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Studies on jet formation and penetration for a double-layer shaped charge

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DOI: 10.1134/S0010508211020134

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Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 241–248, 2011

Studies on Jet Formation and Penetration

for a Double-Layer Shaped Charge

Zhang Xian-feng1 and Qiao Liang1 UDC 539.89+537.53

Translated from Fizika Goreniya i Vzryva, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 128–136, March–April, 2011.
Original article submitted April 11, 2010; revision submitted May 10, 2010.

An analysis for liner collapsing and jet/slug formation of a double-layer shaped charge
(DLSC) is presented. Variations of the collapse angle, collapse velocity, and jet ve-
locity of the DLSC are discussed. Numerical simulations based on the Lee-Tarver
model are performed to have an insight into the jet formation. Ballistic tests are
conducted using a conical (60◦ ) metal liner 56 mm in diameter to have a contrast
with an ordinary shaped charge jet. It is shown that the collapse angle and velocity
are both increased by the convergent detonation wave in the DLSC. The jet velocity,
kinetic energy, and ballistic capability are significantly increased by using the DLSC,
and the DLSC is an efficient way to improve shaped charge performance.
10.1134/S0010508211020134
Keywords: shaped charge, overdriven detonation, double-layer shaped charge, flow
model, jet formation, penetration.

INTRODUCTION

Shaped charges have received considerable atten-

tion in the last several decades. It is used in both mil-
itary and civilian industry for various purposes, for ex-
ample, making holes, deep penetrating into various ma-
terials, cutting, shaping, welding, etc. The main pur-
pose of the shaped charge designer is to obtain the max-
imum penetration depth (or hole diameter) in the target
using the minimum amount of the high-explosive (HE) Fig. 1. Schematic of the double-layer shaped charge:
charge. Using HE charges with higher detonation ve- 1) liner; 2) inner layer charge; 3) outer layer charge;
locities, detonation wave optimization, and high density 4) initiator (booster).
and ductility of liner materials are three main ways to
improve the ballistic performance of the shaped charge.
Among these ways, the detonation wave optimization is explosive. The booster is used to get an annular ini-
considered to be the most efficient way to achieve the tial detonation wave. In the part of the main explo-
above-mentioned objectives. Annular (multi-point) ini- sive, two kinds of high explosives are charged together.
tiation, wave shaper, and multi-layer charges are mostly The outer layer charge has a higher detonation velocity
used for this purpose. A double-layer shaped charge and is initiated earlier than the inner layer. Owing to
(DLSC) is considered in this paper. the difference in detonation velocities, the inner layer
An illustration of the DLSC is shown in Fig. 1. charge is in an overdriven detonation state induced by
The explosive part is composed of a booster and a main the outer layer charge. The DLSC is an efficient way to
1 improve ballistic performance of the shaped charge jet,
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing University
of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu, which does not require increasing the charge length (or
P. R. China; lynx@mail.njust.edu.cn. diameter) or adopting another powerful HE.
0010-5082/11/4702-0241 
c 2011 Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 241
242
This efficient way is actually a result of two distinct
effects in the liner collapse and jet formation: (a) the
priority detonation of the outer layer charge forms a
convergent detonation wave in the inner layer charge,
which, on the one hand, modifies the angle of approach-
ing of the detonation wave to the liner and, on the other
hand, forms a stable Mach stem due to irregular reflec-
tion near the axis; (b) higher pressures and velocities
(overdriven detonation) are reached in the inner layer
charge due to convergence of the shock wave induced by
the outer layer charge.
Owing to the high efficiency of the DLSC and its
high significance in ultra-high pressure applications, re-
search groups all over the world have carried out lots
of research works on the DLSC. As early as in 1978,
Müller [1] conducted Mach reflection tests of detona-
tion waves in double-layer cylindrical (DLC) charges by
flash x-ray radiography. A strong detonation behind the
Mach disk was observed in the inner layer of the HE
specimen. Held [2] and Adadurov et al. [3] presented
the detonation wave shape for the DLC charge using a
high-speed rotating-mirror streak camera. Detonation
processes in DLC charges with the inner charge consist-
ing of TNT, glass, and 85/15 HMX/binder, and some
others were observed. Liu et al. [4–7] developed an equa-
tion of state (EOS) of detonation products in the over-
driven detonation state, performed a numerical study
of overdriven detonation in the case of Mach reflection
of the detonation wave, and considered some applica-
tions. Otsuka et al. [8], Itoh [9], and Hamada et al. [10]
used a manganin gauge and optical fibers to measure
the detonation velocity and pressure behind an over-
driven detonation wave in a powerful DLC charge. The
recorded pressure was four times higher than the nor-
mal (Chapman–Jouguet) detonation pressure. Kato et
al. [11] carried out numerical and experimental studies
on jet formation by using tungsten-loaded high-density
PBX as the inner charge. The experimental results
showed that the initial jet velocity and jet penetration
velocity into target plates were substantially increased
by using the DLSC. Zhang et al. [12, 13] developed an
analytical model for predicting the detonation wave con-
figurations in the DLC charge. Numerical simulation re-
sults of jet formation and penetration showed that the
use of the DLSC ensured approximately a 20% increase
in the jet tip velocity and kinetic energy. An analysis of
available publications showed that the liner collapse and
DLSC-induced jet formation have not been adequately
studied.
The present paper describes an analytical model for
the liner collapse and jet/slug formation for the DLSC.
Variation of the collapse angle, collapse velocity, and
jet velocity are discussed. Numerical simulations based
Zhang Xian-feng and Qiao Liang
on the Lee-Tarver model and corresponding ballistics
tests are conducted using a conical (60◦ ) metal liner
56 mm in diameter for comparisons with an ordinary
shaped charge. Predictions based on the present model
are found to agree well with numerical results: the col-
lapse angle and velocity are both increased by the con-
vergent detonation wave and higher detonation pressure
behind the Mach stem in the DLSC. The jet velocity, ki-
netic energy, and ballistic performance are significantly
increased by using the DLSC, and the DLSC is an effi-
cient way to improve shaped charge performance.
1. ANALYSIS OF THE LINER COLLAPSE
AND JET FORMATION IN THE DLSC
The detonation wave propagation model in the
DLC charge generalizes the analysis in [13–15] to in-
clude the regular and Mach reflections of the detonation
wave into consideration. Owing to the higher detona-
tion velocity in the outer layer charge, the detonation
wave in the inner charge is delayed, and a conical deto-
nation wave propagates over the inner charge from the
very beginning of the process. As the detonation pro-
gresses, a steady detonation wave with a stable front
shape is formed. Because of the difference in the deto-
nation velocities of two charges, there are two possible
cases of detonation wave propagation in the DLC. In the
first case, the angle of wave incidence onto the charge
axis ψi = arcsin(Di /Dout ), where Dout and Din are the
detonation velocities of the outer and inner layers of the
charge (Fig. 2), is smaller than the critical angle ψin,cr
for Mach reflection. Regular reflection of the detonation
wave with a constant shape is formed on the axis in the
inner charge. In the second case, ψin > ψin,cr , regular
reflection is not possible, and Mach reflection would be
expected to occur in this situation.
From the considerations discussed above, it follows
that the eventual state of the detonation wave in the
DLC is determined by the charge parameters. The ma-
jority of powerful military HEs have the detonation ve-
locities of 6.5–10 km/sec, i.e., the ratio of velocities for
the double-layer charge is always smaller than 1.5, and
the angle of incidence of the detonation wave onto the
axis is always greater than 42◦ . It follows from Dunne’s
results [14] that the critical angles for Mach reflection
are higher than 42◦ for most military HEs with the ra-
tio of specific heats of explosion products γ = 2.5–3.3.
Thus, the case with ψin > ψin,cr occurs, and Mach re-
flection appears in the inner charge.
Studies on Jet Formation and Penetration for a Double-Layer Shaped Charge
Fig. 2. Schematic of the DLSC liner collapse.
Fig. 3. Collapse angle β and projection angle δ as
functions of the dimensionless coordinate along the
liner formation line.
As was mention before, one purpose of using
the DLC charge is to form a convergent detonation
wave and decrease the angle of its incidence onto
the liner, which increases the collapsing velocity and
jet velocity. To simplify the analysis, the following
assumptions are made:
— the steady state of the convergent detonation
wave in the inner charge layer is reached before the
liner collapse;
— the liner elements are instantaneously acceler-
ated and collapse along a straight-line path;
— the effects of the diameter, curvature, and in-
crease in the detonation velocity in the cylindrical
charge are neglected;
— the thickness of the outer layer charge is larger
than critical detonation diameter;
— a plane detonation wave is formed in the
outer layer charge as a result of annular initiation
from the booster.
243
Fig. 4. Calculated collapse velocity and jet velocity
as functions of the dimensionless coordinate along
the liner formation line: two lower curves show the
slug velocity V0 , and two upper curves show the jet
velocity Vj .
The flow pattern in the double-layer charge and the
interaction of the detonation with the liner are shown in
Fig. 2. The first stage of jet formation is the liner col-
lapse. The Taylor equation yields a formula relating the
projectile angle δ to the collapse velocity V0 , detonation
wave velocity D, and angle of attack of the detonation
wave λ:
sin δ = V0 sin λ/2D. (1)
According to the mathematical description of the
flow pattern in Fig. 2, the angle of attack λ is deter-
mined as follows:
λ1 = π/2 − α for the ordinary charge, (2)
λ2 = arcsin(Din /Dout ) − α for the DLSC. (3)
The collapse velocity V0 is calculated by a simpli-
fied Gurney formula from [16]:
√
V0 = 2E/[A{[(m/c) + (β + 3)/6/(β + 1)]/A
+ A[n/c + (3β + 1)/6(β + 1) − 1/3]}]1/2, (4)
A = [m/c + a(m/c)(β − 1)
+ (β + 2)/3(β + 1)]/[n/c + (2β + 1)/3(β + 1)]. (5)
Here, E is the Gurney energy, m, n, and c are the
liner, confinement, and explosive masses, respectively,
and β = Rout /Rin , where Rin and Rout are inner and
outer radii of the HE charge, respectively.
The Pugh–Eichelberger–Rostoker (PER) the-
ory [17] is used to calculate the collapse angle and
velocities and masses of the jet and slug. In accordance
244
Fig. 5. DLSC model used for numerical simulations:
1) outer layer charge; 2) plane wave shaper; 3) inner
layer charge; 4) liner.
with Jones’ assumption, the collapse angle can be
calculated from a modification of the original PER
equations [18, 19]:
tan β = tan (β + + Δβ),
tan Δβ = −(x sin α/cos(α + δ) cos δ)(V0 /V0 ),
β + = 2δ + α.
Here, x is the distance along the cone axis from the
apex; the prime denotes differentiation with respect
to x. Once β is calculated, the velocity, mass, and
kinetic energy of the formed jet element are given
by the equations
Vj = V0 cos(α + δ − β/2)/ sin(β/2),
Vs = V0 sin(α + δ − β/2)/ cos(β/2);
Δmj = Δm(1 − cos β)/2;
ΔEkj = Δmj Vj2 .
For comparisons with existing experimental results,
calculations are performed for a 56–72 mm shaped
charge with a conical (60◦ ) copper liner. The ener-
getic material in this shaped charge is an HMX/RDX
polymer explosive (density ρ0 = 1.70 g/cm3 ), which
is widely used in shaped charges. The HE detona-
tion
√ velocity is 8425 m/sec, and the Gurney energy is
2E = 3200 m/sec. The best experimental value for
the jet tip velocity is 7100 m/sec.
For the DLSC, the inner layer charge is assumed to
be composed from TNT with the following Chapman–
Jouguet (CJ) parameters: √ ρ0 = 1.63 cm3 , γ = 2.856,
DCJ = 6973 m/sec, and 2E = 3000 m/sec. The
outer layer charge is PBX 9404 (ρ0 = 1.84 g/cm3 )
with the CJ velocity DCJ = 8800 m/sec. The angle
of incidence of the convergent detonation wave ψin =
arcsin(Din /Dout ) = 52.4◦ is greater than the critical
Mach reflection angle ψin,cr = 45.5◦, and Mach reflec-
tion is formed in the DLSC.
Zhang Xian-feng and Qiao Liang
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
Fig. 6. Detonation wave interaction with the liner:
(a) ordinary charge; (b) DLSC.
The final collapsing velocity for each element is first
calculated from Eqs. (4) and (5); after that, the collapse
angle, projection angle, and velocity history of each el-
ement are calculated from Eqs. (1), (6), and (9). The
calculated results are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. It is seen
from Fig. 3 that the collapse angle β and the projection
angle δ of individual elements of the DLSC are smaller
than the corresponding values of the ordinary shaped
charge, as the angle of attack λ decreases. The velocity
of the jet formed by the DLSC is higher than that of
the ordinary shaped charge, despite the lower collapse
velocity. The jet tip velocity in the DLSC is 18% higher,
and the difference in velocities of the jets formed by the
DLSC and by the ordinary shaped charge decreases as
the x coordinate counted along the cone axis from its
apex increases.
Studies on Jet Formation and Penetration for a Double-Layer Shaped Charge
Fig. 7. Velocity distribution along the jet.
Fig. 8. Cross section of the DLSC and its liner:
1) outer layer charge; 2) plane wave shaper; 3) in-
ner layer charge; 4) liner.
2. SIMULATION OF JET FORMATION
IN THE DLSC
As was mentioned before, the efficient use of the
DLSC is related to decreasing the angle of attack of the
detonation wave onto the liner and to a curved Mach
stem with a higher pressure. In the model described
above, only the influence of the decreased angle of at-
tack is considered for the DLSC, while the contribution
of the increased pressure behind the Mach stem is not
included. Actually, the liner collapse process behind the
Mach stem is a combined effect of elevated detonation
pressure and smaller angle of attack. To gain a better
insight into jet formation in the DLSC, numerical sim-
R
ulations are conducted with the use of AUTODYN . Fig. 7), the local velocity of the jet elements increases
Unlike the traditional HE shaped charges, detona-
tion of the inner charge in the DLSC is induced by det-
onation in the outer layer. A preliminary analysis of
possible values of the relative volume and internal en-
ergy shows that the JWL model cannot be used to de-
245
TABLE 1
Parameters of HE Charges
Used in Simulations
HE ρ, g/cm3 DCJ , m/sec pCJ , GPa
PBX-9404 1.84 8800 37.0
Cast TNT 1.63 6930 21.0
Comp B 1.70 7840 29.5
scribe the shock-induced initiation of the inner charge
in the DLSC. In the present research, the ignition and
growth model proposed by Lee and Tarver [20, 21] is
used. Here we use PBX-9404 for the outer layer and
cast TNT having a lower detonation velocity for the in-
ner layer. Table 1 shows the detonation parameters of
the HE charges used (Comp B is used as the energetic
material for the ordinary shaped charge).
In the present paper, Euler codes are used to de-
scribe detonation and shock-induced initiation of the
HE charge, liner collapse, and jet formation. Figure 5
shows the finite-element model of the DLSC used in
simulations. An special initiator was used to simulate
the initial annular detonation wave.
The inner layer charge is shielded by a cone of ny-
lon to prevent direct coupling of the detonation wave
into the charge and is initiated by an annular detona-
tion wave. The outer layer charge has a thickness of
5 mm, which is greater than the critical detonation di-
ameter. The liner collapse and jet formation are simu-
lated both for the ordinary shaped charge and for the
DLSC. A typical pattern of detonation wave interaction
with the liner is shown in Fig. 6. The detonation wave
propagating in the ordinary charge from the beginning
of initiation has a convex spherical shape with an almost
constant radius of curvature. The detonation front in
the outer layer charge in the DLSC “leads” detonation
in the inner charge. A Mach stem with a higher pres-
sure and constant propagation velocity is observed in
the DLSC. During the liner collapse, the angle of inci-
dence of the detonation wave onto liner is substantially
decreased by using the DLSC, which increases the liner
collapse velocity.
Table 2 and Fig. 7 show the jet characteristics and
its velocity in the ordinary shaped charge and DLSC.
The jet tip velocity and energy are increased approx-
imately by 22% by using the DLSC. In this case (see
much faster along the jet, which means that the increase
in energy of the jet in the DLSC is related to jet velocity.
Numerical simulation results predict higher jet velocity
and energy for the DLSC. The reason is the higher pres-
sure behind the Mach stem due to irregular reflection of
246 Zhang Xian-feng and Qiao Liang

TABLE 2
Simulation Results of Jet Formation in the DLSC and Ordinary Shaped Charge

Type Time, Tip velocity, Tail velocity, Jet length, Energy,

μsec m/sec m/sec mm 105 J
Ordinary charge 36 7160 776 166 1.02
DLSC 30.6 9032 841 168 1.33

TABLE 3
Parameters of the DLSC in Ballistic Tests

Inner layer charge Outer layer charge

Type Total mass, g
Density, g/cm3 Mass, g Density, g/cm3 Mass, g

Ordinary charge 1.700 268.8 — — 321.5

HMX + 5% W 1.696 194.3 1.693 85.8 332.8
HMX + 10% W 1.824 206.1 1.700 86.2 345.1
HMX + 15% W 1.984 220.6 1.699 86.1 359.4
Passive RDX 1.646 189.7 1.697 86.0 328.6
Low-density HMX 1.590 184.3 1.699 86.1 323.1

Fig. 9. Photographs of individual elements of the DLSC: (a) inner charge with the liner; (b) outer layer
charge; (c) shaper; (d) booster.

the convergent detonation wave, which is not included
in the analytical model. The jet lengths obtained at the
same stand-off distance by two calculation variants are
slightly different, which means that a different stand-off
distance should be used when we apply the DLSC in
warheads.
3. BALLISTIC CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE DLSC
Ballistic tests are performed with unconfined
shaped charges 56 mm in diameter. The charge liner
with an angle of 60◦ is made of copper (OFHC) with
the wall thickness of 1 mm (Fig. 8). As is shown in
Table 3, three types of HEs with low detonation veloci-
ties are used in the inner layer charge: HMX containing
tungsten powder (5, 10, and 15%), low-density HMX,
and passive RDX. The ordinary shaped charge consists
of HMX with the detonation velocity of 8425 m/sec. All
ballistic tests are conducted with the charge placed at
a distance of 100 mm from the target. Figure 9 shows
the unassembled parts of the DLSC.
In ballistic tests shown schematically in Fig. 10, a
cylindrical semi-infinite target is made of medium steels,
a commonly used material for such experiments. To
measure the entrance and exit hole diameters after bal-
listic tests, we use a composite target as a semi-infinite
target. The target parts have diameters of 100 and
60 mm, with thicknesses of 220 and 100 mm, respec-
Studies on Jet Formation and Penetration for a Double-Layer Shaped Charge 247

TABLE 4
Results of Ballistic Tests of the DLSC and Ordinary Shaped Charge

Target 1 Target 2
Total Hole
Type 3
Entrance Exit Entrance Depth, mm depth, mm volume, cm
hole, mm hole, mm hole, mm
Ordinary charge ∅ 18.5 ∅ 8.2 — — 221 24.630
HMX + 5% W ∅ 17.0 ∅ 6.0 ∅ 6.0 25 245 28.739
HMX + 10% W ∅ 23.0 ∅ 9.0 ∅ 9.0 30 250 32.806
HMX + 15% W ∅ 22.0 ∅ 6.0 ∅ 6.0 20 222 26.485

Passive RDX ∅ 18.0 ∅ 9.0 ∅ 9.0 25 245 29.763

Low-density HMX ∅ 17.0 ∅ 7.0 ∅ 7.0 30 250 28.672

Fig. 10. Target configuration in ballistic tests.

Fig. 11. Penetration hole profile in the medium steel target: (a) ordinary shaped charge; (b) DLSC.

tively. In accordance with the methods of evaluating the
ballistic performance of shaped charge warheads [22],
the hole volume is also used to verify the penetration
ability of the DLSC.
To verify the performance of the DLSC jet, compar-
ative ballistic tests were carried out with five different
types of the inner charge. The results are tabulated in
Table 4, the values of jet penetration into the target
are the averaged values of two trials. The increase in
the penetration capability of the DLSC approximately
by 15–20% agrees with our theoretical predictions. In
the case of the shaped charge with the inner layer of
HMX + 10%W, the maximum (33%) increase in the hole
volume is achieved, as compared to the HMX-based or-
dinary shaped charge. Figure 11 shows typical profiles
of penetration into a medium steel target. In the case of
the DLSC, the hole diameter is larger. The main reason
for this result is the higher velocity of the jet from the
DLSC with an almost the same length as in the case of
the ordinary shaped charge at the same stand-off dis-
tance. Because of the limited stand-off distance, the
jet from the DLSC penetrates into the target before it
reaches the maximum length, and the major part of the
jet energy is spent on increasing the hole diameter.
248
CONCLUSIONS
The liner collapse and jet formation in a double-
layer shaped charge were discussed in this paper. The
higher pressure behind the Mach stem and the conver-
gent detonation wave are the main reasons for a more
efficient liner collapse and jet formation. The liner col-
lapse and jet formation are analyzed with the angle of
attack of the detonation wave onto the liner taken into
account. The agreement between the analytical model,
experiments, and numerical simulations is fairly satis-
factory. The model can still be improved if more ac-
curacy is required by taking into account the increased
pressure behind the Mach stem. All results show that
both the liner collapse velocity and the jet velocity
are increased by the convergent detonation wave in the
DLSC.
The research work was supported by the Youth
Scholarship Foundation of the Nanjing University of
Science and Technology and by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (NSFC 10902053). The
author would like to thank Prof. Huiwu Chen (NJUST)
for his support and encouragement and Dr. Xiao-ning
Zhao (NJUST) for his assistance in simulations.
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