates of an existing program can be shifted to another point in
space and duplicated. This is particularly useful if two or more identical sequences of movements need
to be repeated in different locations.

One big disadvantage of using the co-ordinate system for programming is that the numerical value of
each co-ordinate along the path must be known before starting to program.

Vision Systems and Pointers

In this method a narrow beam of light , or pointer is used to indicate the points along the path - one
point after another. A vision sensor, like a camera, finds the location of the light spots and inputs them
to the controller. A different application of this method involves the use of a monitor screen showing
the robot’s field of operation. A light pen is used as a pointer. Touching the light pen to the desired
points on the screen inputs them to the controller memory.

CAD Systems

Advances in computer aided design systems now allow a simulated work cell to be created on the
terminal screen. The moves required from the robot are keyed in and the computer simulates the
robot’s task. When the movements made are satisfactory the computer then produces the completed
program.
Comparisons of Teaching and Programming Methods

The main advantages of teaching methods over programming methods are:

• More accurate positioning can be achieved by teaching, as any stress on the arm caused
by the load being moved or positioned, is allowed for when positions are recorded. When
positions are programmed the effect of these stresses on positions cannot be determined
at the time of programming.

• Point accuracy achieved by programming methods can only be as accurate as the

co-ordinate information defined.

The main advantages methods of programming methods over teaching are:

• The robot does not have to be taken off a current task to create a new one, saving both
time and effort.

• A program created by defining co-ordinates may be used with another type of robot of
different structure.

Some experts predict that, over the next ten years, the teach method of creating a program will drop
significantly in favour of off line programming methods.

Interfacing with External Memory

A robot can have its program changed very simply. The modern computer control allows connection
of a compact disk drive for the transfer of files into the robot. This could also be achieved with the use
of other computer memory devices such as compact disks, zip drives, memory sticks that plug into a
USB port and floppy disks for small files, or by connection through a network to a variety of computers.

Random access memory (RAM) is the best known form of computer memory. RAM is considered
"random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and column
that intersect at that cell.

Read-only memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated circuit programmed with specific
data when it is manufactured. ROM chips are used not only in computers, but in most other electronic
items as well.

EEPROMs and Flash Memory

Though EPROMs (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) are a big step up from
PROMs in terms of reusability, they still require dedicated equipment and a labour-intensive process
to remove and reinstall them each time a change is necessary. Also, changes cannot be made
incrementally to an EPROM; the whole chip must be erased. (EEPROM) chips remove the biggest
drawbacks of EPROMs.

In EEPROMs:

The chip does not have to be removed to be rewritten.

The entire chip does not have to be completely erased to change a specific portion of it.

Changing the contents does not require additional dedicated equipment.

Instead of using UV light, you can return the electrons in the cells of an EEPROM to normal with the
localized application of an electric field to each cell. This erases the targeted cells of the EEPROM,
which can then be rewritten. EEPROMs are changed 1 byte at a time, which makes them versatile but
slow. In fact, EEPROM chips are too slow to use in many products that make quick changes to the data
stored on the chip.

Manufacturers responded to this limitation with Flash memory, a type of EEPROM that uses in-circuit
wiring to erase by applying an electrical field to the entire chip or to predetermined sections of the
chip called blocks. Flash memory works much faster than traditional EEPROMs because it writes data
in chunks, usually 512 bytes in size, instead of 1 byte at a time.

Removable Flash Memory Cards

While your computer's BIOS chip is the most common form of Flash memory, removable solid-state
storage devices are becoming increasingly popular. SmartMedia and CompactFlash cards are both
well-known, especially as "electronic film" for digital cameras. Other removable Flash memory
products include Sony's Memory Stick, PCMCIA memory cards, and memory cards for video game
systems such as Nintendo's N64, Sega's Dreamcast and Sony's PlayStation. The essential idea is the
same for all of these products. Every one of them is simply a form of Flash memory.

There are several reasons to use Flash memory instead of a hard disk:
Flash memory is noiseless.
It allows faster access.
It is smaller in size.
It is lighter.
It has no moving parts.
Why don't we just use Flash memory for everything?
Because the cost per megabyte for a hard disk is drastically cheaper, and the capacity is substantially
more.

Electronic memory comes in a variety of forms to serve a variety of purposes. Flash memory is used
for easy and fast information storage in such devices as digital cameras and home video game
consoles. It is used more as a hard drive than as RAM. In fact, Flash memory is considered a solid state
storage device. Solid state means that there are no moving parts -- everything is electronic instead of
mechanical.
Here are a few examples of Flash memory:

Your computer's BIOS chip

CompactFlash (most often found in digital cameras)
SmartMedia (most often found in digital cameras)
Memory Stick (most often found in digital cameras)
PCMCIA Type I and Type II memory cards (used as solid-state disks in laptops)
Memory cards for video game consoles

The Basics

Flash memory is a type of EEPROM chip. It has a grid of columns and rows with a cell that has two
transistors at each intersection . The two transistors are separated from each other by a thin oxide
layer. One of the transistors is known as a floating gate, and the other one is the control gate. The
floating gate's only link to the row, is through the control gate. As long as this link is in place, the cell
has a value of 1.

This charge causes the floating-gate transistor to act like an electron gun. The excited electrons are
pushed through and trapped on other side of the thin oxide layer, giving it a negative charge. These
negatively charged electrons act as a barrier between the control gate and the floating gate. A special
device called a cell sensor monitors the level of the charge passing through the floating gate. If the
flow through the gate is greater than 50 percent of the charge, it has a value of 1. When the charge
passing through drops below the 50-percent threshold, the value changes to 0. A blank EEPROM has
all of the gates fully open, giving each cell a value of 1.
The electrons in the cells of a Flash-memory chip can be returned to normal ("1") by the application
of an electric field, a higher-voltage charge. Flash memory uses in-circuit wiring to apply the electric
field either to the entire chip or to predetermined sections known as blocks. This erases the targeted
area of the chip, which can then be rewritten. Flash memory works much faster than traditional
EEPROMs because instead of erasing one byte at a time, it erases a block or the entire chip, and then
rewrites it.

You may think that your car radio has Flash memory, since you are able to program the presets and
the radio remembers them. But it is actually using Flash RAM. The difference is that Flash RAM has to
have some power to maintain its contents, while Flash memory will maintain its data without any
external source of power. Even though you have turned the power off, the car radio is pulling a tiny
amount of current to preserve the data in the Flash RAM. That is why the radio will lose its presets if
your car battery dies or the wires are disconnected.

CDs and DVDs are everywhere these days. Whether they are used to hold music, data or computer
software, they have become the standard medium for distributing large quantities of information in a
reliable package. Compact discs are so easy and cheap to produce that America Online sends out
millions of them every year to entice new users. And if you have a computer and CD-R drive, you can
create your own CDs, including any information you want.
Removable storage has been around almost as long as the computer itself. Early removable storage
was based on magnetic tape like that used by an audio cassette. Before that, some computers even
used paper punch cards to store information!

New removable storage devices can store hundreds of megabytes (and even gigabytes) of data on a
single disk, cassette, card or cartridge. A USB type removable flash disk drive, they are available in
32MB up to 1GB of disk space. You can save, delete or move data to and from the Pocket Disk, as you
would normally do with your desktop hard disk drive. You can plug it into any PC or laptop, which has
an USB connector. The Pocket Disk will be recognized as a removable hard drive by your computer.
The Pocket Disk is a portable USB hard drive not only used for storage but the transport of data and
applications as well. It is lightweight and compact and is approximately the size of a lighter, which can
fit into your shirt pocket.
Sensors

Plug-in devices, such as sensors, can be set in line so that a crash situation may be detected before
any damage is done. In the case of accept or reject functions on a gauging system, parts can be passed
onto the correct section of the production line.

Other devices available are part sensors to tell the robot that there is a part for it to perform its tasks
upon.

Sample of some applications of Proximity sensors

The sensors feel for misalignment and adjust the position of the work piece. The amount of error is
limited to the chamfer on the part.
Other Peripherals and Program Control of Interfacing
Application: Typical technical features required:

Material transfer Number of axes: 3 to 5

Drive system: pneumatic or hydraulic (for heavy
loads)
Programming: manual, powered lead through
Control system: limited sequence or point-to-point
playback

Machine loading Anatomy: Polar, cylindrical, jointed arm

Number of axes: 4 or 5
Drive system: electric or hydraulic (for heavy loads)
Programming: powered lead through
Control system: limited sequence or point-to-point
playback

Spot welding Anatomy: polar, jointed arm

Number of axes: 5 or 6
Drive system: hydraulic or electric
Programming: powered lead through
Control system: point-to-point playback

Arc welding Anatomy: polar, jointed arm, Cartesian

Number of axes: 5 or 6
Drive system: electric or hydraulic
Programming: manual or powered lead through
Control system: continuous-path playback

Spray coating Anatomy: jointed arm

Number of axes: 6 or more
Drive system: hydraulic
Programming: manual lead through
Control system: continuous-path playback

Assembly Anatomy: jointed arm, Cartesian (box), SCARA

Number of axes: 3 to 6
Drive system: electric
Programming: powered lead through, textual
language
Control system: playback: point-to-point or
continuous path
Accuracy and repeatability: high