NATURAL RESOURCES

A Resource can be defined as features obtained from biotic or abiotic things, used by
man for his needs. Unprecedented population pressures and demands of society on scarce
land, water and biological resources and the increasing degradation of these resources are
affecting the stability and resilience of our ecosystems and the environment as a whole.
Therefore proper management of these resources is essential to maintain its availability and
to avoid any severe ecological consequences for sustenance of life on earth.
These resources are mainly classified into two types:
 Renewable resources: These resources are used over and over as they are ‘flow’ in
nature. They include water, soil fertility, forest, human beings etc.,
 Non Renewable resources: These are finite in nature and are formed over very long
geological periods, due to this they cannot be replenished once depleted. E.g. Minerals
and fossil fuels resource.

FOREST RESOURCES
Forest is an important renewable natural resource consisting of plant community,
predominately of trees or other woody vegetation, occupying an extensive area of land and
has been classified into Natural and Man- Made forests.
Due to its richness and growing mans need there has been an unscientific exploitation
of these forests leading to varied environmental problems and threats. Therefore now a days
there has been growing concern to protect them.
Uses of Forests:
Forest which is a highly complex, constantly changing environment with a variety of
living and non- living things has huge amount of benefits within. Some are listed as follows:

Benefits of forests Explanation Example

Regulation of atmospheric
Gas regulation chemical composition
Regulation of global
Climate regulation temperature, minimizes the
global warming
Damping of ecosystem
Disturbance regulation response to environmental
fluctuation
CO2/O2 balance, O3 for UV
protection
Greenhouse gas regulation. E.g.
Each acre of forests absorb
31.45tonnes of carbon each year.
Storm protection, flood control,
drought recovery
 Regulation of hydrological Providing water for agricultural
Water regulation flows industrial, and human uses
Water percolates easily Provisioning of water by
Water supply through the pores in watersheds and aquifers
between the plant roots
The tree roots help to Prevent soil erosion, land slides,
Control of Soil Erosion, retains the soil within an siltation of dams and run off
sediment retention ecosystem
Soil formation processes Weathering of rock and the
Soil formation accumulation of organic matter
It stores and cycles the Nitrogen fixation, maintains the
Nutrient cycling nutrients cycling of nitrogen, carbon,
oxygen, phosphorous and other
nutrient cycles
Recovery of mobile Waste treatment, pollution
Waste treatment nutrients and breakdown of control, detoxification
excess nutrients
Movement of pollen Insects and birds that pollinate
Pollination crops
They regulate the E.g. predators, maintains the
Biological control population dynamics population of the herbivores by
feeding on them
Habitat for resident and Overwintering grounds for
Refugia transient populations waterfowl.
The areas nutrients, climate Production of fish, crops, nuts,
Food production favours their growth fruits
The areas nutrients, climate Production of Timber, fuel wood
Commercial materials favours their growth
Sources of unique Medicines, genes for the
Genetic resources biological materials act as resistance of pathogens
gene reserve
Providing opportunities for Ecotourism, camping, hiking, off
Recreation recreation – road biking, sport fishing and
other outdoor activities
Providing opportunities for Aesthetic, artistic, educational,
Cultural non-commercial uses spiritual, and scientific value
They act as a home for The Tribals are wholly dependent
Human many people on forest for food, shelter and all
other basic needs.
The forest products are Starting of industry, commercial
Employment wide providing ample use of forest products increase the
source of employment employment opportunities
They are good appealing They absorb noise, reduce stress
Aesthetic environment and peaceful area
Deforestation:
Deforestation is the clearance of naturally occurring forests by logging and burning.
In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that
deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating
economic, social and technological conditions."
Further according to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture.
Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is
responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of deforestation and fuel
wood removals make up 5% of deforestation.

Causes of Deforestation:
 Population explosion – Over growing population, industrialization has lead to the
destruction of forests to create space for the new colonies, buildings and industrial
development.
 Farming – the slash burn farming, unlike traditional farming methods depletes the very
soil resource upon which all agriculture and forestry depend.
 Wood Collection - Fuel wood is the most important wood product in developing countries
Worldwide, nearly 3,000people use fuel wood as their principal source of energy
especially in the rural areas.
 Livestock Grazing – As not much land is meant for grazing of cattle the villagers majorily
depend on the forest area for grazing. Cattle ranching, particularly in Latin America, are a
major cause deforestation.
 Commercial plantation – The growth of commercially important crops like coffee, coco,
citrus and rubber has reduced the forest areas. For instance in Indonesia the area of oil
palm plantations has skyrocketed in the last 15 years at the expense of the natural forests.
 Petroleum Exploration and Quarrying – Mining, quarrying and oil exploration have
devasted the forests areas with heaps of mine dust and ore, leading to large amount of
deforestation. E.g. Copper belt of Zambia, oil exploration activities in the case of eastern
Ecuador, etc.,
 Construction & development – The construction of roads across forests and hills to
connect places has also led to the destruction of forests. E.g. in South America the
construction of Amazonian highway has opened up millions of square kilometers of
inaccessible forest to colonization and expansion.
The construction of dams, canals and hydroelectric development, has also resulted in
destruction. The Sharda Sahayak Canal irrigation project in Eastern U.P. was undertaken
to irrigate 16lakh hectares of land. Though has beneficial effects, its seepage of water has
damaged several thousand hectares of forests.
Effects & Consequences of Deforestation:
 Effect on Soil and land - It takes many years for the development of the top soil, but the
process of deforestation causes the loss of precious top soil. It is said that nearly 11,000
million tones of India’s top soil gets washed down the rivers every year, resulting in the
depletion of fertility of soil. Exposure of the soil directly to suns rays due to deforestation
increases its compaction, leeching out of nutrients, increased availability of toxic
substances, break up of the nutrient cycle etc.,
Tillage and over grazing by livestock further accelerate the degradation of soil. The
soil without the protection of the tree cover, are to the rigors of severe tropical climates
and are rapidly eroded making slopes unstable and ultimately leading to landslides,
floods, etc.,
 Destructs the habitats of various species - Forest degradation and deforestation destructs
the habitats of a variety of species endangering their survival
 Loss of biodiversity - Destruction of forests results in the extinction and endangerment of
different floral and faunal species.
 Economic loss - By destroying the forests all potential future revenues, employment that
could be derived from their sustainable management of forest products are lost.
 Change in Climate – Due to deforestation, there is less rainfall in places of Rajasthan,
Himachal Pradesh, etc., Reduction of forests increases the amount of CO 2 in the
atmosphere, which in turn, increases global warming inducing desertification, droughts,
Melting of the ice caps in the polar regions and coastal flooding, etc.,
 Effect on stream flow – Deforestation accelerates siltation of water courses, convert
perennial streams to seasonal streams.
 Effect on Tribal Life - degradation and destruction of forests have a long term impact on
the tribal life
 Floods – Deforestation causes quicker run off and decreased infiltration resulting in large
scale floods affecting the water cycle drastically.
 Desertification – According to the United Nations Environmental Programme in 1977,
deforestation is an important factor contributing to desertification. E.g. According to it
the Sahara Desert expanded southward by 100km between 1958 and 1975.
Conservation of Forests:
 Reforestation - In many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries,
reforestation and afforestation are increasing the area of forested lands. Asia as a whole
gained 1 million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador
expanded more than 20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study
projects that global forest will increase by 10%—an area the size of India—by 2050.
 Farming - New methods are being developed to farm more intensively, such as high-
yield hybrid crops, greenhouse, autonomous building gardens, and hydroponics. Cyclic
agriculture is practiced where cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and
rejuvenating and soil fertility is maintained.
 Action by public – The following actions could serve as a solution to reduce
deforestation:
 Reduce consumption of forest and related products
  Avoid harmful products by consumer boycott, like old – growth wood from
tropical forests
 Boycott products of companies involved in deforestation.
 Compel government and industry to make change in the forest policies.
 Environmental conservation may be given importance in school curricula.
 International and National Forest Policies – The United Nation Forum of Forests is an
international organization. The aim of this is to formulate international forest policies and
to implement action on development of forests.
1. The United Nations and the World Bank, have begun to develop programs - The blanket
term Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) describes
the sorts of programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encourage
developing countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation.
2. In India the Central Government has formulated - The Indian Forest Policy – 1988.
The aim of this policy is
 To grow trees in ecologically fragile areas.
 To grow groves in pilgrimage centre.
 To encourage social forestry, urban, medicinal and agro forestry.
3. The National Wasteland Development Board – Established in 1985, the aim of it is to
bring stretches of wasteland under cultivation promoting tree plantation and afforestation.
4. The Chipko movement – The movement was inspired by devoted Gandhians. Village
women flocked round trees and prevented selfish wood cutters from felling trees for their
selfish ends.
Deforestation - Case studies:
The Rain forests of the Amazon Basin: Nowhere on earth is the threat of biological
impoverishment because of deforestation greater than in the Amazon Basin of South
America. The Amazon supports approximately 300 million hectares of tropical forest,
estimating global biodiversity of 50 to 90% of all species on Earth it also supports over 300
tree species per hectare.
The factors leading to rapid degradation are:
 Increasing population
 Abundant forest resource
 Need of land for agriculture for farmers to earn a livelihood - slash and burn, subsistence
farming, etc.,
 Government policies to construct highways, subsidize agriculture, and relocate farmers
into the forests
 rapid degradation of pastures due to poor soil quality
 Increase in Timber exports
 Extraction of Iron, Bauxite, Manganese, Gold, Silver and Diamond which lie beneath the
forest cover
 Development of large hydel-power plants.
Recent estimates of deforestation suggest that between 1 to 3 million hectares are
being cleared annually in the Amazon Basin. Based on estimates of 1% annual tropical forest
loss, the Amazon may be losing as many as 11 to 16 species per day, and the resulting
ecosystems are often highly degraded.
Timber extraction and its effects on forests and tribal people:
Timber is one of the very important forest products whose demand for usage found to
be growing with over growing population, industrialization and expansion. But always the
unscientific way of exploitation leads too many destruction, some of them are as follows:
 It increases the rates of soil erosion.
 Over exploitation exposes the soil to the increased intensity of sun and torrential rains
making the soil more compact, reducing its organic material, leeching out its few
nutrients available, increasing its aluminum toxicity of soils, etc.,
 Subsequent cropping and overgrazing by livestock increase the degradation of the soil.
They also induce the invasion of many weeds: intensive logging in South East Asia has
resulted in the invasion of Imperata grass - a noxious weed that excludes most other
vegetation — on thousands of hectares of once forested land.
 Intervention of forests my men in general cause the migration of many birds and animals,
resulting in the change of ecosystem affecting it drastically.
 Inaccessible tracts of frontier forest are opened now due to extraction of timber from the
forests making it easy for the other land users to, clear the remaining trees.
 This leads to destruction of habitat and extinction of a number of valuable plants and
animal species, ultimately changing the composition and land use pattern of forest.
 Change in habitat, land use pattern in a long run definitely affects the climate and weather
condition of the place, which will affect the residing tribal people in the area.
 If this condition prevails for a long term the combined effect of the above said will induce
desertification.
The different kinds of Timber extraction are as follows:
 Clear felling
 Selective logging
 Mechanized logging
 Hand logging
 Reduced – impact logging
Mining and its effects on forests and tribal people:
In the process of removing the minerals from the ground especially in open cast
mining forests are destroyed, the adverse effects of this process are:
 Destruction of the plant and animal species, habitat etc., decreasing the biodiversity of the
area, which will also have a negative impact on the tribal people residing there who
actually depend on the forest for their livelihood.
 Unnatural deposition of some chemicals like arsenic, sulfuric acid, and mercury over a
significant area on the surface or on subsurface.
 Runoff of mere soil or rock debris though not toxic devastates the surrounding
vegetation.
 The overburden i.e., the material that lies above the mineral deposit when removed and
dumped nearby on the land is susceptible to severe soil erosion.
 These eroded materials on descending settle in the nearby agricultural lands reducing
their productivity.
 On the other hand when they are exposed to heavy rains they are washed away into the
nearby streams and cause siltation reducing the water holding capacity of the reservoir.
This in turn may increase flash floods, change in stream courses, etc., ultimately leading
to reduction in the quality of water and water scarcity in downstream areas.
Dams and their effects on forests and tribal people:
Dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams, their construction have
affected many forest areas producing a pronounced impact on the environment and tribals.
They are as follows:
 During the construction of larger dams submergence of large tracts of forestlands is
inevitable this as stated earlier will result in the reduction of forest cover, destruction of
habitats and extinction and endangerment of many wild species.
 It would induce a change in climatic condition in the near by areas. There is also a wide
change in the stream flow, ecosystem, etc.
 The tribal people are the most affected as most of their residing as well as agricultural
lands become submerged. Their social, economic conditions are changed and results in
their resettlement.
 The hydroelectric development is another factor, which may also cause forest destruction.

All these factors described above shows the importance of saving preserving the forests. It is
in our hands that with the help of known technologies and approaches that we should renew
our forest and protect the existing ones to live in harmony. FOOD RESOURCES

FOOD PROBLEM IN INDIA:

QUANTITATIVE ASPECT OF FOOD PROBLEMS:

India has to fulfill or maintain 16.3% of world population, it has only around 2% of land
area. No doubt food production has increased but due to growth of population our needs aso
have increased. Again we had drought and food crisis increased.

Qualitative aspect of food problem:

Nutritious food must have 3000 calories in the food per day. But india it is about 2000
calories per day. But other countries like Canada has 3060, America 3090 and japan 2280
calories per day.
Indians do get less nutrious elements. Many people in india get lack of even primary
nutrients. Thers lack of nutririous elements like wheat and rice while positive food like milk,
egg, fruits and vegetables are also absent.

The reason is:

There is less production of protective food.
Lack of money for the purchase of nutritious foods.
Meat, fish and eggs are not used due to relegioous causes.
There is no knowledge of blalanced diet.
Distribution aspect of food problem:
Distribution of food grains is not satisfactory. The available food grains in the country
should Bbedistributed to public at fair price and appropriate time. But the policies adopted
by the government for procurement, price contro and sales is not effective due to competition
in government.

WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS:

From1960 world’s food supply has improved enormously. World food and agricultural
production has never experienced more favorable conditions than in the 1980s and 1990s.

In 1990s global grain yields per hectare were nearly 2.5 times the 1.15 tons/hectare of the
1930s.

The international commission on irrigation and drainage estimated that current food
production would have to double within the next 25 years.

Many poor counties ar unable to be self sufficient in food and agricultural production due to
various economic, social and political problems.

According to FAO 840 million people remain hungry, nearly 800 million of them in the
developing countries.

Malnutrition 

Definition

Malnutrition is the condition that develops when the body does not get the right amount of
the vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients it needs to maintain healthy tissues and organ
function.
Malnourishment may lead to major problems like:
Marasmus – caused by lack of protein.
Kwashiorker – caused due to lack of protein in infants leads to failure of neural development.
Anemia- caused due to inability to absorb iron from food than a lack of iron in the idet..
Pellagra – occurs due ot the deficiency of tryptophan and lysine vitamins.
Goiter and hypothyroidism – an iodine deficiency in diet cause developmental abnormalities
such as mental retardation and deaf mutism.
Overnutrition
Nutritional deficiencies have generally been replaced by dietary imbalances or excesses
associated with many of the leading causes of death and disability. Over nutrition results
from eating too much, eating too many of the wrong things, not exercising enough, or taking
too many vitamins or other dietary replacements.
Risk of overnutrition is also increased by being more than 20% overweight, consuming a diet
high in fat and salt, and taking high doses of:

AGRICULTURE

Types of agricultural system :

AGRICULTURE

TRADITIONAL MODERN AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURE

TRADITIONAL TRADITIONAL INTENSIVE

SUBSISTGENCE AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURE

TRADITIONAL AGRICUTURE:
This type of agriculture deals with simple equipments, natural manure and limited fertilizers
which does not make harm to the field.

It consist of two main types:

Traditional subsistence agriculture:

It typically produces enough crops or livestock for a farm family’s survival needs.
Sometime excess of production may be obtained and selled.
Subsistence farmers generally use human labor and draft animals.

Traditional intensive agriculture:

In this type farmers increase their inputs to get high yield per cultivated area.
Food is produced for their own family and selled for income.
Modern agriculture:
This type of agriculture use modernized equipments, verieties of fertilizers, pesticides to
boost agricultural productivity.
It practices both positive and negative impacts on environment.
They produce high yield in the production but they create ecological and environmental
problems.

Impacts of modern agriculture:

Impacts of fertilizers:

There are many techniques followed for improving the land yield. One of the main methods
is applying fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals. Though there is tremendous increase
in yield, it also creates many [problems to the soil and environment.

Problems related to fertilizers

Micronutrient imbalance:

Essential primary nutrient for the growth of the plant is N, P and K. so the fertilizers contain
these materials. So fertilizers essentially have these materials. So farmers use these
fertilizers without any limtm to boos up the yield.

But excessive use of these fertilizers cause micro nutrient imbalance, i.e., not getting micro
nutrients like zinc, iron etc.

Example many crop field in Punjab and Haryana has deficiency of the micronutrient zinc in
the soils.

Blue baby syndrome (or) methaemoglobinemia:

This is nothing but nitrate pollution. Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the field often leach
deep into the soil and ultimately contaminate the ground water.

The fertilizers contain nitrogen as ammonia, when reacts with water enters into the soil as
ammonium hydroxide and goes deep and mixes with water in the underground.

Nitrates get concentrated in the water and when their concentration exceeds 25 mg/L, they
become the cause of serious health hazard called blue baby syndrome of
methaemoglobinemia . this is the disease mainly cause death to the infants.
Countries like England, Germany and Netherlands

Eutropication:

Excessive use of N and P fertilizers in the agricultural fields leads to another problem, which
is not related to the soil but relates to water bodies like lakes.

A large population of nitrogen and phosphorus used in crop fields is washed off and along
with runoff water reach the water bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes a process
known as eutropicaition (means more nourishment).

Due to eutropication lakes get surrounded by algal blooms. They are toxic and affects the
ecosystem in the lake. The fishes in the lake gets affected and even it lead to death of the
organisms in the lake.

Oxygen is consumed by the algal blooms and so dissolved oxygen gets depeted.many
anaerobic bacteria will be introduced n the lake ecosystem.

Pesticides related problems:

More than thousands of pesticides are used in agriculture. Generally pesticides can be
classified as:

First generation pesticides:

Ex: sulphur, arsenic, lead, mercury to kill the pests.

Second generation pesticides:

DDT( dichlorodiphenyl trichloromethane) to kill th pests.

Though pesticides kill the pests it creates many environmental problems.

Death of non target organisms:

Many insecticides are broad spectrum poisons which not only kill the targe species but also
several other non target species that are very useful for the agriculture and for other purpose.

Bio magnification:

Many of the p[pesticides are non biodegradable and keep on accumulating in the food chain,
a process called biological magnification.
Since human beings occupy a high tropic level in the food chain, they get the pesticides in a
bio magnified form which leads to diseases like cancer ,etc.

Producing super pests:

Some individuals of the pest species usally survibe even after pesticide spray.

The survivors give rise to highly resistant generations. About 20 species of pests are known
which have become immune to all types of pesticides and are known as super pests.

WATER LOGGING:

Over irrigation of croplands by farmers for good growth of their crop usually leads to water
logging. Inadequate drainage causes excess water to accumulate underground and gradually
dorms a co ntinuuos column with the water table.

Under water logged conditions, pores spaces in the soil get fully drenched with wsater and
soil air- gets depleted.

Waterlogging and High Groundwater Tables

The growth of most crops is affected when groundwater is shallow enough to maintain the
soil profile in the root zone wetter than field capacity. This excess water and the resulting
continuously wet root zone can lead to some serious and fatal diseases of the root and stem.
Working the soil when overly wet can destroy soil structure and thus restrict root growth and
drainage further.

Due to water logging peculation of oxygen to air gets depleted.

The chemistry and microbiology of waterlogged soils is changed due to the absence of
oxygen.

This can result in changes which affect the availability of many nutrients. For example,
nitrogen can undergo denitrification more readily and be lost to the atmosphere as a gas.

Crops vary in their tolerances to waterlogging and a high water table. Some crops, such as
rice, are adapted to these conditions and can thrive. The table below presents the different
tolerances of some crops.

Tolerance Levels of Crops to High Groundwater Tables and Waterlogging

HIGH TOLERANCE sugarcane, potatoes, rice, willow, plum, broad beans strawberries,
some grasses

MEDIUM TOLERANCE sugarbeet, wheat, oats, citrus, bananas, apple, barley, peas, cotton
pears, blackberries, onion

SENSITIVE maize, tobacco, peaches, cherries, olives, peas, beans, date palm

The following depths to groundwater are suggested as a minimum for most crops:

Sandy Soils ----------- Rooting Depth + 20 cm

Clay Soils ------------ Rooting Depth + 40 cm

Loam Soils ------------ Rooting Depth + 80 cm

Causes of waterlogging

Too much irrigation water has been applied which cannot drain sufficiently quickly.

The soil is naturally heavy with poor structure and inadequate pore space.

Heavy rain fall

Poor drainage system.

Poor permeability of the soil.

Effects of water logging:

The land cannot sustain useful plant life.

Oxygen and other nutrients cannot reach the rot due to water loggin. Due to this plants will
have proper growth.

Evaporation from water logged areas leaving salts behind. So soil become saline.

Organic matter in the soil undergoes an aerobic decomposition due t water logging, creating
bad odors and ground water pollution.

Water logged areas are very difficult for further cultivations.

Remedial measures:

Excessive watering of crops should be avoided.

Irrigation canals should be lined.

Dub-surface draining technology can be followed.

water logging

SOIL SALINITY OR SALINIZATION:

Accumulation of excessive salts in soil is known as salt efflorescence of salination. This

makes the soil system unfit for cultivation.
Water not absorbed by the soil undergoes evaporation leaving the salt in the soil which
creates salinity
 Water not
absorbed by soi
Crop field

ACUUMUL
ATION
OF SALT

Excess of salts like carbonates, chlorides and sulphates in the irrigation water form a crust on
the soil surface.

REASONS:

Salinity is mainly due to following problems:

Poor drainage of irrigation.
Excess use of chemical fertilizsers can increase the sooil salt content.
Using water having high amount of dissolved salts for irrigation
High temeperature creates fast evoportation of irrigatin water whihch forms asalination..
Impacts of salination:
When the salinity exceeds the tolerance limit of a crop, the land is unfit for the crop.
pH of the soil exceeds 8 so it becomes unfit for agriculture.
With the percolation of rain water the ground water turns saline by the leachates of the salt
with the excessive salts.
The water absorption and oxygen absortption process of the crop will also gets affected.
Remedies :

Water logging should be avoided.

Excess application of chemical fertilizers should be avoided.
Waste water discharges shoud be controlled.
Leaching of soil salts by flushing of soil with suitable water can be done.
Sub-surface drainage system can be used.

OVERGRAZING:

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive for extended periods of time, or
without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed
agricultural applications, or by overpopulations of native or non-native wild animals.

A grass plant trying to grow will be rebitten several times, depleting its root reserves.

It reduces the usefulness, productivity, and biodiversity of the land and is one cause of
desertification and erosion.

IMPACT OF OVERGRAZING:

Land degradation:

Overgrazing removes the vegetal cover over the soil and the exposed soil gets damaged. So
root cannot grow much deep into the soil.
Short roots due to overgrazing

Organic recycling also declines n the ecosystem because not enough detritus of litter remains
on the sol to be depleted.

It reduces the percolation of water and other nutrients into the sol.

Soil erosion:

Due to overgrazing, the upper cover ovegetation almost gets removed from the field. The
soil becomes exposed and gets eroded by the acton of strong wind, rainfall.. etc.

Loss of biodiversity:

Overgrazing adversely affects the composition of plant population and their regeneration
capacity. Due to overgrazing many species loss their habitat and they shift to other places.

Case study:
Salinity and water logging in Punjab, Haryana and rajasthan The first alarming report of salt
affected wasteland formation in connection with irrigation practice came from Haryana in
18158 followed by Punjab.
It was reported that several villages in panipat and Rohtak lying in command area of western
Yamuna canal were suffering from destructive saline efflorescence.
The ‘Reh Committee” in1886 drew the attention of the government on some vital points
whosing a close relationship between irrigation, drainage and spread of ‘Reh’ and ‘user’
soils.
The floods of 1947, 1950, 1954-56 in Punjab resulted in afggravated water loggin with
serioujs drainage problems.
Introduction of canal irrigation in 1.21 m ha in Haryana resulted in rise in water table
followed by water logging and salinity in many irrigated areas causing huge economic losses
as aresult of fall in crop productivity.
Rajasthan too has suffered badly in this regard following the biggest irrigation project ‘indira
Gandhi canal project’ and the sufferings of big area in western Rajasthan have changed from
a condition of water starved wasteland to that of water soaked wasteland.

WATER RESOURCES
Water is indispensable for the existence and survival of life on earth. It is the major
constituent of living matter; it forms 50 to 90% of the weight of living organisms. In the
present scenario the supply of fresh water is running out and it is limited. Even though the
water covers about two-thirds of the Earth’s surface, most of it is too salty for use. Only 2.5%
of the world’s water is usable and two – third of it is locked up in the ice caps and glaciers.
Out of the remaining 20% is in remote areas and only less than 0.08% of all the earth’s water
is available to the humans.
The World Water Council believes that by 2020 we shall need 17% more water than
is available to feed the world. The major factors worsening the present water crisis are
growing population, inefficient irrigation, industrialization and pollution.
Distribution of the Fresh water:
S.No. Water Source Water as Cubic km
1 Water in snow-caps, Ice sheets, glaciers 24,000,000
2 Surface ponds, lakes and reservoirs 2,80,000
3 Water in streams and rivers 1,200
4 Water present as moisture 85,000
5 Ground water 60,000,000
6 Total amount of fresh water oil our planet 84,366,200
Kinds of Water Resources:
There are many types of water resources, some of them are:
 Atmospheric water – It is present as moisture in clouds. It pours down as rain and snow.
 Surface water – It is available in the form of lakes, streams, rivers and oceans. The
assessment of it is severely constrained by the poor data availability. The rough estimate
are as follows:
 First Irrigation Commission (1903) – 144.32Mhm
 Khosla Estimate (1949) – 167.23Mhm
 Central water and Power Commission (1960) – 188.19Mhm
 Irrigation commission (1972) – 180.00Mhm
 Ground water – It exists underground, rain water percolating deep into the earth through
pores and fissures forms this type of water. They are purer than surface water. In India
the ground water potential is no way better than the surface water resource. The
estimated ground water potential of our country 198 b. c. m. (except Luni and rivers of
Saurastra and Kutch).
 Stored water – They are stored in lakes and dams.
Requirement, Use and Over Utilization of Water resources:
Water is needed in all sphere of activity. The important sectors are as follows:
S.No. Sector Usage (%)
1 Irrigation 76
2 Industries 5.7
3 House hold activities and live stock management 4.3
4 Power generation 6.2
5 Fisheries, navigation, recreational activities others
In a country like India whose economy depends on agriculture, rainfall is an
inevitable one. But in today’s state there is
 Increase in utilization of water due to population explosion.
 Increased requirement for good quality and quantity of water
 Increased variations in rainfall pattern due to complexity of physiographic structures and
weather elements.
 marked changes in flow of water in rivers
 large amount of evapotranspiration in summer
 Large amount of Run – off due to deforestation and lack of storage area for rain water.
 Inefficient usage of water for irrigation.
 Pollution of water at all stages due to industrialization making it unfit for use.
 From the above discussion it is clear that proper and sustainable usage of water is the
very essential, but unfortunately very little attention has been paid for this purpose and
requires attention of the politicians, administers scientists and technicians for development of
country.
Conservation of Water Resources:
 Re – Use and Recycling: Recycling is the process of treating impure water and using it
again, whereas reuse is the process in which the water is reused without any treatment.
Human activity consumes more water than actually needed for all activities, due to which
large amount of water is wasted; a little care and effort can reduce this over –
consumption.
 Afforestation: Deforestation is the main cause of poor rainfall. Forests grown on hill
slopes prevent run off, siltation of the water storage area etc., further growth of trees
makes the water to seep down to depths and add to the ground water.
 Interlinking of rivers - Most of the north Indian rivers unlike in the rivers in the south are
perennial. Thus most of the river basins have plenty of water which flows down unused
to the sea. This surplus water could be diverted into the drier regions of the country,
through a system of canals and pipes. This transport system must be well planned and
must be executed in a proper way to effective conservation.
 Pollution Reduction: Pollution has become the great monster in the depletion of natural
resource. When the waste water from industries, domestic and commercial areas are left
untreated they spoil huge quantities of our surface water. Therefore efforts should be to
treat this water before releasing.
 Increasing in Surface Storage Capacity: Most of the ponds, pools, etc, present earlier
have been disappeared due to human settlements. Due to which about 27,000 cubic km of
fresh water rushes down to the oceans through streams and rivers of the world as flood
flow and are of no use to the mankind. This could be avoided by erecting embankments
and dams which check the flood-flows and by preventing human settlements on the
reservoirs.
 Increase in Underground Storage Capacity: Large amount of fresh water are stored
underground as a result of accumulation over along period of time. Every year, about 10
 – 15% of total precipitation enters the ground water table. Schemes like rain water
harvesting should be practiced to increase the ground water capacity.
 Augmentation of Existing Supplies of Fresh Water:
Desalination of sea water: Oceans are an important water resource to the human
society, but this water cannot be directly used due to its high salt concentration. Therefore
by removing its salt i.e. Desalination by freezing, reverse osmosis or electro dialysis the
brackish waters desalted.
Artificial rain making: Clouds with temperatures ranging between 50 -200 oC nearly
lack condensation nuclei over which moisture condenses to form droplets of water. Small
particles of substances like Silver iodide, Sodium chloride, dry ice(solid CO2) etc. are
injected into a thick layer of clouds (cumulus clouds), around which moisture condenses
and droplets of water.
Some facts:
 Global consumption of water is doubling every 20years
 Available fresh water is less than 1% of all the water on earth.
 Throughout the world, more than one billion people drink unsafe water
 By 2025 it is predicted that two – thirds of the world’s population will be living in
conditions of serious water shortage. And if current trend continues during 2025 the
demand for freshwater is expected to rise by 56% more than currently available.
Floods:
When it rains or snows, some of the water is retained by the soil, some is absorbed by
vegetation, some evaporates, and the remainder, which reaches stream channels, is called
runoff. Floods occur when soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water; water then runs
off the land in quantities that cannot be carried in stream channels or retained in natural
ponds and constructed reservoirs.
Heavy rain combined with melting snow cause the overflow of the river sometimes
periodically causing flood plain. A flood that rises and falls rapidly with little or no advance
warning is called a flash flood. Coastal areas are occasionally flooded by unusually high tides
induced by severe winds over ocean surfaces, or by tsunamis caused by undersea earthquakes
Types of Floods:
 Flash Flood
 Single Event Floods
 Multiple Event Floods
 Seasonal Floods
 Coastal Floods
 Floods Caused by Dam Failures, etc.
Causes and effects of Floods:
 Streams carrying flows in excess of their carrying capacity within their banks may cause
floods,
 Heavy rainfall synchronizing with river spill,
 Heavy local rainfall,
 Typhoons and Cyclones,
 Ice jams or landslides blocking stream courses resulting in the backwater overflowing
river banks,
 Synchronization of upland floods with high- tides, and
 Inadequate drainage to carry away surface water with the desired quickness etc.
Floods not only damage property and endanger the lives of humans and animals, but also
cause rapid runoff, soil erosion, downstream sedimentation; affecting spawning grounds for
fishes and destruction of other wildlife habitat. It also causes problems in drainage,
navigation, hydroelectric power generation and huge economic losses.
Flood control and management:
The basic methods of flood control have been practiced since ancient times. These
methods include reforestation and the construction of levees, dams, reservoirs, and
floodways. It is infact essential to develop a method for the integration of satellite techniques
for knowing about the hydrological details and also to estimate the amount of rainfall for
better flood management.
Drought:
Drought could be defined as a long period of extreme dry weather where there is not
enough rain for the successful growing of crops or the replenishment of water supplies.
When the rainfall is below 50 % of the average droughts become severe causing famines,
causing devastating effects on man, animals and environment. The areas, which get less
rainfall, and which do not support agricultural production or even grasslands are usually
called drought-prone areas. Though the effects of drought are slight earlier at long term they
become dangerous and its affects can be devastating.
Drought could be classified as:
 Permanent drought – prevails in all deserts of the world. E.g. Atacama Desert, the driest
place in the world has not experienced rainfall for several years.
 Temporary or contingent drought – They whenever and where ever rainfall is irregular.
E.g. Rajasthan.
The Drought can also be classified in another way:
 Meterological drought – substantial diminishment of precipitation duration and / or
intensity in order of months or years.
 Hydrological drought– It is the deficiency of surface and subsurface water supplies.
 Agricultural drought – They occur when there is inadequate soil moisture to meet the
needs of a particular crop at a particular time.
 Socio economic drought – occurs when physical water shortage start affect the health,
well – being, and quality of life of the people.
Major famines:
Year Death Tolls Where it Occurred Cause
1815 82 000 people Tambora, Sumbawa Volcanic Eruption/Tsunami
1991 250 000 people Bangladesh Cyclone and Flood
1742-46 Unknown Death Toll East India Drought
In 1992-93 Ethiopia also suffered from the grips of a bad famine, in which more than
30 lakh people died. In India famine conditions are common in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. In 1899, severe famine known as chappan-ka-
Akal struck, similar famine occured in 1917, in both these cases several lakhs of people lost
their lives.
Mitigation of Drought and its control:
The impact of droughts and famines on vegetation, soil, water resources, and animals
as well as on climatic conditions is far-reaching. Therefore, preventive measures should be
taken. These mitigation processes involves three phases:
 Preparedness phase - identification of drought prone areas, information on land use and
land cover, wasteland, forest cover and soils is essential.
 Prevention phase – practicing of watershed management in advance
 Relief phase – Arrangement of programmes by the government to restore the families
affected by drought.
Drought could be controlled by adopting the following measures:
 Rain water harvesting
 Flood control
 Construction of Dams
 Recycling and Reuse of water
 Economic usage of water
 Afforestation
Monitoring of Drought : mechanisms exist in most of the countries using ground-based
information on drought related parameters such as rainfall, weather, crop condition and water
availability etc. The Dept of Space (DOS), National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), India
Meteorological Department (IMD) and Central Water Commission (CWC) are focusing on
the assessment of agricultural drought conditions.
Conflicts over Water:
Global conflicts arise over control of the shared river basins on which millions of
people depend for drinking water, irrigation and energy. The following facts points to the
severity of the above problem and the potential for global conflicts in the near future.
 Billions people lack access to safe water and 2.4billions lack access to adequate
sanitation.
 More than 6000 children die every day from disease with unsafe water, and
unsafe water and sanitation causes an estimated 80% of all diseases in the
developing country.
 Water use has grown at twice the rate of the population during the past century.
 As much as 90% of waste water is discharged without any treatment.
The conflicts over water around the world may be been classified as:
 Control of water resources - where water supplies or access to water is at the root of
tension.
 Military tool – Where water resources or water system themselves are used by a nation as
a weapon during a military action.
 Political tool – Where water resource or water system are used by nation or state or group
for a political goal.
 Terrorism – Where water system water resource or water system, are either targets or
tools of violence by terrorists.
 Military target – water resources are targets of military action by nations.
 Development disputes – where water resource or systems are the major source of
contention and disputes in the context of economic and social development.

"Conflicts over water arise form the fact that under conditions of increasing
scarcity, competition levels also increase.”
-Anthony Turton

Water wars:
In many parts of Africa, water shortages are a part of everyday life. Many countries
share one water resource the major areas include the Nile River, Volta River, Zambezi River,
and the Niger Basin. Conflicts rage from the privatization, unequal distribution of water
supplies, etc., an important example is The Nile River Basin.
The Nile is the longest river in the world, stretching for 4,130 miles. The Egyptians
used military force to ensure their control whereas the countries like Sudan, Ethiopia, and
Uganda have constructed various river projects to increase their annual water withdrawals,
affecting Egyptian control.
In India and China water shortages pose both a social and economic threat.
Throughout India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh, water shortages are increasingly
triggering conflict. Though the freshwater resources are abundant, they are not well
distributed. With the immense amount of pollution being dumped in the freshwater supply,
clean water is becoming scarce to the mass of people and tensions can easily escalate.
For example - The Indus River Basin has been an area of conflict between India and
Pakistan. Spanning 1,800 miles, the river and its tributaries together make up one of the
largest irrigation canals in the world. The basin provides water to millions of people, it is also
important for generation of hydropower and irrigation.
The Ganges River possessing strong economic and religious importance, has been
source of dispute between India and Bangladesh. With increasing demands of water in
Calcutta for industrial and domestic use, and irrigation use in the Indian state of West
Bengal, water conflicts between the two countries have increased.
There are also various disputes within India itself in between the states some of them
are as follows:
The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal, The Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal. The
Narmadha water Dispute Tribunal, etc.,

DAMS
The human being has been struggling in order to shape the ecosphere in a manner he
wants since the first day. One such innovation is the construction of dams in order to utilize
the water resources. Dams have a great deal of positive and negative effects on the
environment besides their benefits.
In India there are 4,291 Large Dams which accounts 9% of the World Dams. Majority
of them were built for irrigation purpose. Total with drawls of water from dams are estimated
to be 750km3 currently, and have been projected to increase to 1,050km3 by 2025.
The positive and negative impacts of dams on the environment:
While preparing the water resources projects, it is important to make clear what the
environmental impacts of the project may be when it is executed:
The positive impacts of dam construction are:
 They control floods during heavy rainfall.
 They are important source of potable water supplies in areas where it is desperately
needed.
 They play a vital role in production of electricity – Hydro electric projects.
 They are important for irrigation projects to supply the necessary amount of water, for
agriculture.
 They aid in water way means of transport.
 They prevent sedimentation of reservoirs, in downstream channels or shore beaches.
 They also play important role in fisheries
 They aid in tourism and are of great aesthetic and recreational value.
The negative impacts of dam construction are:
 Archeological, historical, geological and topographical places that are rare and beautiful
are submerged due to dam construction.
 They cause high evaporation loses due to increase in the water surface area.
 They bring about changes in surrounding air, water, topography etc., causing variations in
climatic condition ultimately leading to changes in the ecosystem.
 They cause discharge of toxic matters pesticides; toxic metals etc from irrigation projects
affecting the sensitive animals immediately.
 They cause fish damages, when the fishes pass trough the floodgates, turbines and pumps
of the dams. They affect their reproduction, migration behaviour, etc., leading to
significant decrease in fish population.
 They act as a barrier preventing the normal passage of territorial animals.
 The stagnant waters of the reservoir would spread water borne diseases in the adjoining
areas.
 Though not proven scientifically it is claimed that the dam reservoirs have some seismic
effects.
 They cause large scale human migration affecting the social, cultural and economical
structure of the region.
Resettlement:
Construction of large dams seems to present more problems than solution. For
instance, studies carried out by the World Council on Dams (WCD) suggest that there had
been huge underestimation of the number of people to be replaced. Resettlement of these
people affects their social, cultural and economical life, and it has been viewed seriously by
the WCD. As a result of which this WCD has suggested different approaches to safe guard
the affected families and the environment.

The salient features of Mettur Dam:

 Location : Mettur Dam, Tamil Nadu
 Length : 1700meters
 Height : 120ft
 Reservoir : Stanely reservoir
 Opening date : 1934
 Capacity : 93.4 billion ft³ (2.64 km³)
 Irrigation : Salem, the length of Erode, Namakkal, Karur,
Tiruchirappali and Thanjavur district for 271, 000acres
(1,100km2) of farm land.
 Power generation : 32MW

MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals are a substance that occurs naturally in rocks and in the ground and has its
own characteristic appearance and chemical composition. They are important non-renewable
natural resources. Due to rapid industrialization and population growth there has been an
overexploitation of these substances. This unscientific practise leads to degradation of the
environment causing many deleterious consequences to the living beings. Moreover as the
nation's economy depends upon the mineral wealth it possesses, in recent years, there has
been a growing awareness for the sustainable usage of these minerals. Minerals in general are
classified as Metals and Non metals.
Metals are chemical element that is malleable and ductile, usually solid, has a
characteristic luster, and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. They are generally
expensive whereas the non- metals mostly do not possess such property are inexpensive.
Metals:
 Iron in form of Haematite, magnetite are used in Iron and steel products, for locomotives,
etc.,
 Copper as Chalcopyrite used in manufacturing of electrical wires and equipments, brass
etc.,
 Aluminium occurring as Bauxite mainly used in airplane, electrical cables, soft drinks
cans, etc.,
 Lead obtained from Galena is used in production of Batteries
 Zinc from Sphalerite is mainly used in manufacturing of brass and other alloys
 Silver occurs as sulphide ores used in the formation of coins, tableware, jewellery,
photographic films
 Gold occurs in the form of nuggets, grains etc., they are used in field of jewellery,
dentistry, decoration, electronics.
 Tin is used for plating steel in tin cans.
 Titanium is used in air crafts
 Magnesium is used in aircrafts and flash bulbs.
 Mercury is used in thermometer, electrical switches, medical compounds and batteries.
Non metals:
 Asbestos – They are fiborous minerals which can be separated and woven into fabric.
Their main usage are in making firefighters clothes and theatre curtains. They are also
used in manufacturing of ceiling and sound insulation, etc.,
 Gem Stones – They are precious stones like as Diamonds, Rubies, Sapphires, Emerald
and semi-precious stones such as Beryl, Garnet, Topaz-icon, Spinet, etc. all are used in
jewellery
 Graphite – Mainly used in foundries, lubricants, batteries.
 Granite, marble, limestone, cement, clay are also non- metals which are mainly used for
making buildings.
 Coal, oil, natural gas which are formed when plants and animals were buried thousands
of years ago are known as fossil fuels they are burnt to get energy.
Availability of metals and non metals in India:
Metals and
Available areas in India
Non metals
Iron Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharastra, goa, Tamil
Nadu, Himachal
Copper Andra, Bihar, Rajasthan, Sikkim and Karnataka
Aluminium Bihar, Kashmir, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Maharasthra and
Karnartaka
Chromium Bihar, Cuttack district in Orissa, Andra and Karnataka
Nickel Cuttack, Kerala

Gold Ramagiri in Andra, Kolar and Hutti in Karnataka

Diamond Panna, Chatarpur and Satna in Madya Pradesh and Banda in Uttar
Pradesh
Petroleum Assam, Gujarat
deposits
Gypsum Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan

Mining:
Mining is the act of extracting ores, coal, etc form the earth. Different methods have
been adopted for the exploration of theses minerals. They are:
 Open cast mining: It involves the removal of overburden i.e., the unwanted material lying
above the mineral-bearing strata and the extraction of the mineral close to the surface. It
is the easiest and cheapest method.
 Underground mining: When minerals occur deep inside the surface, this method is
adopted. It is very costly, and requires much safety precautions.
Stage of mining:
It is not a simple process. It has the following stages:
 Stage I - Prospecting or searching for deposit. Now a days it has been made easy by the
use of GIS – Geographical Information System.
 Stage II - Exploration or assessing the size, shape, accessibility and economic viability of
mining.
 Stage III – Preparing access to the deposits by drilling the earth.
 Stage IV - Extracting the mineral from the depth of the earth.
Environmental effects of mining:

 Effects on water - Increased infiltration of precipitation on spoil piles cause recharge of

poor quality of water to shallow groundwater aquifers; Washings or sliding of loose
materials from waste dumps, tailings, over burden, etc., affect the adjoining water course.
Sulphuric acid is formed when minerals containing sulphide are oxidised through air
contact, which could lead to acid rain. Leftover chemicals deposits from explosives are
usually toxic and increase the salt quantity of mine water and even contaminating it.
Improper usage of the mining area may even cause floods
 Effect on wildlife - Mining causes both direct and indirect damage to wildlife. Disturbing,
removing, and redistributing the land surface leads to habitat loss of the wild. Mobile
wildlife species like game animals, birds, and predators leave these areas. More sedentary
animals like invertebrates, many reptiles, burrowing rodents and small mammals may be
directly destroyed. If streams, lakes, ponds or marshes are filled or drained, fish, aquatic
invertebrates, and amphibians are destroyed. An exception could be extinction of a
resident endangered species.

 Effect on Air – Mining always release noxious gases in to the atmosphere, they generate
dust during various operation of mining. There are both gaseous pollutants like –
hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, carbon and sulphur. There are also suspended
pollutants like silica, fluoride, asbestos, metals etc. causing acid rains. Mining also
release large amount of carbon dioxide and methane, both of which are greenhouse gases
causing climate change and global warming. Noise is another important factor, the
blasting and heavy machinery operations are serious sources of noise pollution.
 Effect on Land – Over burden, dumping, disposal of mine waste, mining practices, land
subsidence all affect the land very much making it unfit for use. Due to disturbance of the
land landslides, landslips and soil erosion are very much prevalent.

 Deforestation – As most of the minerals are available in the forest area, the mining
process leads to large scale deforestation. The feeling of trees for the removal of
overburden and construction of roads for fuel cause extermination of valuable flora and
fauna and also brings about a drastic change in the climate and weather condition of the
region.

 Miner’s health – Occupational diseases like silicosis, fibrosis, and asthma, associated
with the mining process are very prevalent all over the world affecting human life
drastically.

Case Study : Phosphate mining in Nauru:

Location - The island of Nauru is located in the Pacific Ocean, about 500 kilometers
north-northeast of Papua New Guinea. It has a total land area of 21 square kilometers, and a
total coastline of 30 kilometers. The phosphate is used as a fertilizer around the world and the
majority of it has been exported to Australia. The island's 10,000 people enjoy one of the
developing world's highest per capita incomes, at around $US10,000 on phosphate exports.
The mining of phosphate is located among the ancient coral reefs found underground on the
island of Nauru. The mining process has devastated the island environmentally and has
created financial, legal, and cultural problems for the islanders.
Effect of mining: Majority of soil and vegetation has been stripped away, preventing
agriculture and establishment of viable ecosystem. In addition, the combination of a pillar
and pit landscape on Nauru and the loss of vegetation creates a very hot interior, such that
rising hot air prevents rain clouds from settling over the island. This contributes to frequent
droughts, exacerbating an already difficult problem.
Because of the lack of soil and vegetation, the Nauruans have been forced to import nearly
all of their food. The result of eating processed, fatty foods such as alcohol, potato chips, and
canned meats, has been an increase in high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity.

ENERGY RESOURCE
Energy is the ability or power to work or make an effort. All energy sources
ultimately come from sun, moon or the earth. In present situation the production and energy
utilization are very important for the country’s progress.
There are various forms of energy resources:
 Potential energy - stored energy possessed by a body or system in an electric, magnetic,
or gravitational field
 Kinetic energy - The energy acquired due to motion.
 Solar energy - Energy obtained directly from the sun.
 Thermal energy - Energy obtained due to heat
 Chemical energy - Energy from chemical reaction.
 Mechanical energy - Kinetic and potential energy together.
 Nuclear energy - Energy due to nuclear reactions like fission or fusion.
Classification of energy resources:
 Primary energy resource - energy obtained directly from the nature. E.g. solar , wind
energy etc.,
 Secondary energy resource – energy which does not occur in nature and are mainly
derived from secondary sources. E.g. petrol, electrical energy etc.,
Energy resources can also be classified as:
 Renewable resource – are energy sources which are produced continuously and which are
inexhaustible in nature. E.g. Solar, wind energy, etc.,
 Non- renewable resource – are sources of energy which have been accumulated in nature
over a very long period. They are exhaustible and cannot be quickly replaced. E.g. coal,
oil, natural gas, etc.,
 Sustainable energy source – This term are applied to nuclear power. They are not exactly
renewable but can last for long time, as great deal of energy is obtained from small
amount of radio active material.
Various sources of energy resources their advantage and disadvantages:

Resource Explanation Advantages Disadvantages

Coal It is an important Cheap energy source It is a non- renewable

fossil fuel obtained found in lots of places resource. Coal mines are
as a result of and easily transported to very dangerous; workers
degradation of the power stations. suffer from black lung
plant, animals under disease or pneumoconiosis
the ground for and also emphysema.
thousands of years. Transportation of it cause
pollution while burning
release sulphur dioxide and
release more amount of
green house gases leading to
global warming.
Oil and It is an important They are found in lots of They are expensive, non-
Natural fossil fuel obtained places in the world and renewable resources.
Gas as a result of can be transported easily Working on an oil or gas rig
 degradation of through pipes, tankers or can be dangerous due to the
plant, animals under ships. risk of explosions and bad
the ground for weather and sometimes
thousands of years. accidental oil spillages also
occur. Burning of these fuels
releases greenhouse gases
into the air. adding up to
global warming.
Nuclear Energy is produced Does not produce any World uranium supplies may
due to the fission green house gases and run out in about 50 years.
reaction of uranium only small amount of Nuclear power stations are
– 235 and thorium – fuel is essential for at risk from terrorist attack
232. Splitting one energy production and damage. Further nuclear
gram of uranium waste are radioactive and
produce energy of very harmful and needs
15metric tones of careful disposal
coal
Wind Energy in the form Cheap and renewable Generation of power needs
of air movement is source of energy, less establishment of lots of
used to run the risk is involved in energy turbines in areas where there
turbines to generate generation, further there is a lot of wind. Further
electricity. is no emission of the power generation is difficult
green house gases. during wind less days
Wave Uses the sea’s It is a renewable Generation of electricity is
energy in the form resource, and there is no not stable; its transportation
of waves to production of green is also difficult. Therefore
generate power. house gases. Further power production through
there are only very few this mechanism becomes
safety risks with wave expensive and is very rare in
power generation. use.

Tidal The energy is Renewable source, no Dam construction is

 associated with the greenhouse gases essential to make the water
rise and fall of the production. flow through the generators
tides is captured to and power generation, but
produce electricity. this may not be good for
plants and animals that live
nearby.
Geothermal The heat of the Renewable source, no There are not many places
underground earth greenhouse gases where we can build
is used to generate production. geothermal power stations
energy. Harmful gases and minerals
may occasionally come up
from the ground below, the
control of which becomes
very difficult. It is very
costly method.

Solar This uses the sun’s Renewable source, no It is relatively expensive to

energy to generate greenhouse gases build solar power stations.
power. E.g. production, free source Power generation is not
photovoltaic cells, of energy. possible during cloudy days
solar thermal, solar or at night.
air heating are used.
Biomass The burning or It is cheap source of Not much area is available
decomposition of energy resource and it is for the growth of biomass
organic waste the best way of recycling fuel. Further the combustion
liberates methane of waste materials which of these materials leads to
gas, after extracting are readily available. the production of
it the remaining can greenhouse gases affecting
be used as a manure environment.
Hydro- Uses small or large Renewable source, no Mainly depends on rainfall
electric scale hydro electric greenhouse gases pattern. The dam is
generators in rivers production, free source expensive to build.
 and streams to of energy. By building a dam, the
produce electricity nearby area has to be
flooded and this could affect
nearby wildlife and plants.
If it does not rain much we
may not have enough water
to turn the turbines.

Growing needs and demand for energy resources:

Over growing population, industrialization, commercialization have lead to increase
in usage of the energy resource. Concerned with Indian culture the population heavily
depends on traditional fuels such as firewood, animal and agricultural waste. The energy
demands have always been increasing throughout the years. The planning commission has
predicted that the demand for commercial energy will be as high as 80.5% of the total
demand in the year 2009.
Environmental Impact and need for alternative resources:
Environmental impacts associated with energy can be split into two main areas
 Impact that arise due to energy production (from fuel extraction to energy supplies)
 Impacts that arise due to energy use (including air pollution and climate change)
Due to the above mentioned impacts it is essential to find out an energy resource which
would
 Meet the growing energy demand
 Environmental friendly causing less pollution
 Fast depletion non renewable resources.
 Available throughout the year,
 Help to conserve foreign exchange,
 Generate local employment,
The best alternative energy resources are:
 Solar energy
 Wind power
  Tidal Energy
 Hydrogen fuel
 Thermal energy
 Geo thermal energy
 Biomass based energy, etc.,

Case study: Energy system

Solar generating systems at the milk collection centres:
Dairy industry in India is developing at faster rate, though the rising cost of inputs
like milk, fuel and electricity are major constraints. To overcome these difficulties a Solar
Photovoltaic Power Generating System can be utilized for providing continuous
uninterrupted power and operation of Milk Collection Centre in Panchmahals district.
Favorably considered the proposal the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources,
Government of India, New Delhi had and sanctioned 10 nos. of Solar Photovoltaic Power
Generating Systems. The total cost of it is approximately Rs. 1.70 lacs, including
installation, commissioning, transportation, operation and one-year maintenance and
monitoring. All the systems are found to be performing excellent and the response is
overwhelming. It has been reported that some of the milk producers during power failure
submit the manually manipulated milk saying that it has high fat content which has lead to
monetary losses at the collection centres. Now, with the uninterrupted power supply with the
help of Solar Photovoltaic Power Generating System such losses do not occur. There is
tremendous potential for Solar Photovoltaic Power Generating System as there are about
1000 nos. of milk collection centres per district and about 6 District are eager to install this
type of Solar Photovoltaic Power Generating System in the State of Gujarat.

LAND RESOURCES
The most important non- renewable natural resource, upon which all human activity
is based since time immemorial, is land. It supports all life forms and is important for
cultivation of plants, forests, grazing of animals, human settlements, mining, establishment of
roads, industries, for storage for surface and ground water, etc.
 The land resource of the world is 29% and in India it is only 2.4%. The major portion
of which is abused and has lead to the shrinkage of the usable area as the proportion and
pattern of land-use varies not only from one region to other but also from time to time in the
same region.
The abusement of this valuable resource has now become a global issue because of
the impact of it on world’s food security and quality of the environment. But this problem is
complex and multi-dimensional and requires a scientific, holistic and innovative approach for
development.
Land degradation:
Land degradation occurs due to exploitation of minerals, improper disposal of waste,
unscientific and improper agricultural practices etc. are a few factors. Urbanization and
industrialization due to Industrial Revolution set a series of events into motion which
destroyed natural habitats and polluted the environment, causing diseases in both humans and
other species of animals.
Thus the land degradation can be considered in terms of the loss of quality or quantity of
actual or potential productivity or utility as a result of natural or anthropogenic factors.
The mechanisms that initiate land degradation are:
 Physical process – decline in soil structure leading to erosion, desertification,
compaction, environmental pollution and unsustainable use of natural resources.
 Chemical process – acidification, leaching, fertility depletion, etc.,
 Biological process – reduction in total biomass carbon, decline in biodiversity, etc.,
On the other hand agents that increase the rate of degradation are:
 Biophysical – land use and land management, deforestation, tillage methods.
 Socioeconomic – life style of human, their health and living standards.
 Political – political stability, incentives, policies and Acts.
The Major Causes of land degradation:
 Agricultural mining of soil nutrients
 Water logging and salinization of irrigated land
 Land clearing and deforestation
 Urban conversion
 Pollution and industrial causes
  overgrazing of rangeland
 failure to undertake soil conserving measures in areas at risk
 unsustainable land use and inappropriate land management techniques
The Major Effects:
 Increased erosion by wind and water
 Removal of nutrients
 Accelerated salination or acidity
 Destruction of soil structure
 Loss of organic matter and biodiversity
 Desertification
Landslides:
Land slide is a rapid mass movement down slope due to gravity. It is either natural or
man made or both. The anthropogenic causes for landslide are:
 Improper or over - irrigation of slopes for farming, watering of sloping lawns profusely
 Diversion of surface water onto sensitive slopes
 Installation of septic fields that leak sewage especially in geologically weak areas
 Dumping and overloading at the top of the slopes causing destabilization.
 Cutting and Clearing of trees and vegetation along slopes for construction purpose leads
to causes removal of deep rooted trees and plants making the soil very loose and
vulnerable to land slide.
 Construction of buildings, roads etc., on hill sides increase the chance of landslide as they
add up extra weight, cause vibration and pressure on them affecting the equilibrium in the
area.
 Mining process removes large amount of overburden causing percolation of large volume
of water leading to increasing potential for landslide.
Soil Erosion:
Soil erosion refers to the movement of topsoil, from one place to another by the aid of
water or winds either naturally or due to human interferences. The formation of soil form
rock takes thousands of years, though this process is accompanied by the removal of it from
their origin by leaching, mass movement and erosion by water or / and wind, there has
always been an equilibrium in it. But this balance is disturbed by various anthropogenic
activities, resulting in their accelerated loss. The U.N has estimated that an area the size of
China and India combined has been lost in the half-century, and that one-third of the
remaining soil could be destroyed the year 2030.

Causes of Soil Erosion:

Soil erosion may be caused either by natural or man – made factors. They are as
follows:
 Natural causes includes the destruction of vegetative cover by drought, diseases, insect
infestations, fires etc. and over-steepening of slopes by erosion, subsidence landslides,
uplifts due to faulting, etc
 Man made causes includes deforestation, overgrazing, unscientific farming and
construction practices.
 Deforestation - Deforestation exposes the bare soil to wind and water, when heavy rains
occur or when high-speed wind blows the exposed soil is readily and rapidly eroded.
Unscientific Farming Practices - Modern and Unsustainable farming practices contribute
to soil erosion. Deep ploughing destroys the soil structure and makes it vulnerable to
erosion.
 Unscientific construction Practices - Over-steepening, excavation of steep road and
railroad cuts encourages gullying accelerating the erosion process.
 Overgrazing – The limited availability of pasturelands and the increasing number of
cattle population makes overgrazing and grass cover reduction an inevitable one. Further
continued grazing and exploitation makes regeneration of vegetation difficult, exposing
the bare land to direct attack of water and wind.
Effects:
 Increased stoniness and rock cover of the land – Gullies and exhumation of stones and
rock arises due to extreme levels of soil erosion affecting the aesthetic value of the area.
 Decreased Productivity – Soil erosion decreases the soil depth, reduces available water,
nutrients and organic materials, decreasing in reduced soil productivity in the eroded
area.
 Sedimentation – The eroded soil clogs irrigation and navigation channels affecting the
quality of water reducing the water holding capacity and life period of reservoirs and
dams.
 Soil burial – During flooding, the fertile soil gets buried under less fertile sediments; or
sometimes winds cause sand inundates grazing lands affecting their fertility.

Preventive measures:
 Afforestation, ploughing, planting, cultivation and harvesting of crops in rows that
contour the slopes which traps run off washed sediment into it.
 Strip Cropping: The alternation of dense erosion-resistant crops like small grains, clover,
or alfalfa with erosion-susceptible crops like corn is a low-cost method of erosion control.
 Terracing and damming drainage lines would check the speed of the runoff and reduce
soil loss.
 Judicious Management of Pasture Land could be undertaken and overgrazing should be
prevented.

Desertification:
Desertification is the extreme deterioration of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas
due to loss of vegetation and soil moisture. It is chiefly caused by man-made activities under
the influence of variation in climatic conditions.
Classification of desertification based on the drop in agricultural productivity are as
follows:
 moderate desertification (10-25% drop in productivity)
 severe desertification (25-50% drop)
 very severe desertification (50% or more).
Causes of Desertification:
 Rapid population growth,
 high human and livestock densities,
 persistent low rainfall,
 increased drought
 global climate change
 increased fire frequency
 water impoundment,
 Overdrafting of groundwater,
 Poor land management practices like
 Overgrazing,
 Over-cultivation
 Deforestation,
 Surface mining without land reclamation,
 increased soil salinity
 Unscientific farming practices, and
Consequences of desertification include:
 drought, famine,
 declining living standards, and
 Swelling numbers of refugees whose land is too eroded to grow crops or feed livestock.
Areas affected by desertification:
The semi arid to weakly arid areas of Africa are particularly vulnerable, due to fragile
environment, localized high population density and low input from agriculture. About 33%
of the global land surface and 25% of the African region - Sub-Saharan Africa (between
North Africa's barren Sahara and the plant-rich land to its south) are most affected. The
United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that worldwide about 63% of
rangelands, 60% of rainfed croplands and 30% of irrigated croplands covering over 33
million sq, km are threatened by desertification. In India Rajasthan and few parts of the
States such as Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are also affected by
this problem.