IEEE/PES Summer Meeting 2002, Chicago, IL

Sponsoring Technical Committee: Transmission and Distribution

Working Group: Distributed Generation Integration
Panel Session: System Impacts of Distributed Generation

IMPACT OF DG ON VOLTAGE REGULATION

Ljubomir Kojovic
Cooper Power Systems
Franksville, WI

Abstract: This paper includes the technical impact of
distributed generation (DG) on voltage regulation when
integrated into a typical distribution system. To study the
interaction of DG with voltage regulators and capacitors,
computer models were developed and control systems
simulated and implemented.
Test cases are presented that demonstrate and visualize the
impact of DG on voltage regulation and the interaction of
DG with voltage regulators and capacitors.
DR unit (based on the rating of that unit) or to more than
one DR unit, based on the aggregate rating of all the DR
units within the Local EPS. The functions of the
interconnection system hardware and software that affect
the area EPS are required to meet this standard regardless of
their location on the EPS. The stated specifications and
requirements, both technical and testing, are universally
needed for interconnection of DR, including synchronous
machines, induction machines, or power
inverters/converters, and will be sufficient for most
installations.

The criteria and requirements in the Draft Standard [1] are

I. IMPACT OF DG ON VOLTAGE REGULATION
The reliability of today’s power system is in the order of
99.98 % available, which is a slightly lees than “Four
Nines” reliability or approximately 2 hours of outage a year
for a typical consumer. Requests for better than “Four
Nines” reliability come from industry and homeowners.
Even with improvements, the traditional radial distribution
power grid cannot provide much better than Four Nines
reliability. Limitations come from uncontrollable events
like the weather and from the expense of designing the
network for higher Nines. Growing requirements for high
reliability have focused interest on DG to obtain “Six
Nines” reliability and power electronic devices to obtain
“Nine Nines” reliability or more, when combined with the
grid. Even when custom power equipment is not required,
DG must be used. The resulting impact will be growth in
DG. However, the addition of DG complicates protection
schemes and associated control equipment. If not properly
handled, lower reliability and even a reduction in power
quality can result.
For DG integration into existing power grids, a standard is
under development [1] that establishes criteria and
requirements for interconnection of distributed resources
(DR) with electric power systems (EPS). It provides
requirements relevant to the performance, operation,
testing, safety considerations, and maintenance of the
interconnection. The requirements shall be met at the point
of common coupling (PCC), although the devices used to
meet these requirements can be located elsewhere. This
draft standard applies to interconnection of either a single
applicable to all DR technologies, with aggregate capacity
of 10 MVA or less at the PCC, interconnected to electric
power systems at typical primary and/or secondary
distribution voltages. Installation of DR on radial primary
and secondary distribution systems is the main emphasis of
this document, although installation of DR on primary and
secondary network distribution systems is also considered.
Related to voltage disturbances, Standard [1] specifies that
the protection functions of the interconnection system shall
detect the effective (RMS) or fundamental frequency value
of the voltage (all voltages are considered to be balanced
voltages). When voltages are in a specified range, the DR
shall cease to energize the area EPS.
Related to voltage regulation, Standard [1] specifies that the
DR shall not cause the prevailing voltage level of the Area
EPS at the PCC to frequently go outside of ANSI C84.1
Range A. The DR shall be permitted to use automatic
voltage regulation when such regulation can be
accomplished without detriment to the Area EPS. A DR
must be cautious of operation at voltages outside those
stated in ANSI C84.1 Range A, even when required by the
Area EPS because of the potential impact on other
equipment located on the Local EPS.
However, the Standard [1] does not provide a method for
determining practicality on whether the EPS has
appropriate current and voltage ratings and other relevant
characteristics to allow interconnection. It does not
prescribe methodologies for determining system limitations

0-7803-7519-X/02/$17.00 © 2002 IEEE

97
or DG unit protection and operating requirements. The user II. VOLTAGE REGULATION WITH DG AND VOLTAGE
is responsible for identifying suitable methods. REGULATORS

This paper covers the technical impact of DG on voltage
regulation when integrated into a typical distribution
system. The system model of Figure 1 was used to study
voltage profiles without DG and the model of Figure 2 to
study the impact of DG on voltage regulation. Results of
the interaction of DG with voltage regulators and capacitors
are presented in Sections II and III. The optimization of
DG, voltage regulator and capacitor operation is discussed
in Section IV.
Load #1
Power transformers and lines possess impedances that
cause voltage drops due to load currents, reducing voltage
magnitudes at the load. Voltage magnitudes at load
locations must be maintained within specified ranges,
which is achieved by voltage control equipment and system
design.
Distribution step-type voltage regulators are used to
maintain constant voltage for individual customers. Step-
type voltage regulators hold line voltages within
predetermined limits and assure consumer voltage
magnitudes are kept within standards [2].
Load #2

The principle of voltage regulator operation can be

P, Q
Tr 1 CB 2
3 4 explained by Figure 3 [3]. Voltage regulators are
R1 X1 R2 X2 autotransformers with many taps. They are usually designed
VR
CB R
Load #3 to regulate voltage in the range ±10%, in 32 steps, with 5/8
SW
Substation
(S/S)
percent voltage change per step. If such an autotransformer
VR - Voltage Regulators Capacitor is connected as shown in Figure 3, it will operate as a step-
Tr - Power Transformer
CB - Circuit Breaker
up or step-down transformer, depending on the switch S
SW - Switch position, producing the output (load) voltage ±10% of the
R - Recloser
R1, X1 - Feeder #1 Parameters input (source) voltage. The American National Standards
R2, X2 - Feeder #2 Parameters
Institute (ANSI) defines two types of step voltage regulator
n Measurement Locations
constructions. Type "A" includes series windings located on
the load-side. Type "B" includes series windings located on
Substation voltage: 34.5 kV, +5 % the source-side. These are also known as "straight" (type A)
Substation transformer: 34.5/12.47 kV, z = 6 % and "inverted" (type B) designs.
Feeder #1: R1 + jX1 = 1 + j5 [Ω]
Feeder #2: R2 + jX2 = 1 + j5 [Ω] series winding
Load #1: 8 MVA, p.f. = 0.8
Load #2: 1 MVA, p.f. = 0.8 S
Load #3: 1 MVA, p.f. = 0.8

Figure 1. System Model without DG

Vp Vs = Vp ± 10 %

Load #1 Load #2 shunt winding

Figure 3. Voltage Regulator Principle of Operation
P, Q
Tr 1 3 4
(“Straight” or Type “A”)
2
R1 X1 R2 X2
VR
Load #3
Substation Voltage regulators can be applied in wye or delta systems.
(S/S)
Most distribution systems in the USA are four-wire, multi-
5 Capacitor
DG - Distributed Generation grounded. Three wye-connected regulators with a grounded
Q P DG
Load #4
neutral are typically applied in this type of system.
DG (synchronous machine): 3 MVA
Line Drop Compensation. Some consumers can be far from
Load #4: 1 MVA, p.f. = 0.8
the regulator location, and due to the line voltage drop
(Figure 4), voltages at the load location can be below
Figure 2. System Model with DG for studying the Impact
specified limits. To maintain the voltage magnitude at the
on Voltage Regulation
load within specified limits, the line voltage drop needs to
be estimated and the voltage increased to account for this
voltage drop. This can effectively be performed by the line
drop compensation (LDC) feature, which is an integral part
of the voltage regulator control. To use LDC, the line

98
current must be measured in addition to the voltage, which Table 2. Results with Voltage Regulators at Tap-7 (no DG)
is done by the voltage regulator current transformer. Based s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG
on the secondary current, the line R and X parameters, and P [kW] 7980 1530 750 -
the load side voltage, the control calculates the line voltage Q [kvar] 6090 1170 540 -
drop active and reactive components and makes “decisions” V [p.u.] 1.0 0.996 0.973 -
to correct the voltage magnitude [4]. I [A] 466 91 45 -

4500
1.1
Line Voltage Without Distributed Generation
4000 1.08
Drop
Voltage Reactive Component [V]

3500 1.06 Upper Voltage Limit

Source Voltage
3000 1.04

Voltage [p.u.]
2500 1.02
2000 Tap-7
1
Load Voltage Tap-5
1500 0.98
Tap-2
1000 0.96

500 0.94 Lower Voltage Limit

Without VR
0 0.92
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Voltage Active Component [V]
S/S Voltage Load #1 Load #2
Figure 4. Vector Representation of Voltage Profiles Regulator Location

Figure 5. Voltage Regulation using Voltage Regulators (No

Regulator Application. Various methods have been
proposed to determine the best location for line regulators.
One rule of thumb states that the regulators should be
placed halfway out along the line, assuming that the load is
evenly distributed. Another guideline says somewhere
between 1/4 and 1/3 the line length. A voltage regulator is
needed where the system voltage drops below the
acceptable minimum level (95 %) or 114 V on a 120 V
scale. If LDC is being used, application guidelines will vary
slightly.
DG interconnected to the system)
Test Case #2. DG interconnected to the system and Load
#4 added (Figure 2). Table 3 shows results when voltage
regulators are not used and the DG delivers 810 [kW] active
and 660 [kvar] reactive power. Although 1 MVA load was
added, there was no impact on the system voltage since the
DG provided power equivalent to the power of Load #4.
With this delivered power, the DG does not impact voltage
regulation even with voltage regulators at tap-7.

Table 3. Results with DG (no Voltage Regulators)

Test Case #1. Voltage regulator is located near the s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG
substation. No DG interconnected to the system, no Load P [kW] 7830 1350 690 810
#4, and no capacitor at Load #3. Voltage regulation for Q [kvar] 5910 990 520 660
different voltage regulator taps is shown in Figure 5. The V [p.u.] 1.0 0.96 0.94 0.96
voltage regulator control is set to avoid exceeding the upper
I [A] 454 82 43 49
voltage limit. In this case, voltage regulator will regulate
only up to tap-7. Tables 1 and 2 show results without
voltage regulator and with voltage regulator at tap-7.
Test Case #3. DG delivers approximately at its rated
Table 1. Results without Voltage Regulators and DG
power, which is equal to power of Loads #2, #3 and #4.
s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG Table 4 shows results when voltage regulators are not used
P [kW] 7890 1410 690 - and DG delivers 2370 [kW] active and 1860 [kvar] reactive
Q [kvar] 6000 1080 510 - power. Comparison of the voltage profiles along the feeder
V [p.u.] 1.0 0.955 0.93 - with and without DG is given in Figure 6.
I [A] 459 87.5 43 -

99
 1.1
III. VOLTAGE REGULATION WITH DG, VOLTAGE
1.08 REGULATORS AND CAPACITORS
1.06 Upper Voltage Limit

1.04
Capacitors can be applied for power factor correction,
With DG and No Voltage Regulators
harmonic filters, and voltage regulation. They are
1.02
inexpensive, easy to install, require little maintenance, and
Voltage [p.u.]

1 have very low losses. This is why they are widely used in
0.98 Without DG and No Voltage Regulators distribution systems. Capacitors are manufactured in
0.96 Lower Voltage Limit relatively small ratings (kvar) for economical
manufacturing and engineering reasons. Individual units are
0.94
then combined into suitable banks to obtain a large range of
0.92
ratings. Capacitors can be added in small or large units to
S/S Voltage Load #2 Load #3 meet operating requirements. Capacitors do not generate
Regulator Location harmonics, but they create resonant circuits with reactances
Figure 6. Voltage Profile with DG and without Voltage that exist in every power system. If harmonic frequencies
Regulators hit resonant frequencies, overvoltages and/or overcurrents
can occur.
Table 4. Results with DG and Voltage Regulators Not Used
s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG To regulate voltage, capacitors can be connected in parallel
P [kW] 6600 30 780 2370 or in series with loads. They can be applied at transmission
Q [kvar] 4890 0 570 1860 or distribution voltage systems.
V [p.u.] 1.01 1.01 0.99 1.01
I [A] 387 2.5 46 138 Shunt capacitors are connected in parallel with the load.
They compensate reactive currents which reduce total
currents in the line. Reduced currents cause smaller line
voltage drops which results in increased voltage at the load.
Test Case #4. DG delivers approximately rated power and At the same time, the power factor is increased.
voltage regulators are at tap-7. Table 5 shows results when Additionally, reduced line currents increase power system
DG delivers 2460 [kW] active and 1620 [kvar] reactive capacity which may postpone investment in system
power. Figure 7 shows that the voltage magnitude exceeded capacity increases.
the upper limit at the voltage regulator location. But, this is
not a problem since the controls will sense this excessive The effectiveness of voltage improvements using capacitors
voltage and tap down. depends on capacitor location. The best voltage
improvement is achieved by locating capacitors at the load.
Table 5. Results with DG and Voltage Regulators at Tap-7 In the case of distributed load on the line or with lines
s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG having more taps, optimal capacitor locations can be
P [kW] 6600 60 810 2460 determined utilizing advanced analytical tools such as
Q [kvar] 5220 330 600 1620 computer programs [4].
V [p.u.] 1.01 1.04 1.02 1.04
I [A] 387 15 47 132 Sizing the Bank. Selecting the correct capacitor bank size
involves determining the system reactive power as well as
the location of dispersed loads. Also, the resultant effects
1.1 of adding one or more capacitor banks must be investigated.
1.08
These consequences may include voltage rise, reactive
Upper Voltage Limit
overcompensation at lower load levels, and harmonic
1.06
resonance effects.
1.04

1.02
DG
When capacitors are used to increase the system voltage,
Voltage [p.u.]

P = 2370 [kW]
1
Q = 1860 [kvar] the bank will be sized to achieve the desired voltage rise. A
Voltage Regulators at Tap-7 check should be made to make sure this amount of
0.98
capacitance does not overcompensate by placing the system
0.96 Lower Voltage Limit
in a leading power factor condition. If this happens,
0.94 capacitors can be selected to obtain a unity power factor. A
0.92 voltage regulator is then used to further increase voltage
magnitudes [4].
S/S Voltage Load #2 Load #3
Regulator Location

Figure 7. Voltage Profile with DG and Voltage Regulators Capacitor switching methods can be various and include
at Tap-7 Bus Voltage (On and Off levels based on metered voltage

100
which require potential transformers, PTs); Line Current 1.1
Capacitor 600 kvar
(monitors line current magnitude, requires current 1.08
Upper Voltage Limit
Tap-7
Tap-6 Voltage Regulators
transformers, CTs); Reactive Power Flow (monitors actual 1.06
kvar usage, requires both CTs and PTs); Time of Day; and 1.04
DG
P = 2340 [kW]
Ambient Temperature. Q = 1890 [kvar]
1.02

Voltage [p.u.]
Test Case #5. Voltage regulator is located near the 1 Tap-6 Voltage Regulators
DG
substation and capacitor is at Load #3. No DG 0.98 P = 3060 [kW]
Q = 90 [kvar]
interconnected to the system and no Load #4. Table 6 0.96
shows results with the capacitor and voltage regulators at Lower Voltage Limit
0.94
tap-7. Figure 8 compares voltage profiles with and without
capacitors and voltage regulators. 0.92

S/S Voltage Load #2 Load #3

Regulator Location

Table 6. Results with the Capacitor and Voltage Regulators Figure 9. Voltage Profile with DG, Capacitors at Load #3
at Tap-7 and Voltage Regulators
s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG
P [kW] 8040 1560 750 -
Q [kvar] 5940 990 360 -
V [p.u.] 1.0 1.0 0.985 - IV. OPTIMIZATION OF DG, VOLTAGE REGULATOR AND
I [A] 462 87 41 - CAPACITOR OPERATIONS

1.1 It is common in distribution systems to apply both

1.08
capacitors and voltage regulators. To avoid mutual
Upper Voltage Limit
interactions during operation, proper coordination must be
1.06
achieved, which is particularly important when LDC is
1.04
With Capacitors
enabled. Both fixed and switched capacitors may affect
1.02 and Voltage Regulators at Tap-7 voltage regulator operation.
Voltage [p.u.]

0.98
With Capacitors Capacitors can be located on the source (1) or load (2) side
and Without Voltage Regulators
of the regulator, or at the load (3) as shown in Figure 10. If
0.96 Lower Voltage Limit
fixed or switched capacitors are installed on the source side,
0.94
Without Voltage Regulators
they will not affect regulator operation. This is because
0.92 and Capacitors when capacitors are added, the input voltage of the
regulator changes (increases), but the regulator will detect
S/S Voltage Load #2 Load #3
Regulator Location that and operate to maintain the desired voltage. Current
Figure 8. Voltage Profile with and without Capacitors and through the regulator will be the same as line current.
Voltage Regulators Therefore, capacitors will not affect voltage regulator LDC
operation.
Test Case #6. DG delivers approximately its rated power.
Load #1 Load #2
Figure 9 compares voltage profiles with DG, capacitors,
and voltage regulators at tap-6 and tap-7. When DG
delivers both active and reactive power, voltage exceeds the
upper limit and the controls tap down to tap-6, in this case. VR

If DG delivers only active power, the impact on the voltage Load #3

Substation
profile is small. (S/S)

1 2 3
Table 7 shows results when voltage regulators are at tap-6,
Three different Capacitor Locations
capacitors connected at Load #3 and DG delivers 2340
Figure 10. Different Capacitors Locations vs. a Voltage
[kW] active and 1890 [kvar] reactive power.
Regulator
Table 7. Results with DG and Voltage Regulators at Tap-6
When capacitors are located between the voltage regulator
s/s Load #2 Load #3 DG
and the load, capacitors will compensate reactive current
P [kW] 6840 270 840 2340
(reduce total current) from its location back to the source
Q [kvar] 4800 -90 420 1890 and through the voltage regulator. Current from the
V [p.u.] 1.01 1.053 1.034 1.053 capacitor to the load will not be reduced. It will remain
I [A] 383 13 13 133 almost the same as without capacitors (the line current will
be the vector sum of the source and capacitor currents) and

101
the line voltage drop will be almost the same as without
capacitors. As mentioned above, current through the
voltage regulator will be reduced, so the voltage regulator
will “see” this as a light load and will not regulate voltage
accordingly. Therefore, the voltage setting needs to be
adjusted to account for the additional voltage drop.
Switched capacitors on the regulator load side may affect
regulator operation more than fixed capacitors. If energized,
they will affect regulators similar to fixed capacitors,
regardless of the type of control system applied.
If capacitors are connected at the load center or beyond, the
regulator control will see actual current which flows
through the line; therefore, no changes are required in the
control setting.
DG increases voltage along the feeder. The impact of DG
on voltage profiles depends on its delivered power and
feeder loading. If DG delivers only active power, the
impact on voltages is smaller than if DG delivers both
active and reactive power. In the second case, the effect of
DG is similar to that of capacitors; voltages can
significantly increase. If voltages exceed the upper limit,
when voltage regulators are used, they will make
corrections within their range.
If a DG can control reactive power generation, it can
control voltages by reducing (or absorbing, if necessary)
reactive power output. If voltages increase by increasing the
active power, decreasing the reactive power will cause line
voltages to drop. DG output voltage regulation can be
achieved using the reactive power setting. However, this
regulation may not be sufficient to control excessive
voltages. In these cases, voltage regulators could provide
voltage regulation.
When a DG is sized to closely match the local load and is
located near the local load, it can provide a significant
reduction in line losses. In addition, the technical issues for
interconnection are less complex. This is easy to implement
in industrial and urban areas.
102
If DG is located far from the substation (rural areas) and
delivers power towards the substations or even back to
transmission networks through the substations transformer,
losses can increase in the distribution system, but losses in
transmission networks will decrease. This will help if
transmission networks are near full capacity, otherwise
increased losses in the distribution system would be a
bigger concern.
When DG is connected to distribution lines, voltage control
at the PCC may be optimized by a slight reduction of
source voltage; controlling reactive power; adjusting
reactive power to meet the nearby load requirements; and
operating the generator in constant voltage mode.
References
[1] IEEE P1547 Standard for Distributed Resources
Interconnected with Electric Power Systems, Draft 08,
January 2002.
[2] “Voltage Ratings for Electric Power Systems and
Equipment”, ANSI/IEEE Standard C84.1-1970 and
Supplement C84.1a-1973.
[3] “Voltage Regulators, McGraw-Edison® VR-32
Regulator and CL-4C Control Installation, Operation
and Maintenance Instructions Parts Replacement
Instruction”, Cooper Power Systems, S225-10-4C,
September 1991.
[4] Lj. A. Kojovic, “Improving Distribution System Power
Quality using Capacitors and Voltage Regulators”, The
Power Quality 2000 Conference, Boston,
Massachusetts, October 2000.
Biography
Ljubomir A. Kojovic (SM ’94) is a Chief Power Systems
Engineer for Cooper Power Systems at the Thomas A.
Edison Technical Center. He has a Ph.D. in power systems
with specialties that include protective relaying, distributed
generation, testing, digital modeling, and systems analysis.
He is an adjunct assistant professor at Michigan
Technological University. Dr. Kojovic is included on the
roster of experts for the United Nations Development
Organization (UNIDO) and is a registered Professional
Engineer in the State of Wisconsin. He is a member of the
System Protection subcommittee and member of several
working groups of the IEEE Power System Relay
Committee. Dr. Kojovic has earned four US patents and
authored more than 100 technical papers.