PARASITOLOGY

Mylene L. Lampano, RMT,MSMT, PhD

Textbook:
 Medical Parasitology in the Philippines

 By: Vicente Belizario , Jr.

Winifreda de Leon
Grading System:
 Attendance 10%
 Assignment 10
 Recitation 10
 Quizzes 30
 Major Exam 40
100%
Introduction to Medical
Parasitology
 Parasitology - area of biology concerned with the
phenomenon of dependence of one living organism
on another.
 Medical Parasitology – concerned primarily with
animal parasites of humans and their medical
significance , as well as their importance in human
communities.
 Tropical Medicine – branch of medicine which deals
with tropical diseases and other special medical
problems of tropical regions.
 Tropical disease – an illness, which is indigenous to
or endemic in a tropical area but may occur in
sporadic or endemic proportions in areas that are not
tropical.
Biological Relationships
 Symbiosis – living
together of unlike
organisms
 It may also involve
protection or other
advantages to one or
both partners.
Commensalism
 symbiotic relationship in
which two species live
together and one
species benefits from
the relationship without
harming or benefiting
the other.
 Ex. Entamoeba coli
Mutualism
 symbiosis in which two
organisms mutually
benefit from each other
like termites and the
flagellates in their
digestive system, which
synthesize cellulose to
aid in the breakdown of
ingested wood.
Parasitism
 symbiotic relationship
where one organism,
the parasite, lives in or
on another, depending
on the on the latter for
its survival and usually
at the expense of the
host.
 Ex. Entamoeba
histolytica
Habitat or Mode of Development
 Endoparasite -
parasite living inside
the body of a host. The
presence of
endoparasite in a host
is called infection.
 Erratic – when a
parasite is found in an
organ which is not its
usual habitat.
 Ectoparasite – parasite
living outside the body
of a host.
 The presence of
ectoparasite on a host
is called infestation.
 Obligate parasites –
they need a host at
some stage of their life
cycle to complete their
development and to
propagate their species.
 Ex. Tapeworm
 Facultative parasite
may exist in a free-living
state or may become
parasitic when the need
arises.
 Accidental or Incidental parasite – a
parasite , which establishes itself in a host
where it does not ordinarily live.
 Permanent parasite – remains on or in the
body of the host for its entire life
 Temporary parasite – lives on the host only
for a short period of time
 Spurious parasite - free-living organism that
passes through the digestive tract without
infecting the host.
Host
 May be classified into various types based on
their role in the life cycle of the parasites.
 Definitive or final host
 Intermediate host
 Paratenic host
 Reservoir host
 Definitive or final host – one in which the
parasite attains sexual maturity.
 Intermediate host – harbors the asexual or
larval stage of the parasite.
 Paratenic host – one in which the parasite
does not develop further to later stages.
 Reservoir host – they allow the parasite’s life
cycle to continue and become additional
sources of human infection.
Vectors
 Responsible for
transmitting the parasite
from one host to
another.
 Biologic vector –
transmit the parasite
only after the latter has
completed its
development, within the
host.
Mechanical or phoretic vector
 only transport the parasite
Exposure and Infection
 Pathogens - which are harmful and
frequently cause mechanical injury to their
host
 Carrier – harbors a particular pathogen
without manifesting any signs and symptoms.
 Exposure – process of inoculating
an infective agent
 Infection - connotes the
establishment of the infective agent
in the host.
 Incubation period - period between
infection and evidence of symptoms
 Sometimes referred to as the clinical
incubation period.
 Pre-patent period – also known as biologic
incubation period
 Period between infection or acquisition of the
parasite and the evidence or demonstration of
infection.
SOURCES OF
INFECTION
 Contaminated food
and water
 Lack of sanitary
toilets
 use of night soil or
human excreta as
fertilizer allows the
eggs to get in
contact with the soil.
 Food/Consumption
of undercooked or
raw fresh water fish,
crab
 Arthropods – also serve
as vectors and transmit
parasites through their
bites.
 Ex. Malaria
Filariasis
Leishmaniasis
Trypanosomiasis
 Another person, his
bedding and
clothing the
immediate
environment he has
contaminated, or
even one’s self.
Autoinfection
 results when an
infected individual
becomes his own direct
source of infection. Enterobius vermicularis
 Ex.
 Enterobiasis
 Capillaria philippinensis

Capillaria philippinensis
Autoinfection
 Enterobiasis
Autoinfection
Superinfection or hyperinfection
 happens when the
already infected
individual is further
infected with the same
species leading to
massive infection with
the parasite,
 Ex. Strongyloides
 Skin penetration
 Ex. Hookworm
Strongyloides
Schistosoma

Strongyloides

Schistosoma japonicum
 Congenital transmission
 Ex. Toxoplasma gondii
Ancylostoma
Strongyloides
 Inhalation of airborne eggs.
 Ex. Enterobius
 Sexual intercourse
 Ex. Trichomonas vaginalis
Modes of Transmission
 Mouth – most common
source of parasitic
infection
 Majority of infections
among cestodes,
trematodes, and
intestinal protozoans
are foodborne.
Nomenclature
 Classified according to International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature.
 Each phylum is divided into classes, which are further
subdivided into order, families, genera and species.
 Scientific names are latinized; family names are
formed by adding –idea to the stem of the genus
type; generic names consist of a single word written
in initial capital letter, the specific names always
begins with a small letter.
 The names of the genera and species are italicized
or underlined when written.
Life Cycle
 Maybe simple or complicated.
 Most parasitic organisms attain sexual
maturity in their definitive hosts.
 Some spends their entire lives within the host
with one generation after another, while
others are exposed to the external
environment before being taken up by an
appropriate host.
Life Cycle
Epidemiologic Measures
 Epidemiology – study of patterns , distribution, and the
occurrence of a disease.
 Incidence – number of new cases of infection appearing in a
population in a given period of time.
 Prevalence- number ( usually expressed in %) of individuals in
a population estimated to be infected with that of a particular
parasite species at a given time.
 Cumulative prevalence - % of individuals in a population
estimated to be infected with at least one parasite.
 Intensity of infection – refers to the number of worms per
infected person. Also referred to as worm burden .
 Morbidity – clinical consequences of infections or diseases that
affect an individual’s well-being.
Treatment
 Deworming – use of antihelminthic drugs in
individual or public health program
 Cure rate – refers to the number (expressed as %) of
previously + subjects found to be egg negative on
examination of a stool or urine sample using standard
procedure at a set time after dewroming.
 Egg reduction rate(ERR) is the % fall in egg counts
after deworming based on examination of stool or
urine sample using standard procedure at a set time
after the treatment
 Selective treatment – involves the individual-level
deworming with selection for treatment based on a
diagnosis of infection or an assessment of the
intensity of infection, or based on presumptive
grounds.
 Targeted treatment – group-level deworming where
the (risk) group to be treated (w/o prior diagnoss)
may be defined by age, sex, or other social
characteristics irrespective of infection status.
 Universal treatment - population level deworming in
which the community is treated irrespective of age,
sex, infection status m or other social characteristics.
 Coverage –refers to the proportion of the target population
reached by an intervention
 Drug resistance – genetically tranmited loss of susceptibility to
a drug in a worm population that was previously sensitive to the
appropriate therapeutic dose.
 Efficacy – effect of drug against infective agent in ideal
experimental conditions and isolated from any context.
 Effectiveness – measure of the effect of a drug against an
infective agent in a particular host, living in a particular
environment with specific ecological, immunological , and
epidemiologic determinants.
 Can be measured by means of qualitative and quantitative
diagnostic tests which detects eggs or larvae in feces or
urine.
Prevention and Control
 Morbidity control – avoidance of illness by
infections. Can be achived by periodically deworming
individuals or groups, known to be high risk of
morbidity.
 Information-education communication (IEC) is a
health education strategy that aims to encourage
people to adapt and maintain healthy life practices.
 Environmental management – planning,
organization, performance, and monitoring activities
for the modification and/or manipulation of the
environmental factors or their interaction with human
beings with a view to preventing or minimizing vector
or intermediate host .
 Environmental sanitation involves
interventions to reduce environmental health
risks including the safe disposal and hygienic
management of human and animal excreta,
refuse and waste water.
 Sanitation – provision of access to adequate
facilities for the safe disposal of human
excreta, usually combined with access to safe
drinking water
Eradication versus Elimination
 Eradication – defined as a permanent
reduction to zero of the worldwide incidence
of infection caused by specific agent, as a
result of deliberate efforts.
 Elimination - reduction to zero of the
incidece of a specified disease in a define
geographic area as a result of deliberate
efforts.
Host – Parasite
Relationship
 Adaptation causes changes in the molecular
biology ,biochemistry, immunology and
structure of the parasite.
 The most noticeable adaptations are found in
the locomotory and digestive system.
 Protozoans belong to
the Phylum
Apicomplexa have no
locomotory organelles
and these organisms
are mostly parasitic
 .
 Free living flatworms
have cilia on their
epidermis while
parasitic cestodes
and trematodes do
not have any.
 Cestodes and trematodes obtain nutrients
through their tegument, which is provided
with microvilli.
 Flatworms have
highly specialized
organs of
attachment , such
as hooks and
suckers, which
anchor the parasite
inside the body of
the host and
facilitate tissue
migration.
 Size and shape of the parasite
 Adult Ascaris
worms maintain
their position inside
their intestinal wall
by constant
movement.
 Integument is
thickened to resist
enzymes and juices
in the digestive tract
of humans and to
protect against
dessication and
physical injury
 Intestinal flukes, the
tegument is covered
with spines to prevent
abrasion.
 Special coverings of
ova , larvae , and cysts
protect the parasite larvae
during their free-living
stage.

Cyst
ova
Reproductive system
 Flatworms are highly
elaborate and
complicated.
 All tapeworms and
flukes , with the
exception of
Schistosoma spp. Are
hermaphroditic.
 Flukes undergo asexual
reproduction in the
intermediate hosts to
increase the number of
progeny.
Biochemical adaptation
 Loss of certain metabolic pathways common
to free-living organisms. This process is
called streamlining, that is inability of the
parasite to synthesize certain cellular
components and the need of the parasite to
obtain these from a host.
 Streamlining is exemplified by
hemoflagellates and the other helminths
parasites.
Specialized mechanisms needed for
the entrance into the body and tissues,
 Trophozoite of Entamoeba
histolytica. Secrete cysteine
proteinases, which allow the
parasite to penetrate the
mucosa and adhere to the
underlying layer and the
surrounding tissues.
 No such enzyme has been
found in the commensal
E.coli.
 The cercariae of
Schistosoma contain
penetration glands,
which produce an
enzyme capable of
digesting the skin
allowing entry into six
hooklets, which aid
them in tissue
penetration before
developing into
encysted larvae.
Effects of parasite on the Host
 Some organisms may live inside the body of
the host w/o causing any damage, but in most
instances, they have the ability to inflict
damage to their host.
Common mechanisms by which
parasite cause injury to the host.
 Interference with the
vital processes of the
host through the
enzyme systems.
 Ex. E.histolytica
trophozoite secrete
cysteine proteinases,
which do not only digest
cellular materials but
also degrade epithelial
basement membrane
facilitating tissue
invasion.
Invasion and destruction of host tissue.

 Ex. Plasmodium
, which invades
RBC
 Schistosoma
japonicum
infection, cumulative
deposition of eggs in
the liver which leads
to the portal
hypertension and
massive
hemorrahge in the
venules.
Hookworms have cutting
plates, which can attach
to the intestinal mucosa
and destroy the villi.
N. americanus

A. duodenale
 Large numbers of
worms such as Ascaris
form tangled masses
that can lead to
intestinal obstruction
and may invade other
organs like the
appendix and bile
ducts.
 Parasites can also deprive
the host of essential nutrient
and substances.
 Heavy hookworm infection
causes massive bleeding Hookworm
which may result in chronic
blood loss and iron
deficiency anemia.
 Diphyllobothrium latum
competes with its host for the
available supply with vitamin
B12 thus producing
megaloblastic anemia.

D. latum
Effects of the Hosts on the Parasite
 The genetic make-up of the host may
influence the interaction between host and
parasite.
 In falcifarum malaria, possession of sickle-cell
anemia traits confers some protection, while
the presence of Duffy blood factor increases
susceptibility of an individual to Plasmodium
vivax infection.
 Nutritional status of the host.
A diet rich in protein is not
suitable for the development
of intestinal protozoans while
a low protein diet favors the
appearance of symptoms of
amebiasis and complication
of the disease.
 A high carbohydrate diet
favors the development of
some tapeworm.
 Immune processes play an important role in
host –parasite relationships.
 Absolute immunity to reinfection occurs
rarely following protozoans infections, and
probably never happens in helminths
infections in humans.
 Acquired immunity may be very important in
modifying the severity of disease in endemic
areas.
THE END
Immunology of Parasitic
Infections
Host-Parasite Interactions
 Host is provided with both natural (non-
specific) and acquired (specific) immune
defenses.
 Non-specific defenses are affected by many
factors that include: genetics, nutritional
status, hormonal balance and age.
Non-specific defenses

 Skin
 Acidic pH of the vaginal secretion and gastric
juice
 Mucus secretions
 Human reflexes
 Variety of cells (eosinophils & neutrophil)
Skin
 Well-studied non-specific
defenses, which provides
effective surface protection
against microbial invasion. Hookworm
 There are parasites that initiate
infection through skin
penetration.
 Filariform larvae of hookworms
and Strongyloides spp. Can Cercariae
synthesize a protein that aids in
the penetration process.
 Schistosoma spp. Cercariae
are capable of skin penetration
because of presence of glands
in the anterior part of the
parasite
Lines of Defense
Ground itch

81
 Acidic pH of the vaginal
secretion and gastric
juice
 Trophozoite of T.
vaginalis are unable to
survive the acidic
environment of the
vagina.
 Infective stages of that
are ingested like
Ascaris
embryonated eggs of
Ascaris spp.,Trichuris
spp. and Taenia
spp.are provided with
thick egg shells that
help the parasite
Trichuris
escape the acidic
action.

Taenia
 Cystic wall of intestinal
protozoa like the
Entamoeba spp. And
Giardia spp. Are also
resistant to acidic pH. Entamoeba spp

Giardia spp.
 The mucus secretions
are also protective.
 Once the secretion
envelop the parasite,
ex. Giardia lambia, the
motility of the parasite is
greatly diminished .
 Lipase content of breast
milk , was found toxic to
Giardia lambia in vitro.
Human reflexes

• Ascaris lumbricoides
per orem
Coughing • Paragonimus
westermani eggs

flushing • Trichomonas vaginalis

action of
urine
Variety of cells in the body of the host
participate in interacting with the parasites.

Eosinophils • Parasite invasion

and
neutrophils

• the first cellular

Macrophage defense
• Phagocytosis
Cellular components of the skin of
the host
 Langerhans cells
 Dendrite cells,
 Mast cells
 Recirculating T-lymphocytes produced by the
skin associated lymphoid tissues (SALT).
 Recirculating T-lymphocytes produced by gut
associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) in the
mucosal system of the GIT
Parasite Antigen
 can stimulate the host to mount an acquired
specific response against the antigen.
 This response can recognize self and non-
self.
Objective of specific response

Destroy the parasite

Protect the host from the

activities of the parasites
IMPORTANT NOTE:

Immune response
does always equate
with protection
Host Immune Response
 The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) gene
products regulate the T-lymphocyte activities.
 Human leukocyte antigens (HLA) is also a
determining factor.
 A specific immune response begins when the
parasitic antigens are processed and presented to
the T-helper lymphocytes, which could either be Th1
or Th2.
 These 2 subsets of Thelper cells are responsible for
producing different lymphokines.
Th1 lymphocytes
 Produce gamma interferons and interleukin 2
which activate cytotoxic lymphocytes (with
CD8 surface molecules) and macrophages.
 They may act by direct cytotoxicity on the
parasite or indirectly by acting on natural killer
cells or the antibody producing B-
lymphocytes.
 Ex. Migrating larvae of Toxocara canis are
killed through cell-mediated immunity.
TH2 lymphocytes
 Produce interleukins 4,5, and 5 that enhance
the proliferation and differentiation of B-
lymphocytes into plasma cells, which are
responsible for antibody production.
 In most helminthic infections, the most
common responses include eosinophilia and
elevated serum IgE.
 IgE antibodies are bound to the mucosal
mast cells, eosinophils, and goblet cells can
mediate the eventual expulsion of adult
gastrointestinal helminths.
 With homocytotrophic IgG1, IgE can act on
mast cells and basophils, which leads to tehir
degranulation and eventual release of
pharmacologically active substances.
 These result in Type 1 hypersensitivity
reaction called anaphylaxis that may occur
during rupture of larval infection with
Echinococcus granulosus.
 The combined activity of IgG and IgM ca
prevent penetration of erythrocytes by
Plasmodia spp. And Babesia spp. But they
are generally ineffective against
gastrointestinal helminths.
 Secretory IgA in the intestine protect against
metacestode and gastrointestinal infections.
 IgM with secretory IgA mediate ADCC in
Giardia lambia infection.
Parasite Evasion Mechanisms
 Immune suppression
 Antigenic Variation
 Host mimicry
 Intracellular Sequestration
Immune suppression
Plasmodia spp., • reduce the immune functions of
Trypanosoma macrophages
gambiense.

• produces suppressor factor

E. histolytica
• inhibit movement of monocytes

Wuchereria • Blocking antibodies

bancrofti
Antigenic variation
 Trypanosoma gambiense infection, the initial
host response against the surface
glycoproteins of the trypanomastigotes is very
effective.
 Malarial parasites, esp. Plasmodium
falcifarum exhibit antigenic diversity.The
mechanism is through repeat variation of the
encoded polypeptides which contain tandem
sequences of amino acids as observe in
merozoite surface antigen (MSA) and ring
infected erythrocyte surface antigen (RESA).
Host Mimicry
 The larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus
called hydatid cyst has been found to carry
blood group antigen and the tegument of
Schistosoma spp dult can acquire antigenic
molecules from the host.
 Antibodies produced against the parasites
then fail to recognize non-self from self-
antigens
Intracellular Sequestration
 Amastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi and
Leishmania spp.proliferate in the
macrophages of various organs.
 Toxoplasma gondii multiply inside
macrophages as well as in other nucleated
cells.
 The late intracellular stages of Plasmodium
falcifarum are sequestered from the
circulation into the deep vasculature.
Adverse Effects of Immune Response
in the Host
 Intense or abnormal response to a parasitic
infection may result in pathological
manifestations of the parasitic disease.
 In Wuchereria bancrofti, there is
overproduction of IgM (polyclonal
hypergama-globulinemia) due to the
functional T-suppresor cell (T8) defect.
 In recurrent Plasmodium spp. Infection,
immune complexes are associated with a
condition called Hyperactive Malarious
Splenomegaly (HMS)
 The sequestration of late
intra-erythrocytic
Plasmodium falcifarum
from the circulation and
their attachment to
endothelial cells is
protective to the parasite
but its is believed to be
the main cause of
cerebral malaria.
T-delayed type of hypersensitivity
(T-DTH) lymphocytes
 when stimulated as in Schistosoma spp. Infection
produce attractants and activators of other cells that
can recruit other cells to form a granuloma around
Schistosoma spp. In Leishmenia spp. , more
macrophages are damaged.
Schistosoma spp infection
 This result in hepatomegaly, fibrosis.
Increased portal hypertension and
esophageal varices.
Practical Applications
 Understanding of the host immune response
to parasitic invasion is useful in the
immunodiagnosis and control of the resulting
immunopathology.
 The current concepts on immunoregulation
and immunomodulation products of studies
on tehse immune response .
 It will also help in potential control through
vaccination and possible developement of
novel-antiparasitic drug.
When someone shares
something of value with you
and you benefit from it,
you have a moral
obligation to share it with
others"
The End
Groups of Parasites with
Medical and Public Health
Importance
Protozoa
 Parasitic infections are either due to
unicellular protozoan or the multicellular
metazoan
 Protozoan parasites are provided with
nucleus/nuclei, cytoplasm, an outer limiting
membrane, and cellular elaborations called
organelles.
Locomotory organelles
 Cilia

 Flagella

 Pseudopodia
 Many of these protozoans require a wet
environment for feeding, locomotion,
osmoregulation, and reproduction.
 They form infective stages called cysts,
which are relatively resistant to environmental
changes compared to vegetative stages
called trophozoites.
 Infective stage (CYST)  Vegetative stage
(TROPHOZOITE)
 All Protozoa fall under Kingdom Protista.
 Major organisms causing disease in man
belong to Phylum Sarcomastigophora,
Phylum Ciliophora, Apicomplexa, and Phylum
Microspora.
Classification
SARCOMASTIGOPHORA
of protozoan parasites
Sarcodina Acanthamoeba castellani
Endolimax nana
Entamoeba coli
Entameba dispar
Entameoba gingivalis
Entamoeba histolytica
Iodamoeba histolytica
Iodamoeba butchlii
Nagleria fowleri

Mastigophora Chilomastix mesnili

Dientamoeba fragilis
Giardia lamblia
Trichomonas hominis
Trichomonas tenax
Trichommonas vaginalis
Cont.
Mastigophora Leishmania braziliensis
Leishmania donovani
Leishmania tropica
Trypanosoma brucei complex
Trypanosoma cruzi

Ciliophora Balantidium coli

Apicomplexa Babesia spp.
Cryptosporidium hominis
Cyclospora cayetaensis
Isiopora belli
Plasmodium spp.
Toxoplasma gondii
Microscpora Enterocytozoon bineusi
Encephaitozoon spp.
Vittaforma cornea
Trachipleistiphora hominis
Pleistophora spp.
Brachiola vesicularum
Microsporidium spp.
Classification of metazoan
parasites
NEMATODA

INTESTINAL Ascaris lumbricoides

Capillaria phiillipinensis

Enterobius vermicularis

Hookworm

Strongyloides stercoralis

Trichuris trichiura

EXTRAINTESTINAL Angostrongulus cantonensis

Filarial worms

Trichinella spiralis
Classification of metazoan
parasites (cont.)
CESTOIDEA

Cyclophylidea Diphylidium caninum

Echinococcus
Hymenolepsis diminuta
Hymenolepsis nana
Raillientina garrisoni
Taenia saginata
Taenia solium

Pseudocyclophylidea Diphylobothrium latum

Spirometria
TREMATODA
Artyfechinostonum malayanum
Clonorchis sinensis
Echinostoma ilocanum
Fasciola hepatica
Fasciolopsis buski
Heteropyids
Opithorchis felinus
Opisthorchis viverrni
Paragonmus westermani
Schistosoma haematobium
Schistosoma mansoni
Schistosoma japonicum
ARTHROPODA
Arachnida Mites
Scorpions
Spiders
Ticks

Chilopoda Centipedes
Crustacea Copodes, Crabs
Diplopoda Millipedes
Insecta Fleas, Flies, Beetle, Bees, Lice,
Wasp, Bugs, Mosquitoes
Pentastomida Tongue worms
Nematodes
 Either helminths or arthropods
 Helminths causing infection in man belong to
3 groups, annelids, nematodes and
flatworms.
 Under annelids, only the leeches are
considered to be of medical importance.
 Nematodes are also known
as roundworms because
they are elongated and
cylindrical in shape with
bilateral symmetry.
 They have complete
digestive tract and a
muscular pharynx that is
characteristically triradiate.
 Provided with separate
sexes, also some are maybe
parthenogenetic
 There are sensory organs in
the anterior and posterior
ends of the worm called
amphids and phasmids.
 Those roundowrms with
phasmids are called as
phasmids nematodes,
while those without are
describe as aphasmids
worms
 3 Aphasmids worms of medical and public
health importance :Trichuris,Trichinella , and
Capillaria
 The rest of the nematodes , are, therefore,
phasmid nematodes (Secernentia)
 Most of the nematodes are found in the small
and large intestine, while some found outside
the intestine
 Trichuris

 Trichinella

 Capillaria
Small intestine
 Ascaris

 Strongyloides

 Capillaria
Large intestine (COLON)
 Trichuris

 Enterobius
Extraintestinal nematodes (lymph
vessels)
 Wuchereria

 Brugia
Eyes and meninges
 Angiostrongylus
Encysted in the muscle
 Trichinella spiralis larvae
Ways by which humans acquire
helminths
 Ingestion of embryonated egg :
 Ascaris

 Trichuris

 Enterobius
Skin penetration
 Hookworms

 Strongloides
Bite of mosquito vectors
 Wuchereria

 Brugia
Ingestion of infective larvae
 Capillaria from fish

 Trichinella from pork

 Angiostrongylus from snails

Autoinfection
 Capillaria

 Strongyloides

 ’Enterobius
Transmission through inhalation
 Enterobius

 Ascaris
Cestodes
 Cestodes (Tapeworms) and Flukes (Trematodes)
 Plathylhelminthes or flatworms, in general are dosdo-
ventrally flattened with bilateral symmmetry.
 Cestodes are segmented with a ribbon-like
appearance, while trematodes are leaf-like and
unsegmented.
 Cestodes are provided with digestive tract while
trematodes have an incomplete one.
 Both does not have circulatory system.
 Adult tapeworm are
hermaphroditic,
 Found in the intestine of
the definitive host and
the larval stage is
encysted in the tissues
of intermediate host.
Tapeworms
 Anterior structure called
scolex, main organ of
attachment.
 Neck – region of growth
because from it will start
segmentation or
strobilization
 Segments or
proglottids that are
near the neck are
immature, and the most
distal from the neck are
gravid segments
 Pseudophyllidean tapeworms have spatulate
scolex with sucking grooves, called bothria,
while the Cyclophyllidean scolex gloular with
four muscular suckers.
.
Pseudophyllidean

sucking grooves
(bothria )
Cyclophyllidean


suckers
 Have uterine pore
which allows release
of eggs from gravid
uterus .
 Cyclophillidean
segments do not
have uterine pore,
they undergo the
process of apolysis
whereby gravid
segments are
detached from the
main body of the
worms and eggs are
eventually released
 Pseudophyllidean worms generally requires 2
intermediate hosts in their life cycle.
 In the lst intermediate host, eggs encyst as
procercoid larvae, then into procercoid
larvae, then into plerocercoid larvae in the
2nd intermediate host.
 Ex. Diphyllobothrium causes adult infection
and Spirometria causes larval infections in
man.
 Cyclophyllidean worms require only 1
intermediate host, but different species of
Cyclophyllidean produce different types of
encysted larvae in the intermediate host.
Different types of encysted larvae 0f
Intermediate Host (Cyclophyllidea)

Taenia
• produce cysticercus
type

Hymenolepsis
• produce cysticercoid
type

Echinococcus • produce hydatid

 Infection with adult tapeworm is generally
acquire through the consumption of infected
IH.
 There are cases where humans are infected
instead with the larval stage of Taenia solium
called cysticercosis and of Echinococcus
spp, called hydatid cyst.
Trematodes
 Provided with oral
sucker and a ventral
sucker called
acetabulum.
 3rd scuker called genital
sucker or gonotyl is
observed only in
heterophyids.
 Require 2 IH.in their life cycle.
 Have operculated eggs and the infective
stage is encysted larva, the metacercaria,
that develops in 2nd IH.
 Ist IH is always a snail, the 2nd IH vary from
fish to crustaceans, to another snail, or to
fresh water plants.
Habitat
 Adult schistosomes (blood flukes)-
mesenteric veins
 Adult Paragonimus lung parenchyma
 Liver and bile passages – Fasciola,
Clonorchis , and Opistorchis
 Intestines – Fasciolopsis, Echinostoma and
Heterophyids
Arthropods
 Composed of bilateral symmetrical organisms
with segmented and jointed appendages.
 Body is covered with chitinous exoskeleton
 Includes insects, mites, ticks, spiders,
scorpions, centipededs, millipedes, and
crustaceans.
 Pentastomids or pentatomes may actually
included in this group
 Affect humans health in various ways like
envenomization through bites of spiders, flies, bugs,
mites and ticks.
 Introduction of venom can occu with sting of
scorpions, ants, wasps and bees.
 Exposure to arthropod allergens has been
recognized as another health threath.
 Biological vectors – Plasmodium, filaria,
trypanosomes and Leishmania
 Flies and cockroaches can be mechanical vectors of
some microbes and parasites.
 Some arthropods relate to dermatological
concerns due to prolonged contact with the
human hosts.
 Ex. Fleas and lice.
 Fly larvae have been isolated from numerous
cases of infestation and invasion of human
tissues called myasis.
Prayers has many methods.
Do it your own way.

The End
When someone shares
something of value with you
and you benefit from it,
you have a moral
obligation to share it with
others"
Danke

Thank you.
The End