A Predictive Model for

Nafiz H. K. Chowdhury
Turbine Heat Transfer Laboratory, Preliminary Gas Turbine
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Texas A&M University,
College Station, TX 77843-3123
Blade Cooling Analysis
Hootan Zirakzadeh The growing trend to achieve a higher turbine inlet temperature (TIT) in the modern gas
Turbine Heat Transfer Laboratory,
turbine industry requires a more efficient and advanced cooling system design. Therefore,

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Mechanical Engineering Department,
Texas A&M University,
College Station, TX 77843-3123
Je-Chin Han1
Turbine Heat Transfer Laboratory,
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Texas A&M University,
College Station, TX 77843-3123
e-mail: jc-han@tamu.edu
a complete study of heat transfer is necessary to predict the thermal loadings on the gas
turbine vanes and blades. In the current work, a predictive model for the gas turbine
blade cooling analysis has been developed. The model is capable of calculating the distri-
bution of coolant mass flow rate (MFR) and metal temperatures of a turbine blade using
the mass and energy balance equations at given external and internal boundary condi-
tions. Initially, the performance of the model is validated by demonstrating its capability
to predict the temperature distributions for a NASA E3 blade. The model is capable of
predicting the temperature distributions with reasonable accuracy, especially on the suc-
tion side (SS). Later, this paper documents the overall analysis for the same blade profile
but at different boundary conditions to demonstrate the flexibility of the model for other
cases. Additionally, guidelines are provided to obtain external heat transfer coefficient
(HTC) distributions for the highly turbulent mainstream. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4036302]

Introduction temperature. However, the vane was a simple airfoil model with-
out any film-cooling scheme.
Gas turbine industries are always competing to reach higher
Zecchi et al. [3] developed a quick simulation tool where they
turbine inlet temperature (TIT) to achieve higher thermal effi-
implemented the conjugate heat transfer to calculate turbine vane
ciency and increased power output. However, the higher TIT is
metal temperatures. They analyzed a specific case of NASA C3X
limited by the material properties such as the yield strength at
turbine vane both qualitatively and quantitatively. Recently,
high temperatures. On the other hand, increasing the amount of
Alizadeh et al. [4] studied CHT to predict the turbine blade tem-
cooling air from the compressor to allow that higher TIT results in
perature distributions using the 1D coolant flow network approach
lower overall efficiency. Therefore, it is very challenging to obtain
with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) predictions. However,
an improved cooling design that can reach higher TIT with a mini-
the turbine blade did not include any film-cooling scheme.
mum amount of cooling air from the compressor. The perform-
Luo and Razinsky [5] used several turbulence models to deter-
ance of an effective cooling system design can be evaluated from
mine CHT effects on a NASA C3X turbine vane and found the
the turbine blade temperature distribution. Estimation of turbine
V2F model performed better in estimating the heat transfer and
blade temperature distribution is considered as conjugate heat
metal temperature under different flow conditions. Takahashi
transfer (CHT) problem that requires simultaneous analysis of
et al. [6] also studied CHT analysis of a rotor blade where
convection from external hot gas flow, conduction through blade
they blended the 3D steady-state numerical analysis with 1D
material, and convection to internal coolant flow. Numerous heat
thermoflow calculation of internal cooling to estimate metal
transfer studies have shown that CHT is a complex methodology
temperatures.
which requires a detailed 3D investigation. In general, external
There were many studies [7–14] that used 3D vanes or blades
convection heat transfer depends on hot gas flow Mach number
with complex internal cooling passages. They employed 3D solv-
and Reynolds number distribution along the blade profile. Internal
ers to apply CHT method for calculating the metal temperature
convection heat transfer depends on coolant flow rate and cooling
distributions. Rigby and Lepicovsky [15] used 3D CHT CFD
passage geometry with turbulence promoters.
code, called Glenn-HT, to analyze the internally cooled configura-
In the last few decades, numerous studies have been conducted
tions and compared with the experimental results. The Glenn-HT
on gas turbine heat transfer using numerical or experimental
code can be modified with the advancement of cooling techniques,
approaches. Han et al. [1] might be the first to publish a simple
if necessary. Recently, Downs and Landis [16] conducted a com-
computer model in the open literature to predict the two-
prehensive study on turbine cooling system designs where they
dimensional temperature distributions of a typical gas turbine
discussed the cooling parameters systematically and identified
blade with film-cooling. The model used the one-dimensional
some limitations that must be overcome to advance the turbine
coolant flow network method to evaluate gas turbine blade tem-
cooling schemes.
perature distributions with air and steam as coolant. Hylton et al.
To achieve a more accurate solution of complex 3D CHT prob-
[2] employed a finite element solution of the two-dimensional
lems, generating a structured mesh is preferred by many CFD
Laplacian heat conduction equation to calculate the heat transfer
experts utilizing commercial or in-house codes. Creating such
coefficient for the vane surfaces using the measured external
type of grids could be very burdensome and time-consuming
temperature and internal cooling duct heat transfer coefficient
depending on the turbine blade cooling system design. However,
as boundary conditions. Additional input to their model included
in the conceptual design phase, there are frequent cooling design
2D vane cross-sectional geometry along with material thermal
changes. Then, in the preliminary stage of design, a simple model
conductivity, inlet total temperature, and average coolant
that is easy to use for quick 2D temperature calculation of cooled
blade is necessary. In the final design phase, a detailed 3D conju-
1
Corresponding author. gate heat transfer analysis is required. On the other hand, the com-
Contributed by the International Gas Turbine Institute (IGTI) of ASME for
publication in the JOURNAL OF TURBOMACHINERY. Manuscript received December 21,
prehensive analytical study of gas turbine blade heat transfer
2015; final manuscript received March 13, 2017; published online April 25, 2017. utilizing a flexible tool with the inclusion of sophisticated details
Assoc. Editor: Jim Downs. of internal cooling and film-cooling is surprisingly limited in the

Journal of Turbomachinery Copyright V

C 2017 by ASME SEPTEMBER 2017, Vol. 139 / 091010-1

Fig. 1 Turbine blade cooling terminology [17]
open literature. Therefore, an initiative is taken in this present
work toward providing and validating such an interactive and
simple model to evaluate the preliminary cooling design
performance.
Model Description
Different types of cooling technique have been used in modern
gas turbines, as shown in Fig. 1.
Turbine blade surface can be protected by applying thermal
barrier coating (TBC) and using film-cooling. Generally, film-
cooling involves the introduction of secondary flows into the hot
mainstream that is injected out through the holes drilled into the
internal cooling passages. The aim is to form an insulating film
layer that reduces the heat load from the hot mainstream. Internal
cooling can be carried out by flowing the coolant in the shaped
internal cooling passages. Later, the cooling effect can be maxi-
mized by introducing impingement cooling in the leading edge
(LE) region and pin-fin cooling near the trailing edge (TE) region.
However, rest of the passages are rib roughened to enhance the
heat transfer.
The predictive model should be capable of estimating a surface
temperature profile for a turbine blade with variable dimensions in
chordwise and spanwise directions and internal cooling duct sizes.
It should be capable of handling the variation of design specifica-
tions such as cooling duct diameter and configuration (number of
passes), mainstream operating condition, thermal barrier coating
thickness, film cooing hole diameter and distribution, and system
parameters such as shaft speed, shaft diameter, coolant inlet tem-
perature, and coolant inlet pressure.
To begin with the present approach, the model is considered as
a 1D network of finite element systems connected in the coolant
flow direction. The choice of element numbers in the chord direc-
tion (x) is determined by the number of internal coolant passages
(for convenient heat transfer calculation), while the span direction
(y) is arbitrary. For example, Fig. 2 shows the modeling of an E3
blade [18]. This blade has eight internal cooling ducts where the
first four (starting from LE) ducts are connected in a single cool-
ing circuit called the “forward loop” and the rests are in the
“backward loop.” For the selection of chordwise elements, the
blade is divided at the centerline of each duct wall (red dashed
lines in Fig. 2) so that each element is as wide as the coolant duct
plus additional halves from the each side wall except for ducts
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adjacent to LE and TE, resulting in total eight elements. As shown
in Fig. 3, span distance is arbitrarily divided into eight segments
so that each element can potentially cover an equal number of
film-cooling holes, if there is any.
Figure 4 shows schematic of a single element. At each element,
mass is allowed to enter or leave. Heat is transferred from
pressure-side and suction-side hot gas flows to the element result-
ing in an increase in the internal coolant temperature. For a single
element, conduction is only allowed through the wall thickness
(z-direction) where duct side walls are modeled as fin surface.
Therefore, there is no conduction from one element to the neigh-
boring elements. This conducted heat is carried away by the cool-
ant through the convection mechanism. The continuity and energy
balance equations are applied to every single discreet, 1D finite
element with or without film-cooling holes.
The schematic of general heat transfer mechanism is shown in
Fig. 5(a) for the LE portion and Fig. 5(b) for the rest of blade part.
Total heat (Q) is the summation of the heat loads from the SS (qs)
and the PS (qp). The individual heat load (qs or qp) transfers by
conduction through the blade wall (q1) and duct side walls mod-
eled as fin (q2).
The model performs in two steps. First, it calculates the mass
flow rate distribution and the film-cooling effectiveness for each
element. Then, it computes each element temperature distribution
by solving the energy balance equations. The overall methodology
of this model is described in the next five sections.
Mass Flow Rate Calculation
Flow Through the Midchord Region. To initiate the iterative
method, an estimate of the flow rate for a particular cooling loop
is entered into the model (see Fig. 3). The pressure drop in a
smooth duct can be computed due to the friction using
Darcy–Weisbach equation. But in the real design, ducts have
internal turbulence promoters (i.e., repeated ribs) to achieve
higher heat transfer. Thus, it is necessary to consider some key
factors such as rib height, spacing, and orientation angle to predict
the friction factor on a rib-roughened rectangular cooling channel.
In this paper, a correlation [17] (Eq. (1)) is presented to estimate
the friction factor (f ) for a four-sided versus two-sided ribbed
cooling channel. Then, the corresponding pressure drop within
any element (Fig. 4) can be calculated using Eq. (1e)
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Fig. 2 Nodal subdivision in chord direction (x) [18]

   2   2 
R a a L qV
 0:35  m ¼ 1:23  27:07 þ 17:86 (1a) Ps1  Ps2 ¼ 4f4side=2side (1e)
P W 90 90 Dh 2
10e H
In the blade tip or hub turning region, the loss (pressure drop)
 12   coefficient K which depends on the flow Reynolds number and
2 2e 2W channel aspect ratio can be estimated from the following equation
Rðeþ Þ ¼ þ 2:5 ln þ 2:5 (1b) as discussed in Chap. 4 of Han et al. [17]:
f4side D WþH

  DPturn
H K¼ ¼ 2:2  3:0 (1f )
1 2
f4side ¼ f2side þ ðf2side  fsmooth Þ (1c) qV
W 2

where
Rotating Pumping Effect. The change in the internal pressure
( due to the pumping (rotating) effect can be considered in this
64=ReD ; laminer model using Eq. (2) [1]. This pumping effect may serve to either
fsmooth ¼ (1d) increase or decrease the static pressure based on the direction of
0:046=Re0:2
D ; turbulent the coolant flow

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Fig. 3 One-dimensional coolant network mapping in span
direction (y)

Fig. 5 Heat balance in (a) LE and (b) other portion

mass flow rate (MFR) will be the inlet boundary conditions for the
next adjacent element in the network, and the procedure is
Fig. 4 Schematic of single element repeated until the blade tip is reached and satisfies the condition
of higher internal total pressure relative to the external static pres-
" # sure in the last element of the cooling loop. If the cooling duct is
c
 c1
Ps c  x 2 r 2  r 2  multipass, then the procedure is repeated until the correct number
1 2
1 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi (2) of passes has been calculated. The complete process is illustrated
c1 Pt i Tti 2R in Fig. 3.

Film-Cooling Effect. The coolant mass injection rate from the Flow Through the Leading Edge Region. Flow through the
element into the surrounding hot gas for film-cooling (see Fig. 4) passage adjacent to the LE is handled in a similar manner except
is calculated from Eq. (3) which has been used for orifice flow for the procedure taken to calculate the mass injection rate. The
calculation coolant impinges on the LE inner wall through impingement holes
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffis
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi that can be computed using Eq. (3). Figure 3 illustrates the flow
  cþ1  c1 arrangement in LE region. However, it is not possible to calculate
W Pso c 2c Pti c
¼ : 1 the pressure inside the LE duct in the same manner as before.
ð CD AÞPti Pti ðc  1ÞRTti Pso
(3) Since there is no available method to determine this pressure,
  c1 c
therefore, it is calculated with an iterative approach. Initially, the
c1 2
Pt ¼ Ps 1 þ Ma static pressure inside the first element of the LE duct (element 25
2
in the forward loop in Fig. 3) is assumed as the average of external
hot gas static pressure and adjacent duct element static pressure
The model (see Fig. 4) is capable of calculating the coolant
(element 17 of forward loop in Fig. 3). Iteration continues until
mass injection rate into either SS (WSinj) or PS (WPinj) or both
the internal total pressure of element 32 is higher than external hot
sides based on the film-cooling design requirement. Injection is
gas static pressure.
made through the regularly spaced film-cooling holes of equal
diameter due to the difference between internal total pressure (Pti )
within a specific element and external hot gas static pressure Flow Through the Trailing Edge Region. The passage at the
ðPso Þ. The injected coolant amount from any element is subtracted TE region typically contains pin arrays which cause relatively
from the initial one to calculate the remaining quantity and corre- higher pressure drop (DP) across the model element. Overall con-
sponding exit static pressure, Ps2. Resulted pressure (Ps2) and cept is illustrated in Fig. 6. Considering the trailing edge element

091010-4 / Vol. 139, SEPTEMBER 2017 Transactions of the ASME


Fig. 6 Coolant flow through the TE region
1 shown in Fig. 3, the ejecting mass flow rate from element 9 to
element 1 equals to same mass flow rate exhausting from element
1 to outside. To begin the iterative process, internal total pressure
of element 9 is given, assuming an inlet pressure of element 1, the
ejecting mass flow rate from element 9 to element 1 can be calcu-
lated from Eq. (3). Using the same element 1 inlet pressure and a
given external hot gas static pressure, the same coolant flow rate
exhausting from element 1 to outside can be calculated from the
below equation for a given pin array [19]
DP ¼ 2f 0 qVmax
2
N (4)
where f 0 ¼ ½0:25 þ ð0:1175=ðððST Dp Þ=Dp Þ1:08 ÞÞðReDp Þ0:16 , and
vmax is the average velocity of cooling flow through the minimum
area.
Since the amount of coolant mass flow rate calculated from
Eq. (3) should be the same as that calculated from Eq. (4), the cor-
rect inlet pressure of element 1 is determined. Then, the calcula-
tion procedure can be continued to the next trailing edge element.
Film-Cooling Effectiveness
Film-cooling helps to cool down hot gas boundary layer tem-
perature and reduces the heat transfer from hot gas flow to blade
surface. Film-cooling holes can be different in shape such as
cylindrical or fan-shaped and result in different degree of film-
cooling effectiveness. In general, for a given film-hole pattern
design, film-cooling effectiveness on the blade pressure or suction
surface depends on coolant to hot gas pressure ratio (blowing
ratio), temperature ratio (density ratio), and distance from
cooling-hole location.
For the cylindrical hole, the film-cooling effectiveness can be
calculated based on the correlations (Eq. (5a)) suggested by Gold-
stein [20]
g ¼ ð1 þ 0:249nÞ0:8 (5a)
where n ¼ ½ðX þ 1:909DÞ=MSðRe2 ðl2 =l1 ÞÞ0:25 , S is the width
of equivalent 2D slot ð¼ pD=6Þ, and Re2 is the injected Reynolds
number based on equivalent 2D slot (¼ q2 V2 S=l2 Þ.
n is a function of downstream distance from the hole exit loca-
tion (X). These equations can predict the experimental results
quite well for a certain range of n (10–100). So, a constant value
of g (¼0.45) is considered for the range between 0 and 10 to
achieve a reasonable estimation based on the experimental evi-
dences [21].
The corresponding value of n is used for a specific element in
the chordwise direction. Again, it is suggested to select the num-
ber of elements in the span direction based on the number of holes
in a row so that each single element can have an equal number of
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Fig. 7 Piecewise model for effectiveness calculation
holes. The piecewise architecture for the effectiveness calculation
is illustrated in Fig. 7.
On the other hand, film-cooling effectiveness for the shaped-
hole configuration can be calculated from Eq. (5b) or (5c) [22,23]
1
g ¼   (5b)
P
þ C1 MC2 nC3
t
 0:1
DR
1:85
g ¼   0:1 (5c)
P 0:6
þ C1 :nC3
t M
where n ¼ ð4=pÞðððX=DÞðP=DÞÞ=ðM  ARÞÞ, C1 ¼ 0:1721, C2
¼ 0:2664, C3 ¼ 0:8749; and ðP=tÞ ¼ 2.
For the LE showerhead film-cooling, it is difficult to find any
suitable correlation in the literature. So, effectiveness can be esti-
mated using any of the above correlations and then matched with
experimental evidences from the literature [17,24,25].
The performance of film-cooling can be different in the rota-
tional condition. Many studies indicate the reduction of film-
cooling effectiveness on both PS and SS due to the upstream
unsteady flow. Again, film coolant tends to be pushed toward the
pressure surface near tip region due to the rotating centrifugal
force that could also affect the results from the stationary test
data. Thus, a different correlation should be employed for rotating
condition as discussed in Han et al. [17].
The average film-cooling effectiveness along with the corrected
hot gas temperature is used to compute the film temperature
(Eq. (6)). Initially, the hot gas temperature ðT1 Þ is calculated
based on the span and chord locations. Then, it is corrected for the
aerodynamic heating called recovery temperature ðTr Þ. For no
film-cooling case, heat is transferred from recovery temperature to
the blade surface; however, with film-cooling, heat is transferred
from film temperature to the blade surface. In general, film tem-
perature is lower than recovery temperature; therefore, heat trans-
fer is reduced for the case with film-cooling
Tf ¼ Tr ð1  g Þ þ g Tcf (6)
where Tr ¼ T1 þ ððPrRF V12
Þ=2Cp Þ ½RF ¼ 1=2 for laminar flow;
RF ¼ 1=3 for turbulent flow.
Calculation of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficients
The model can calculate the heat transfer coefficient (HTC)
as a function of span and chord length co-ordinates using the
laminar/turbulent correlations, as described in the following
paragraphs.
SEPTEMBER 2017, Vol. 139 / 091010-5
 
External HTC Calculation. As the heat transfer from the LE f
portion is simulated as the flow over a cylinder [26], then the local   1
2St
HTCs can be calculated from the following equation: G eþ ; Pr ¼ Rðeþ Þ þ  r1=2 (11b)
f
   3 ! 2
kf 0:5 0:4 /
h/ ¼ 1:14 ðReD Þ Pr 1 ½0 deg < / < 80 deg
D 90
Again, if there is any flow turning at the hub or tip, it improves
(7) the heat transfer in that specific region. As a result, a suitable
enhancement factor (1.5–2) could be used to calculate the aug-
As upstream turbulence is known to be responsible for the heat mented internal HTC similar to Eq. (9c).
transfer augmentation, then, a higher value of external HTC The LE portion of a turbine blade is the most crucial part as it

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should be considered. If Reynolds number, turbulence intensity, sees the high inlet temperature. Thus, the jet impingement cooling
and energy scale are known, then the augmented average HTC scheme is employed inside the LE where the coolant is directed to
can be calculated using the following equation [27]: hit the inner surface at spatial intervals (Fig. 1). This heat transfer
coefficient is computed using the following equation [29]:
 13 ! "
1 k Lu
5
 0:5  0:6  0:5  1:2 #
hDl ¼ Re2Dl 0:95 þ 0:038 Tu ReDl 12
(8) k 0:7 d d l d d
Dl Dl 
h c ¼ 0:63 ðRed Þ exp 1:27
d S Dl d S Dl
Then, an average of local values from Eq. (7) is compared with (12)
the value obtained from Eq. (8) to obtain the augmentation factor.
Resulted value is multiplied back to the local HTCs from Eq. (7) To achieve a higher value of internal HTC near the TE, the
and updated in the model accordingly. pin-fin arrangement is employed. Average array heat transfer
Then, the HTC is calculated for the rest of the curve lengths coefficient for the case of staggered pins can be calculated using
along the PS and SS by simulating the flow over a flat plate using Eq. (13), as suggested by Metzger et al. [30]
Eq. (9) [26]. The appropriate equation is chosen based on the criti-    0:34
cal Reynolds number (Rec ¼ 5  105). However, in the real engine kf   X
hc ¼ 0:135 ReDp 0:685 (13)
condition, the oncoming flow is highly turbulent and the blade Dp Dp
surface has a certain roughness which may lead to an early lami-
nar to turbulent boundary layer transition All the above correlations are evaluated for the stationary state.
However, the results from the rotational condition may vary. Cori-
k 1=2 1=3 olis and rotational buoyancy forces resulted from the rotation of a
hx ¼ 0:332 Re Pr ½laminar (9a)
x x rotor blade can significantly affect the internal heat transfer char-
acteristics. Then, a suitable factor can be identified to calculate
k the different HTCs similar to Eq. (9c). More specific details of
hx ¼ 0:0296 Rex4=5 Pr1=3 ½turbulent (9b)
x rotation effect of coolant passage heat transfer are presented and
discussed in Chap. 5 of Han et al. [17].
where Rex ¼ qVx=l, and V is the local mainstream velocity.
For the rotational condition, the literature survey [17] clearly
indicates that the blade heat transfer can be affected by the Calculation of Thermofluid Properties
unsteady wake from the upstream vane TE along with free stream
turbulence. Therefore, these effects may be considered to predict Density, viscosity, and thermal conductivity are calculated
the external heat transfer more accurately. In such a situation, a using the following equations [26] accordingly:
similar blade profile can be identified from the literature [17]
P
where the experimental results are compared with the flat plate q¼ (14a)
correlations. Then, an augmentation factor (1.5–2.0) can be used RT
to calculate the enhanced HTC in the following manner:
Dynamic viscosity is obtained from Sutherland’s law
hx;augmented   3
¼ factor (9c) T0 þ C T 2
hx lðT Þ ¼ l0 (14b)
TþC T0

Internal HTC Calculation. The internal convective heat trans- where l0 ¼ 0.00001827 Pas, T0 ¼ 291:15 K, and C ¼ 120 K.
fer coefficient for the central region of the blade element can be
estimated using the conventional Dittus–Boelter equation for the kðTÞ ¼ 3:225282  1015 T 4 þ 1:96488  1011 T 3
forced convection through a smooth duct (Eq. (10)). This equation
is only applicable for the turbulent flow 5:15701  108 T 2 þ 1:0334  104 T  6:40447  104
½175 K < T < 1900 K ð14cÞ
 
k 4=5
hc ¼ 0:023 ReDh Pr1=3 (10)
Dh
Calculation of Blade Metal Temperature
If rib turbulators are used (Fig. 1), then the heat transfer coeffi-
cient is computed using Eq. (11) proposed by Han and Park [28] To calculate the metal temperatures of a single element, the fol-
based on the rib geometry and the orientation. The enhancement lowing five mechanisms of heat transfer are involved:
in the heat transfer is expected to be greater by a factor of 2–4 (1) external convection from the hot gas to the TBC layer if
available otherwise on the PS and SS
 0:1  m  n (2) radiation from the hot gas
W a P=e
G ¼ 2:24 ðeþ Þ0:35 (11a) (3) conduction through the TBC (if available) then the PS and
H 90 10 SS of the blade material

091010-6 / Vol. 139, SEPTEMBER 2017 Transactions of the ASME

 (4) internal convection from the PS/SS and the duct side walls
to the coolant
(5) increase in the internal energy of the coolant as it collects
the heat
The radiation term can be negligible in comparison to the con-
vection and conduction, as suggested by Han et al. [1]. Therefore,
by neglecting its effect, the model can be simplified without losing
much accuracy. As heat conduction is one-dimensional in nature
for this model, the conduction in the span and chord directions has Fig. 8 Thermal circuit
been neglected. As a result, heat is only conducted from the SS,

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PS, and the duct’s side wall boundaries which are modeled as fins. geometries are entered as inputs to evaluate the corresponding
Then, convection takes place through the inner surface (Ai) and parameters. The outcomes are written in a specific file format and
fin areas. It is essential to mention that the external area (A0) is later can be displayed as a 2D contour for analysis. The overall
greater than the internal area (Ai). Based on these assumptions, process in the code has been presented in the form of a flow chart
corresponding relations can be extracted in the equation forms in Fig. 9.
(Eqs. (15)–(23)). As the same relations are applicable for both PS
and SS, so the subscripts in Eqs. (15)–(21) are presented for either
PS or SS.
Results and Discussion
External convection on blade PS/SS This section is divided into two parts. First, the functionality of
the model is assessed. In the second part, the model is further
qs=p ¼ ½ðho Ao ÞðTf  TTBC Þs=p (15) applied to the same blade profile but with a new set of boundary
conditions to assess its flexibility.
Conduction through TBC layer on PS/SS
" # Part I. For the evaluation of the model performance, a NASA

KAo E3 rotor blade profile [18] is selected. The blade has eight cooling
qs=p ¼ ðTTBC  Two Þ (16) ducts including impingement, showerhead, and pin-fin cooling
d TBC
s=p schemes along with film-cooling holes at several locations, as
shown in Fig. 10.
Conduction through wall on PS/SS There are two internal multipass coolant loops, termed as for-
   ward loop (1.63% of W25 mass flow rate) containing the LE
KAo impingement passage and backward loop (1.67% of W25 mass
qs=p ¼ ðTwo  Twi Þ (17)
d s=p
flow rate) containing the TE pin-fin passage. The forward loop
includes 12 LE impingement cooling holes, three rows of LE
Internal convection on PS/SS holes (ten holes/row), 23 gill holes on the PS, and diffused type
SS gill holes. The backward loop includes 15 PS holes and the
q1s=1p ¼ ½ðhi Ai ÞðTwi  Tcf Þs=p (18) pin-fin passage. However, passages are rib roughened in both
loops. The inlet boundary conditions and necessary information
Fin conduction through side walls of a duct are supplied in Table 1.
The 2D model of the blade section is subdivided into 64 ele-
q2s=2p ¼ ½MtanhðmlÞðTwi  Tcf Þs=p (19) ments where eight sections are in the chordwise direction and
eight sections are in the spanwise direction (Fig. 3).
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Figure 11 shows that rotor inlet temperature (RIT) varies in the
where M ¼ hi PKAs ; m ¼ hi P=KAs , and P (perimeter) and spanwise direction, while the Mach number varies in both span-
As (fin area) refer to the inner surfaces of walls 1 and 3 in Fig. 4. wise and chordwise directions. All these profiles are directly
Increase in the internal energy in a single element reproduced from Ref. [18].
_ p ðTcf2  Tcf1 Þ
Q ¼ mC (20)

heat balance : qs=p ¼ q1s=1p þ q2s=2p (21)

Q ¼ qs þ qp (22)

Average coolant temperature

1
TCF ¼ ðTCF2 þ TCF1 Þ (23)
2

From the analysis, it is apparent that the thermal circuit

includes five different resistances, as shown in Fig. 8. Each resist-
ance is considered as a unique input for solving these set of equa-
tions where it can be set as zero if necessary.
The simultaneous operation of the above equations yields the
internal and external temperatures on the PS and SS sides for each
element. To initiate the calculation, an assumption is made where
the average coolant temperature (Tcf Þ is equal to the inlet coolant
temperature (Tcf1) for the very first element of any coolant loop,
as shown in Fig. 3.
Based on the model description, an in-house MATLAB code is
developed. To execute the code, blade co-ordinates and duct Fig. 9 Flow chart

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Fig. 10 Detailed view of the reference case [18]

The external HTC distribution is calculated and compared with geometry as they are approximated from Ref. [18] based on the
the results in Ref. [18] (Fig. 12). For this specific case, the correla- scale.
tions can predict the HTC quite well for the SS surface; however,
the PS portion is very poor. This is noteworthy to mention that the
quality of the end results highly depends on the accuracy of the Part II. The goal of this part is to show the flexibility of the
HTC prediction. model and provide guidelines to design an external HTC distribu-
Reynolds number inside the internal passages is calculated for tion for the highly turbulent mainstream.
the backward and forward loops based on the distributed mass Typically, the major parameters such as TBC thickness,
flow rate, as shown in Fig. 13. The plots are presented element- coolant MFR, cooling hole, and internal duct geometry can be
wise for each passage representing the flow loops in Fig. 3. Since
the second duct is losing its coolant mass flow rate by injecting
into duct 1, an obvious linear drop is observed in Fig. 13(a) for
the forward loop. A similar trend is also observed in Fig. 13(b) for
ducts 5 and 7 in backward loop where one injecting coolant in the
mainstream (for film-cooling) and another is supplying coolant to
the adjacent pin-fin passage accordingly. Then, a systematic drop
in Reynolds number is observed. Later, the internal HTC is calcu-
lated for different passages (Fig. 14).
The model is executed for two different cases of HTCs, and
resulted in two sets of pitch-line external and internal temperature
distributions are compared with an existing database [18] in
Fig. 15. The corresponding difference ðDT ¼ Treported  Tcalculated Þ
between the calculated values with the reported quantity is also
detailed in Table 2. The results from run 1 demonstrate a reasona-
ble prediction of the surface temperature, particularly for the SS.
However, the distributions are closer to the reported values if the
external HTC is directly used from Ref. [18] (run 2). It clearly
indicates the importance for more accurate HTC distributions to
predict the temperature range quite well. Another potential cause
for the difference can be the lack of complete geometrical infor-
mation like the size of the film-cooling holes or coolant duct

Table 1 Boundary conditions [18]

Number of blades 76
Pressure ratio 2.25
Mainstream inlet pressure (total) 2.52 MPa
Rotor inlet total temperature 1396  C
Coolant inlet pressure (total) 2.61 MPa
Coolant inlet total temperature 628  C
Inlet Mach number 0.34
Exit Mach number 0.84
Speed 13,287 rpm Fig. 11 (a) Spanwise nondimensional RIT and inlet Mach num-
ber profile [18] and (b) surface Mach number distribution [18]

091010-8 / Vol. 139, SEPTEMBER 2017 Transactions of the ASME


Fig. 12 HTC distribution along the blade surface [18]
Fig. 13 (a) Calculated internal Reynolds number for the for-
ward loop, MFR 5 1.63%W25 and (b) calculated internal Reyn-
olds number for the backward loop, MFR 5 1.67%W25
modified to achieve a satisfactory result. For brevity, spanwise
variable HTC distributions with a laminar to turbulent transition
model and a layer of TBC with a RIT of 1700  C are consid-
ered in this part, while the coolant MFR (3.3%) is as same as
the previous part.
As the HTC varies from tip to hub in the real gas turbine
engines due to the tip leakage flow or the end wall vortices, the
blade could be subdivided into three different regions. These three
regions are near-hub-zone (0–20% span), midspan (20–80%
span), and near-tip-zone (80–100% span). Different velocity dis-
tributions in those regions are available from Ref. [18] which are
used to calculate the corresponding HTCs.
Journal of Turbomachinery
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Fig. 14 (a) Calculated internal HTC for the forward loop,
MFR 5 1.63%W25 and (b) calculated internal HTC for the back-
ward loop, MFR 5 1.67%W25
From the literature review [17], it can be observed that bound-
ary layer transition usually starts on the SS within 15–25% surface
distance from the LE, then a different value of critical Reynolds
number has been set to shift from laminar to turbulent condition.
However, this behavior is highly case specific and depends on the
blade profile. Also, high free stream turbulence can augment the
external heat transfer near the stagnation region which can be
approximated using Eq. (8). The turbulence parameters for aero-
combustor simulator are considered here from the detailed study
of turbulence characteristics by Chowdhury and Ames [31]. By
comparing the results between Eqs. (7) and (8), an increase about
35% in the HTC is suggested. Thus, Fig. 16 has been developed
for three different HTC distributions.
A thickness of 0.25 mm TBC layer [16] is considered for this
study with the thermal conductivity of 1.3 W/m K. The presence
of thermal barrier coating (TBC) layer can moderately lessen the
heat load by offering insulation between the hot main stream and
the blade external surface.
With all the above inputs, the code is run which generates the
temperature contours, shown in Fig. 17. The external surface tem-
perature distributions are shown on the both SS and PS for total
64 elements on each side. The figure indicates a hot spot zone on
the upper left corner region of both sides. This is due to lack of
adequate coolant supply in the duct 2 in the forward loop (adja-
cent to the LE). As the coolant moves toward the tip region inside
that duct, it injects the coolant to the duct 1 through impingement
process. This results in the reduced coolant in last elements and
causes higher metal temperature. Contours also show that the SS
SEPTEMBER 2017, Vol. 139 / 091010-9
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Fig. 16 Variable HTC distributions along the blade surface

Fig. 15 Results comparison with the reference case for exter-

nal and internal surface temperature (Twi), RIT 5 1396  C,
MFR 5 3.3%W25, and no TBC layer

Table 2 DT chart

PS node Run 1 Run 2 SS node Run 1 Run 2

External surface
1 214.90 97.85 1 114.46 118.10
2 76.06 24.56 2 44.62 25.65
3 119.10 49.98 3 32.44 4.92
4 113.31 46.18 4 30.36 2.69
5 125.14 83.19 5 53.38 25.28 Fig. 17 Temperature contour for E3 blade, RIT 5 1700  C,
6 75.62 24.82 6 77.54 47.59 MFR 5 3.3%W25, and with TBC layer (0.25 mm)
7 61.94 0.71 7 69.45 36.39
8 48.26 1.20 8 49.86 9.28
Failure of many gas turbine engines starts from the hot spots of
Internal surface
1 71.29 10.39 1 25.38 5.19 the blade. As a result, this analysis clearly leaves a great opportu-
2 55.32 27.30 2 18.79 3.80 nity to gain the preliminary idea of building a more energy effi-
3 89.26 36.56 3 55.03 75.86 cient and safer engine.
4 87.15 34.17 4 75.90 101.75 Conduction in the blade, for each separate element, is modeled
5 96.10 66.68 5 17.41 0.21 to be 1D, and the problem is simplified by neglecting conduction
6 3.59 42.25 6 37.80 16.49 effects in the span and chord directions. But it is apparent that
7 50.37 2.67 7 39.71 14.42 there is a noticeable difference between neighboring elements in
8 32.95 5.52 8 44.34 6.91 both directions, and it will obviously affect the blade surface tem-
perature. Therefore, an assessment of uncertainties is essential to
confirm the results of the aforementioned 1D assumption are
reliable.
The blade heat conduction in three different directions can be
is relatively more affected than the PS which is due to the higher
calculated by the following equations:
value of HTC (Fig. 16). Another possible reason could be the
presence of a single row of holes on the SS. The addition of extra
rows with increased coolant MFR may aid the additional surface KAc
qc ¼ ðDTc Þ ½chordwise direction ð xÞ (24a)
cooling. d

091010-10 / Vol. 139, SEPTEMBER 2017 Transactions of the ASME

 KAs
DP ¼ pressure drop (Pa)
qs ¼ ðDTs Þ spanwise direction ð yÞ (24b) DT ¼ temperature difference ( C)
d
KAd
qd ¼ ðDTd Þ ½depth direction ðzÞ (24c)
d Greek Symbols
A¼ rib angle (deg)
The ratio of (qc þ qs)/qd is found to be less than 10% which
d¼ thickness (m)
demonstrates the validity of the simplifying assumption and
g ¼ laterally averaged effectiveness
proves the reliability of the heat conduction model.
l2 ¼ coolant viscosity at the injection point (Pas)
l1 ¼ mainstream viscosity (Pas)

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Conclusions n¼ 2D film-cooling parameter
q¼ density (kg/m3)
The present work is intended to develop an analytical model that
u¼ angular displacement from stagnation line
can serve as a quick tool for the preliminary design of a cooled air-
x¼ rotational speed (rad/s)
foil. Initially, the model is described in details. Then, it is applied
to a NASA E3 blade profile to evaluate its performance. The model
is capable of predicting the temperature distribution with reasona-
ble accuracy if the correct boundary conditions are applied. Subscripts
This model is quite flexible to any type of modification that is c¼ cross section/coolant
required for effective cooling designs. This flexibility is illustrated cf ¼ coolant flow
by applying a layer of TBC with variable HTC distributions at a f¼ film
higher RIT. The predicted temperature distributions are depicted h¼ hydraulic
in the form of a contour plot to visually identify the potential area i¼ internal
of improvement. Therefore, this model gives an opportunity to the inj ¼ injection
designers to justify the optimum performance of the cooling sys- l¼ leading edge
tem and modify as needed. In other words, this novel methodol- o¼ external
ogy is a chance for the industry to reduce costs in the preliminary P/p ¼ pressure side/pin
stage of gas turbine design. r¼ rough/recovery
S/s ¼ suction side
Acknowledgment t¼ total
TBC ¼ thermal barrier coating
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support for this project TBCP ¼ thermal barrier coating on PS
from the Samsung Techwin R&D Division. TBCS ¼ thermal barrier coating on SS
WIP/WIS ¼ internal wall on PS/SS
Nomenclature wo/wi ¼ external/internal wall
A¼ area (m2) WOP/WOS ¼ external wall on PS/SS
CD ¼ discharge coefficient 1¼ at inlet of element
cp ¼ specific heat capacity (J/kg K) 1p ¼ normal direction to pressure-side surface
D¼ impingement/film-cooling hole diameter (m) 1s ¼ normal direction to SS surface
D¼ diameter (m) 2¼ at exit of element
DR ¼ density ratio 2p ¼ normal direction to fin surface (PS)
E¼ roughness height (m) 2s ¼ normal direction to fin surface (SS)
eþ ¼ roughness Reynolds number 25 ¼ core compressor inlet plane (to combustor)
F¼ friction factor 1¼ main stream
G¼ heat transfer roughness function
H¼ channel height (m)
 ¼
h/h (average)/heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K) Acronyms
K¼ thermal conductivity (W/m K) E3 ¼ energy efficient engine
K¼ pressure drop/loss coefficient LE ¼ leading edge
L¼ jet to target plate separation distance (m) MFR ¼ mass flow rate
Lu ¼ energy scale (m) PS ¼ pressure side
M¼ blowing ratio RIT ¼ rotor inlet temperature
Ma ¼ Mach number SS ¼ suction side
N¼ row numbers TE ¼ trailing edge
P¼ pitch distance between ribs (m) TIT ¼ turbine inlet temperature
Pr ¼ Prandtl number 1D ¼ one-dimensional
PS ¼ static pressure (Pa) 2D ¼ two-dimensional
Q/q ¼ heat load (W) 2side ¼ two-sided ribbed channel
R/r ¼ roughness function/radius of the element (m) 3D ¼ three-dimensional
Re ¼ Reynolds number
S¼ distance between impingement holes/pins
St ¼ Stanton number (St ¼ h/qVCp)
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Transactions of the ASME