12 MINERALS AND ROCKS 12.1 Introduetion, Minerals are the solid constituents of all rocks and occur as erystals, A mineral fan be defined as a natural occuring, inorganic, solid element or compound, having pacticulat_chemical composition or range of composition, and regular intemal crystal structural (.e, arrangement of ions and atems), 12.2 Chief Rock-forming Minerals and Elements Average composition of erustal rock: Chie Minerals % Most Abundant Elements % SiO, 59.26 Oxygen 46.6 AL, 1535 Silicon 272 Fe,0; 314 Aluminium 813 Feo 3.74 Iron 5 MgO. 3.46 Calcium, 3.63 C20 5.08 Sodium 2.83 Na,0; 3.81 Potassium 2:59 KO 3.12 ‘Magnesium 2.09 0 1.26 P.O; 0.28 Oxygen + Silicon = 75% Tid, 073 Oxygen + Silicon + rest of six = 98% rest 077 “Oxides of other metals and gases such as CO2, $02, CI2, F2 and traces of other elements, 12.3. Crystal Systems and Symmetry There are seven erystal systems, each of which is based on the number of axes of symmetry developed as follows (see also Fig. 12.1) Cubie System Tetragonal System Orthorhombic System ‘Monoclinic System Iriclinie System Hexagonal System Trigonal Pa- CRYSTAL SYSTEMS AND SYMMETRY — ‘cusic system TETRAGONAL SYSTEM | ‘Alive axes reine same lengthen x Tee axes wich oat ig angleso each "ah angls ech ine ‘ter. The ho on same lone or aust in ng whl te iri ge pendula Ins plane | H / HEXAGONAL SYSTEM TRIGONAL SYSTEM Thee of he ou oxes or ine single pane ‘Toa re hoe equal xs acing toma ‘2d race ou equal rm a cena poi. ‘ingle point inne some plne four x's ‘The our ais right angles fois 's light anges ins plane The ena! lone ands unequal in engin he anes. hes one axis fr fos sym. ‘The erstl has one xs ong ax) ott fold yma. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM MONOCLINIC SYSTEM TRICLINIC SYSTEM Treeoxes ofurequallegh The psmhos ncinediop Tv ves clunequl enh seta ight angles one nd botem aces. here set hes dren! angles natn. three ares ofunequal lenght: toone anther. Ties pas "Mo oe tight angles foces. ‘och oer wi he ite et onincine oe plane ot ‘tether. Fig, 12.1 Crystal Systems and Symmetry P2/23edstomie Structure of Minerals ‘The crystallized form of « mineral is a reflection of its internal atomic structure. To take a simple example, consider the mineral rock salt which is pure sodium chloride. ‘The atoms of sodium chforide are arranged alternatively in a cube patter, as shown in Fig. 270 Fig. Amange of Atoms in an Unit Cell of Nac (small shaded cireles- Na large circles - CI) PlaThus the minerals erstalizs in cobes and wil reak easly pall to the cube faces, i, ithas te cleavages (plane suices of brea) at 90°. This a one ofthe pyc operis of pre sodium chloride Another example i ike slate mine our (basi mine groups of rock). Minerals in his group ae all eomposed of licen ood cxygen atoms. These silicon and oxygen atoms, however, are arrange in diferent structures. Basically, the sitcom som i fetavalent (4 postive G96 ands sles surrounded by oxygen atoms forming a silicon tetahedron as shown Pig 218, oxygen Stich Cat the same cle) Oc ae =e “ta tocar a evion tony Fig.a¢6 Atrange of Atoms in an Unit Cell of Silicon ‘This silicon tetrahedron isthe fundamental unit of any silicate structure. The tetrahedra Join together to form complex structures as illustrated in Fig. /2./< Notice that as the complexity ofthe grouping of tetrahedra increases, the silia-to-oxygen ratio decreases to form different minerals. Each mineral reflects different properties. Tatle / shows the structure of silicate minerals. Table 7 Stmotures of Silicate Minerals ted Pattern ec Separate SiO, Groups 14 Si0, Olivine ‘Single Chain 43 Si,0, Pyroxenes Double Chain 1275 Sin Amphiboles Sheet 125 SiO Micas (ALSI,Os, Feldspars ork. 2 Si rz Simple structures, such as that of Olivine, form at higher temperatures thaa those more ‘complex structures such as that of quatz Pbz -§ Bx Gils a) INARI Fig. /2 Silicate Structures ‘ Befrrcon acto ec suna Beet! mab: gece ata rn) Tevet Say 38 aun ih tig tied Fh} Suc at sngs wd cole ca ree Nena. The capo ngs oe tae vi (e) asahown intone gh arvana) samen12.4 Mineral Identification “Minerals are identified in the field on the basis of the following properties: ‘Colour (a seen in natural light) Colours of some minerals are striking and serve a diagnostic purpose, e.g. Malachite (green), Pyrites (brassy yellow), Galena (lead grey) However, some minerals show variable colours, ¢., Hluorspar, Barytes, Quartz Lustre Lustre is the light reflected off the surfaces of a mineral in a characteristic way: It may take several forms Dull like earth (e.g. limonite) Metallic like polished metal (e.g. pyrites) Adamantine brilliant like diamond (e.g. cassiterite) Vitreous like broken glass (e.g, quartz) Resinous like resin or wax (e.g. spalerite) Pearly like pearls (e.g. stlbite) Silky like silk (e.g, satin spa) Splendent brilliant reflectivity (e.g, specularite) Shining reflects an image but not clearly (e.g. selenite) Glistening reflects light, but not an image (e.g. chaleopyrite) Glimmering imperfect reflections from points on specimen (e.g. flint) ‘Habit ‘The habit is the characteristic appearance of a crystal that is determined by its predominant form as follows (see also Fig. 12.2): Dendritic: plant-like shape Bladed —_: looks like the blade of a knife Prismatic: show a uniform cross-section Acicular — : slender needle-like masses ‘Massive: indicates no definitive shape Reniform : rounded kidney-shaped masses Twinning : (a) Contact Twin-radiating mass of touching, contact crystals (b) Penetration Twin-showing two parts of a crystal that have intergrown, PsFig. 12.2 Common Shapes of erystal clustersHardness It is a test for the mineral’s resistance to abrasion. Most minerals have a Specific hardness. The hardness is determined by rubbing the unknown mineral with a known reference mineral from Mohs’ scale of hardness, Mohs’ Scale of Hardness Scale Comparison Mineral Test__ I Tale Powered by finger nail 2 Gypsum Scratched by finger nail 3 Calcite Scratch by copper coin 4 Fluorspar Easily scratched by pocket knife 5 Apatite Just seratched by pocket knife: 6 Orthoclase Scratched by steel file 7 Quartz Scratches glass window 8 Topaz Easily scratches quartz 9 Corundum Easily scratches topaz 10 Diamond Hardest known substances This is the mass (weight) of a mineral compared with the mass (weight) of an equal volume of water Streak The streak isthe colour of the mineral in powder form. One can ether crush a small piece of the mineral or draw the mineral across a piece of unglazed porcelain-a streak plate e.g Hematite (teddish-brown) Chaleopyrite (greenish-black) Sphalerite (pale brownish-yellow) Native Copper (grey) Cleavage Cleavage is the way that a mineral breaks along well-defined planes of weakness. Often these planes are between layers of atoms or other places where the atomic bonding is weakness. Cleavage surfaces are not perfectly smooth like crystal faces, though they are very consistent and reflect light evenly. Cleavage is described as: Perfect; Distinet; Indistinet; None PsFracture Niven one siike @ mineral with a geologists hammer and it breaks, leaving Surfaces that are rough and uneven, itis said to fracture. Cammon, traces surfaces ate: Conchoidal: breaks with concentric cavities (e.g. quartz) Subconchoidal: indistinct conchoidal (e.g. tourmaline) Even: surface flat but slightly rough (e.g. barytes) Uneven: surface rough and iregular (e.g. pyroxene) Hackiy: surface has sharp points (e.g. specularite) Earthy: surface dull and crumbly (e.g, limonite) ‘Transparency. Transparency refers to the way in which light passes through a mineral specimen, There are different degrees of transparency, ‘Transparent: outline of object can be seen clearly through the mineral ‘Semitransparent: objects are distinctly seen through the mineral ‘Translucent: light can pass through the mineral Opaque: no light can pass through the mineral Tenacity Itis a measure of the response of minerals to a hammer blow, Seetile: easily cut by a knife (e.g, gypsum) Brittle: crumbles when hit by a hammer (eg. calete) Paltenble:if cut slices can be flattened by hitting with a hammer (.. coppet) Flexible: will bend without breaking (e.g. chrysotile) ‘Magnetism Minerals containing iron, cobalt and nickel may attract a magnet (eg. magnetite) If crystal contains carbon, reaction with HCI will result in the formation of bubbling gases, uuorescence is the property of changing invisible ultraviolet light or Xeray ‘beams to visible light. In some cases the light continues for an interval afer the stimulating source is tumed off. This is phosphorescence. P612.5 Optical Properties of Minerals and Thin Sec ms ‘This is the most useful and positve method of identifying mine-als, Although ‘minerals occur as large crystals in nature, i is more useful in rocks to find thane of such a small size that even with a 10x magnifying hand lens iis diffiesie ce impossible to determine theit symmetry orto identity them. ‘A diamond savs can be used to cut a thin slice of rack about LOmm x 10 mm x3 im nick. The slice is struck onto a glass microscope slide with balsam, Using Suecessively finer and finer grades of carborundum powder abrecive, the elt is ground down until it is only 30 micrometers (yim) thick. The rock is nn “and the slide is completed by being covered with a thin covering Blass fixed with balsam. The transparent rock slide is viewed with the Spevimen. Minerals in the rock slide rotate the plane of polarization of the light and Produce colours which are of diagnostic value. These colours enable skilled petrologist to indentify the types of mineral present, Pz26 ROCK FORMING MINERALS Introduet After studying the identification and physical properties of minerals, one can now consider some of the most commonly occurring minerals. As an engiacer it will be ‘etpfulifone is familiar with the special properties ofeach mineral ia order tobe able to identify them easily ‘The Major Rock Groups ral properties, it is necessary for one to know ‘are essential components of rocks and their brosence is implied by the rock name, Geologists clasiy rocks ino thre groups according to how they were formed. These groups are Tencous (fre-formed) rocks, meaning rocks which have solidified ftom the molten state, Sedimentary (sediment-formed) rocks, meaning rocks produced by the accumulation of deposited sediments of weathered fragments of existing rocks, Marrartile (changed) rocks, icing rocks ofgillyigieous or sediment ‘Which have been changed by the action of heat and/or pressor ‘The Rock-Forming Mineral Basically, minerals canbe classified into two major groups according to their chemical elements, They are silicate and non-ilicate minerals ‘Listed on the following pages are 25 common minerals with their descriptions, Theis Palogg, Ne fllowed by thei chemical formule and the crystal system to which they belong, Jorgrampl, the mineral olivine i followed by is chemical formula (MgF),SiO, end its crystal system (Orthorhombic) dens, Sesetions necd tobe studied caeflly inorder to identify mineral samples during practical session Siicate Minerals ()Ofivine (MeFe),Si0, Oxthosomibtc Olivine ‘usually occurs a8 prismatic crystals modified by domes and Prramids, but also as rounded grains or massive. Its colour is olive green, with a colourless streak Olivine has a vitreous lustre, no cleavage, 4@)__Augite (CaMgFeAl); (SiAl):0, (pyroxene group) Monoclinic ‘Ruste occurs as dark geen or black prismatic crystals with versa pram faces: Mis other faces are pyramids. Augite has. two deavages hich ‘Sletsect at nearly 9% (87° and 93°). Ithas a colourless streak a hardness of 5.5 and its specific gravity ranges from 3.2. - 3.4. A cross-section of an fuse crystal shows eight cides and aright angle cleavage, as shown in Fig 23 Augite occurs in basic and ultra-basie igneous rocks” ES a Augite crystal =. Fig/23 Cross-Section of an Augite Crystal __ G)_ Hommblende (CaMgFeNaAl); (AISi).0,,OH (amphibole group) Monoclinic Horblende cocurs a prismatic or fltrous crystals Is colo is dak syeen lack, and it has a glassy or pearly lustre. Ithas a hardnes of 55, aba geen steak, Its speci gravity ranges from 29-34. A cosssecten of th crystals often shows six sides and two cleavages intersecting at 120720 fea 6/7 Homblende ocus in acd enous and metanorp forks. Vernblende 7a@ o © O) ® Mica ‘There are two types of mica: muscovite and biotite mica Muscouite or white mica KAI AISi,)0o(OH, Monoclinic Mascovite has a perfect basal cleavage, giving rise toa laminated habit. Itis oR aherdness of 2.5, and has a specific gravity of 29. Tt has a pearly thas and is wansparent or translucent, It occurs in acid ipo sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, eg,” granite, sandstone and echie Large crystals are formed in pegnuattes which may be extmcted for eae os electrical and thermal insulators Biatite or brown mica K(MgFe)(AISis0o)(OH),, Monoclinic Biotit isa brown or black variety of mice containing iron. {thas properties similar to muscovite, but isnot transparent. Orthoclase Feldspar KAlSisOs, Monoclinic Felésar is also known as potash feldspar. I is commonly found as large Tae UAE crystals or twinned erystals in acid igneous rocks, It is usually ‘ink in colour, and has a glassy laste. Its hardness is 6 and it has a pect Bravity of 2.6, Ithas a colourless streak and two intersecting eleavaes at 90°. ‘Plasloclase Feldspar Alte (NaAISi:O) and Anorhit (CaAS:0%), Tinie These are a series of solid solution or mixed feldspars. They form tabul Mie crystals with two cleavages intersecting at 87°, The crystals often Show twinning, have a glassy or pearly lustre and a colourless steak Thee hardness is 6 and their specific gravity is 2.6. They are bite and cccur in most igneous rocks, Quartz (10:), Hexagonal Quai occurs as prismatic sated crystals. It has a glassy lstre and is, GUAUY fansparent or white, occasionally being coloured by impurities, Quartz shows no cleavage and has a conchoidal fracture. Its hardeee is? and its specific eraviy is 2.6. Its streak is white. Iris found in seid igneous orks and in many sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, As itis very ‘resistant to weathering, it forms the principal component of sand, ‘Tourmaline (NaMgFeAlSisO;x) Hexagonal ‘Tourmaline is a complex borosilicate of aluminium alkali metals, It Pei Specific gravity is 3 and it has a colourless steak. It oceurs in acid igneous rock. ©) Garnet (CaMgFe? Mins (AIFeCx), ($104), Cubic amet is a complex alumino silicate containing calcium, magnesium, iron ane manganese. Varietis of gamet include Grossular, Pyrope, Almandioe (10) Zircon, Z-Si0,, Tetragonal Zircon ceeurs as prismatic crystals. It has an imperfect sleavage, and is 4uy120u0H euou—Aseaub sss auyquadsag sz sz 24uy 120U0K uo Apuee 9945 ausctg se ve t2uobey2y suou——Ass046, noua woauy se- $9 st a1qng uous oueg oe or eusbexoH ood Asses uy yeunoy oe oz puobexoy euou kes 6 razed os 92 LHL 405 om Asse 6 euyN ase (2048044 9 2 D1UsL20U0H 606 @ OM wid aseysoinag sz oe uy 120u0H uo avod weg ong sz 62 iy 120u0K owe Aaeod euyyn——_anyaoziny ss re 67 dyusLoouoH — zt g om SSRIS wera anus, qui0g ss vez OLULL20UH 406 OM ASHES aDUB EP oaysny 9 ge -26 ayquoqiourig oun ese 6 0045 auato Ty ST RTT we | SAAT eT 7 oe, oaDemo tes yay ay0Y sso STeACMIEY HNA0}-990y HoMNO: : € OOH NITWUSHIN TAIN anioaas PMOL MONE YHUDPY jesOUNEY payyduns, PS13 ROCK CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION 781 Classification of Rocks Geologists classify all rock into thee groups by mode of origin (Fig. /3.1). They are aneous rock - Rock solidified from molten magma. The word igneous means fey. ‘Sedimentary rock - Rock produced from the accumulation of deposited sediments of weathered fragments of pre-existing rock. A Metamorphic rock - Rock originally igneous of sedimentary but now changed 10 another form by the action of heat and/or pressure in the earth Eites [7] Sstiggtey | [roreus mex | PPetorentc > Dupossnen Fig./3.1 Rock Types and their Formation12.2 Ianeous Rocks ‘Igneous rock can be subdivided into two types: Extrurve igneous rock - rock formed when magma extruded onto the earth's surface. Hoyas Henens rock - rock formed when maginaintude into existing rock (Fig B2), oly Rtn EN [pa KiZA RSS. st: | ; See. uve{l Fig. 42 Iuneous Rock Magma The knpertue of rock rst out 1°C per 50 metres of Gepth(geothemn gradien) de tt depth of 100 km, th rock temperature is abou)2,000°C. Thies higher hog ine ating point of most rock. Is believed tat magma (molten rock) oiler se Bis Geni and under suitable conditions (eg the rlese of pressure), ite tneagh ‘packs in the earth’ crust and accumulates onto the surface where it formes volte dea Ae Of incous activity, where magma comes out onto the ground surree te Gere as errsive, Magne fowing on he surfaces mown aslava, yf, 13:3 Extrusive Igneous Activity ‘The point at which magma escapes Extnusive igneous activity can be cla ‘eruption and fismaroles.Central Eruption Molten magia sometnes erp from a central point to produce a volcanic cone with ceuptinn eration, 8s shown in Fig/3.3. ‘This type of eruption is called canpat ‘ruption and the depression on top ofthe cone is called a erate, Magma charter Fig.3 Otis of Volcanic Cone Composition of Voleanic Cones oleanie cones formed by central eruptions may reach a height of several thousand Frere & diameter of many kilometres. They ate bull up of lve of nn ast and tinder or a combination of bath, in which cate they are nee composite * ones. These materials are thrown out ofthe erater though a pipe called dhe eat £3 att volcanic eruptions throw up Blocks of molten lava which can sometimes fly Seppah the air fr kilometres before landing, These blocks of mien wee solidify ‘nd form rocks called voleane bombs, fe Re 1 Magmas contsning a high percentage of silica are termed acid and are highly viscous, rile giagmas containing alow percentage of sca are termed hace von a much ‘nore Mul. As magma cools it becones more viscous and flows move slow, ietsSometimes violet explosions produce red-hot clouds of fine drops of lava which avel sever! kilometes, These hot clouds fill to eath and produce deposits of fine-grained rock known as Forms of Voleanic Cones oleic cones take different forms depending on the chemical composition of the srarmas arch comes out fiom the crater. Acid magmas trap and cissolve went Saunt of fasts and, since they are very viscous, they Now slowiy. These geet SEuaPs Seflosively and produce lava froth with great force and violence Beeateenat {heir slower moving power, acid magmas cannot flow fr from the mouti fe venseae Instead, they pile up to fora step sided cones (Fig 34), i Conical cone oF 08), cinder Fig J Section of a Conical Volcano Cais other hand baie fluid magmas containing fewer dissolved gases are associated With Jess violent eruptions. Lava flows out quiely and forms voloanecs me lene gentle slopes and are shield-tke in shape (Fig. 5). f. y so 10 metes te 100 tilometres in diometer Fig.5 Section of a Shield VoteanoFissure Eruption a At times, molten magma may escape from a long linea crackin the ground to produce 4 surface flow of lava. ‘Such a flow i called a fissure eruption, Fissure eruptions are Usually of larger volume than central eruptions and comprise fluid. basic: Inve Repeated emmptions can build up lava plateaus hundreds of metes thick (Fig. .6), Examples ofthis type of eruption can be seen today in volcanic activity in Icelaea, Magma. on [eT een ot XY Lines crack Fig.86 A Fissure Eruption Fumarotes ‘The escape of gases such as stream, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide from openings or vents in the earth's surface is also a type of extrsive ‘igneous activity. These gas vents ere kuowm as fumaroles, ded. (3.4 Lmnived FI BT Omitted:pe oh (BS Tet ogous Rests ‘Tamms aeedin describing the appearance of igneous rock (oth extusive and intrusive) are a follows: Granular Texture Granular igneous rocks are composed of grains large enough to be seen by the naked 36, without the use of a hand lens or magnifying glass. Grains range ftom 03 mn 10mm, Aphanitie Texture This isa Greck work meaning invisible: aphanitc rock ae composed of tiny crystals invisible tothe naked eye, Usually the slow cooling of magma produces lage svete (mm - 25 mm), while quick cooting produces small crystals less than | nen iene Ney suick cooling produces a glassy appearance and the rock is described a¢ hyalerystalline (noa-crystallne). Phenoerysts Larpe crystals (usually of quartz or feldspar) in a magma shown 5 distinctive 68% | Quartz, Felspar, Mica Intermediate 52-66% Feldspar, Homblende, Mica B 45-52% FFeldspar, Olivine, Augite Ultrabasic < 45% Olivine, Augite, Homblende ‘Table/32 Crystal Size in Relation to Rete Magma Cools and Solidfies Structure | Mode of. Texture Crystal Size | Crystal Ste a Formation (mm) A | (om) B Volcanoes / Extrusive | Glassy or fine- | 0- 0.06 0-2 grained Dykes, Sitls | Intrusive Fine-grained }0.002-0.06 | 005-2 (minor) Laccotiths | Intrusive Medium- | .06-2 2-6 (ntermediate) | grained Bathotiths | Intrusive Coarse-grained | 2-20 6-20 (major) Table 83 Rock name in elation to magma types and formation ‘Magma Type [Major Intrusion _| Minor Intrusion _| Extrusfon or voleanle ‘Acid Granite ‘Quartz porphyry | Rhyolite, Obsidian, Pumice Intermediate | Diorite Porphyry Andesite Basic Gabbro Dolerite Basalt Me‘THE MORE IMPORTANT INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS Following are some common intrusive igneous rocks and a brief description ofeach. Acid Rocks Granite Granite is grey or pink in colour and contains glass-like quartz, pink orthoclase feldspar, white plagioclase feldspar, silvery muscovite mica and black botite mica, It is common in Hong Kong and is found in batholitls, "The eiystals have an average size of 5mm. Therefore, granite is coarsely crystalline Porphyry or Porphyrite ‘This is either of an acid or intermediate composition. This type of rock is found in dykes in Hong Kong. Large crystals of feldspar or quartz ate scattered in a fine ‘grourdmass of feldspar and hornblende, Quartz Porphyry Quartz porphyry contains the same minerals as granite. It is found in dykes in Hong Kong. Itis red or grey in colour with medium-grained crystals (1 mm in size) in a fine-grained groundmass. Its sometimes called felste or elvan, Pegm: ‘This isa very coarse-grained dyke rock. Crystals are several centimetres in diameter. Temay contain quartz, feldspar and metallic ores. Its found in Hong Kong. Aplite Aplite is a dyke rock but i fine-grained with a sugary texture. Its made wp of quartz ‘and feldspar and i found in Hong Kong, Intermediate Rocks Diorite Diorite is grey in colour and coarsely crystalline. Like granite, itis eso found in batholiths. Its mineral contents are plagioclase, feldspar, hornblende and iron oxide. Tris not found in Hong Kong, JBasie Rocks Gabbro Hits Eran, ro is found in batholiths. It has large eystls and és dak green or Pack in colour. It does not contain quartz, but is made up of crystals of plaglociace feldspar, olvin,augite and ilmenite. Itis not known in Hong Kong. Dolerite Dolerte contains similar minerals to gabbro. It is black n colour, finely enstaline with a strong interlocking stuctue. It is common in dykes in Horg Kone The interlocking texture makes dolerite a very strong rock, Ulwabasic Rocks Peridotite Found deep inthe earth, this rock probably originates inthe upper mane. It consists ‘mainly of olivine and is dark green in colour and often coarsely crystalline. IGNEOUS ROCKS IN HONG KONG Granite is one ofthe most common igneous rocks in Hong Kang and covers one third te territory’ surface, I varies in grain size fom fine to coase (1 mm = 5 tna) aad Ein Or rey depending onthe typeof feldspar present. (Onhoclase feldspar is pk and Prapioclse feldspar is white), The exposed granite represents the top of an croded batholith which underies all of Hong Kong. Granite is found in the orene shown inthe map below (Fig. 17. It forms low-lying, deeply-erodd tls as granite is chemically weathered in the hot humid climate. DUKE rocks, especially feldspar porphyry, are very common in Hong Koug, especially in Landau. Dolesite, quartz porphyry, aplite and pegmatite dykes ae aro fea f, &Fig.8.17 Igneous Rocks in Hong KongSEDIMENTARY ROCKS About 75% ofthe surface of the continents is composed of sedimentary rock. This surface covering is relatively thin compared with the thickness ofthe earth's con se maximum known thickness of sedimentary rock is only 10 kms, andi is usualy such less, Sedimentary rock is made from weathered patcles of older rocks which have been transported by wind, water or gravity to another place and deposited ss a sediment In time. the sediment is converted into sedimentary rock by the process of lihifea The principal sedimentary rocks arc shale, sandstone and limestone MODE OF FORMATION Sediment J the sindy of sedimentary rocks, it is necessary to understand their mode of formation before examining their physical and chemical properties, [Le original or raw material of sedimentary rocks is sediment. Sediment consists of loose rock puticles which are products of weathering and erosion, ‘Sediments are formed mainly in the following ways (A) The accumulation of transported rock particles may form deposits kilometres thick, These are known as clastic or detrital sediments, BB () Another type of sediment is produced when sls in soltion reac «lake or Shee Ach chemi els ay resin prepn (©) The evporation of sea water may cause dissolved sls to precipitate as an evaporite, <, (©) The death and accumulation of animal skeletons, suchas sells and corals, ‘ay produce thick deposits ofimestone essentially made of calcium carbonate, Leh (©) Neleanis sh may fl to the ground or into water to form bedded deposits of {uff which have the characteristics of igneous and sedimentary rock These ‘are sometimes called voleaniclastc rocks. woLithification This is the process of conversion of soft sediments into hard rock. The process is sometimes called diagenesis and acts by: (A) The compaction of sediments under the weight of overlying cock (B) The sécrystalisation of minerals in the sediments, (C)__Ceméntation, which means that void spaces between the sediment particles are filled by new minerals deposited from ground water. Common ecments ae caleity, silica, hematite and limonite TEXTURE ‘The texture of sedimentary rock reflects its mode of formation, the diagenetic process ‘thas undergone and the environment af sedimentation, When we deserbe the texture of a piece of rock, we are refering to its size, shape and the aerangement of its ‘constituent particles, . : ‘The sizes of the component grains of sedimentary rock ean be clasified as follows: Table 8.4 Classification of sizes of component grains in rock ‘Rock Type Deseription of Particle Size _| Mean Particle Diamecer in mm, Conglomerate Gravel 60-2 Sandstone Sand 2-0.06 Siltstone silt 0.06 - 0.002 Shale Clay <.9.002 ‘The shapes ofthe component grains of sedimentary rock are shown in Fig A18, Stranded Snbantlor Ang NON SSIES Fig. 6.18 Shapes of Grains in Sedimentary Rock Rounded fragments have usually become wom through transportation over long dlstances by river or sea action, Angular fragments are often found in old scree slopes and fault breccias, qEalbric is aterm used to denote the arrangement of particles in a sedimentary rock, The grains may be well-sorted. This means the grains are similar in size. as in deposits sorted by wind and water. Poorly-sored grains are seen in aacal deposits and sediments deposited by turbidity curents, STRUCTURE Sediments often show an orientation of particles. For example, the long axes of Particles may be laid down horizontally by wind or water parallel to bedding planes, Sediments ae usually laid down in horizontal layers or beds, resultirg in a layered sequence which gives structure to the rock. These layers are called bedding and cash bed is separated by a bedding plane ach bed represents a change in sedimentation conditions end lithology. A single bed is known asa stratum and several beds are known as strata. A collection of beds of the same type is known as a formation (Fig. 2.19), Bedding Hones Stratum { Fig. 419 Being Planes Individual beds may show internal structures such as:©) criginl caren bedoing HA 0 dette ©) Deposition. of anther unit on tp Psy “ Land Fig.#.20 Development of Curent Beding 2Graded bedding shows a change in grain size within a bed ~ from coarse at the ‘bottom to fine at the top. Its thought to originate inthe setting of a mxed collection. ‘of particle sizes through deep water, the lager particles setting firs. An example of sgradded-bedding is shown in Fig. 8.21. Graded bedding is useful to geologists as it shows whether beds are the right way up or not, Again, tum Fig, 21 vpside down to see the appearance of an inverted sequence. Fig.821 Graded Bedding Stump bedding is produced when wet muddy sediments slide or slurp on the sea floor (Fig. 4:22). Itis often seen in mudstones. Higi3.22. Ship Beng ‘Ripe sara representing od each spl maybe sen in sitsones on being planes (Fig.43.23), - 7 a“Drying Cracks may be sen in sediments which have died out inthe anand shrank ‘The eracks may have been filled with other material (Fig 124), Fig. 424 Drying Cracks Rain pits may be seen in mudstones where heavy rain has indented the top of a bed Fig. 225), Fig.8.25 Raia Pits Animal and bird tracks may be seen in siltstones or mudstones whesi an animal or bird walked across the surface ofa sof, sity mud (Fig..26). Fig /$.26 Animal Tracks on a Redding Plane 7 ‘The appearance and characteristics of sedimentary rock reflect its mode of origin, Thus we can talk of marine facies, continental facies, lacustrine faces or Black totefacies, colian facies, littoral facies, etc, The influence of the environment of ‘deposition on the rock type formed can be Seen in Tables 5 Table/4.S Influence of environment of deposition on rock type [-—Fnvieonment of deposion Sedimentary Rock Formed] Beaches Conglomerate, sandstone Shallow seas Sandstone, siltstone, stile, imestone Deep seas State, mudstone Lakes Siliton, shale, evaporite Flood plains Conglomerate, sandstone, sale Deserts Sandstones,brosias aciated regions Tile Ganditions may change during the deposition of a sediment, For example, transgression and regression of the sea may occur, in which ese one typ of sediment ‘ay grade into another type (shale into sandstone, ot vice vers), COMMON SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ‘Sedimentary rocks may be conveniently divided into three types: (A) Mechanically formed sedimentary cocks ‘These are made from clasts (pieces of older rocks, and can be arranged in order of article size Particle Size Rock Formed Gravel Conglomerate Sand Sandstone Chay Shale or mudstone (B) Organically-formed sedimentary rocks snagee are made from the fossil remains (skeletons) of living organisms and consist ‘mainly of calcium carbonate or carbon. ‘The main rocks formed are linesione ext coal(©) Chemically-formed sedimentary rocks [Bese ate essentially chemical precipitates or evaporites. The main rocks formed are limestone and rock-salt. {In the following section these sedimentary rocks will be examined in greater detail Conglomerate Conglomerate consist of cemented gravel and round pebbles from an old beach or Bist deposit cemented together into rock. The pebbles may be of ancther rock type and may vary in size. Many conglomerates have sand and fine-grained material filling the spaces between the pebbles (Fig. 3.27). Fig. (327 A conglomerate Breccia Sania 0 4 conglomerate but with angular fagments of pebble size, breccin may ‘epresent an gd scree or talus slope or a fault plane. Since the fagments are Hie ‘wom, they have not moved far from their souiee (Fig. 28), Section Fig.8.28 Breccia Sandstone Saegaome is cemented sand. usually composed of rounded quate was cemented by sandtrony ict (white sandstone), hematite (ed sandstone), of limoite (yllon Sauistone)_ Ifthe sand grains are foste, the sandstone may be an old ead feoe Miche sand pains have been cemented together. Smooth grains inde ¢ bean sand origin (Fig.8.29) ais@) &) Frosted sand grin Smcth S0nd gain Fig 329) sted and Smooth sand Grains Arkose This is a fldsparsich sandstone Greywache ‘Thisis adit sandstone containing clay, silt and rok fragments, Gritstone This is a coarse-grained sandstone Sittstone This is fie-grsined sandstone Shale 7 Shale is hardened mud. Mud tums to clay which tums to shale by a process of Sampaction and dewatering. it consists of clay minerals, hydrous aluminium silicates, aca and quara. It may contain ormnic materia. ‘Shale has a laminated yy Structure which makes it weak and friable, It splits reedily along its bedding. Alluvicl cr marine in origi, it is usually black and contains fossil, carbon and iron sulphide, Limeston . Limestone is composed mainly of calcium carbonate. I is formed in the sea or in fresh Faia fer Siganicelly or as chemical precipitate. It often contains fosss and may be ‘eecribed as Algal, Coraline or Reef limestone, Det limestone is commpesed ef kes feils and calcite crystals. Doliic limestone is chemically precipitated in shallow sec Duns or avertine is @ vaiiehy of limestone deposited Lom flesh wale In evens, Dotomiteis a limestone rich in magnesium carbonate, =Evaporites ‘These are composed of salts formed by the evaporation of sea water. The salts are found . laid down as strata in order of solubility withthe least soluble salt, calcium ‘sulphate.® forming the bottom layer. Some deposits are of great economic importanes. For example, a deposit at Stassfurt in Germany is 1,000 metres thick and is the scurce of a local chemical industry. ‘The salts are found ii this order: Rock-salt Nacl most soluble Aniydrite C280, Camallite KCL Kiesertie Mgso, Polyhalite K,S0, Gypsum CaSO, 21,0 least soluble Coal Coal is made up ofthe fossilised remains of plants, formed in many geological periods but ‘most common in the Carboniferous period. Jn waterlogged conditions such as bogs and swamps, decay is slow and linited by lack of oxygen.-Dead tres and other planis decay to form hums and peat. Deep burial under Sediments laid down on top ofthe peat causes consolidation and decomposition, increasing the compaction and carbon content of the peat until it becomes lignite (own coal) Deeper burial with an increase in temperature results ina further increase incarbon content to bituminous col and finally to anthracite, which has a carbon content of 95% Wood Forest tine Peat Decomposed wood, light brown in colour, ightin weight Lignite Brown coal, an important ful Bituminous coal Ordinary black coal banded, had Anraite Hard, bac, shiny, slnst pure carbon Coal is found in thin beds (seams) from a few centimetres to three metres thick in a tyelic sequence of deposition called a eyclothem. Each eyelothem may be 6 - 10 metres thick and consists of shale at the Bottom, followed upwards by layers of fire _clay, seat earth, coal and @ top layer of shale ~ ‘The shale represents a muddy sediment carried by a flood which drowned a forest of tees, The exposed mud weathered to form a soil in which new trees prew, Seat earth 7and fire clay are coal miner’s terms of top soil and subsoil immediately underlying a coal seam, Coalfields contain many such eyetothems, one on top ofthe other, indicat 8 gradual subsidence of the land surface during Carboniferous times (Fig 8.30), | Soci Ia J ere et ) root st | sina Fig. B30 A Cyslorhem‘SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN HONG KONG Sedimentary rocks form less than 10% of the surface rocks of Hong Keng. Their ‘outcrops may be seen in the map below. The largest area of exposed sedimentary rock is im the north-east of the New Territories adjoining Tolo Channel where the overlying, ‘cover of valeanic Fock has been eroded away exposing older rock below. On top of the volcanic rock another series of more recent rock may also be seen The sedimentary rock comprises conglomerates, breccias, sandstones, silstones and _shales. Fossils are rare but afew have been found, enabling geologists to date some of ‘the geological formations. [ED eet rtsMETAMORPHIC ROCK The third group of rocks to be studied is known as metamorphic rock, Metamorphic rocks result from the transformation of existing (or country) rocks by th: application of heat andor pressure ‘The term ‘metemomphism’ comes from the Greek word ‘mete-morphe? which means change of form. Hence, metamorphic rocks show changes in character and appearance from the original rock {tis believed that the original rock remains solid during metamorphism, and that heat, Pressure and permeating solutions reerystalise, shear and replace parts ofthe original rock, completely altering its character. Some rocks are completely altered. so that the original rock can no longer be identified, while others clearly preserve the original rock structure, Iis convenient to divide metamorphism nto thre types: (A) Then of contact metamorphism, produced by beat, @) Suess oF dislocation metamorphism, produced by pressure (©) Regions! metamorphism, produced by heat and pressure THERMAL OR CONTACT METAMORPHISM “The Process Heat is probably the most important agent of metamorphism. The heatng of rock results from the depth at which itis buried below ground surface or from its contact With a hot igneous intrusion (or magma), Recrystallisation of the rock tien occurs, the ‘amount of reerystallisation depending on the temperature the rock has reached and the time it is subjected to this elevated temperature. Large intrusions, such as batholiths, ‘may be sutrowaded by a zone of rock alteration many metres - or even kilometres.” ‘wide, where the original or existing rocks have been baked. Such a zone is called @ ‘metamorphic aureote (see Fig..32). Small intusions, such as dykes and sill, ‘Produce litte thermal metamorphism, as only small areas of the original rock, which fre in immediate contact with the hot intrusion, are affected. Thermal ‘metamorphism is also known as contact metamorphism Pheumatolysis During contact (or thermal) metamorphism, volatile substances in liquid ard gaseous form may escare from the magma and invade the surrounding cousluy tock.” These ‘olatile substances are chemically ctve and may form new minerals in the country +0ck. This process is called pneumatolyas,Distance from betholith tn. Ke Fig.8.32 Thenmal Gradients Produced by leneous Intrusions Intensity of Metamorphisin ZThe intensity of metamorphism is measuted not only by the resulting profuct but by the characteristic minerals which form at certain temperatures and pressures, In other Words, the mineralogy of the metamorphic rock is an approximate guide to the intensity of metamorphism which has occurred. This ean be illustraed by the ‘metamorphic zone surrounding a large igneous intrusion, For example, when shale comes into contact with a granite batolith, it is tansformed into a new rock « hornfels. Further away from the intrusion, a less metamorphosial spotted rock is formed, the spots indicating the growth of new minerals (Fig) 33) Fig. 6.33 Plan and Section of io Zone Batholith of intruded into Shale 3‘Metamorphic Rocks Produced by Contact Metamorphism Existing sedimentary rocks are mast affected by heat, while existing igneous are only slightly affected because they originated fiom molten material. In Hong Kong, the ‘granite bathlith has mainly intruded into existing voleanic rock whien, except for some toughening, has not been altered very much. The effect of contact ‘metamorphism on the principal sedimentary rocks can be summarised as follows “Mtamorphie Rosi Shale is transformed into Homnfele Sandstone is transformed into Quarzte Limestone | is wansformed into Marble | A description ofthese metamorphic rocks follows. Hornfels iis is & hard, homy, unfolisted, vry fine-grained rock which breaks into sharp angular picees containing the metamorphic minerals andaluste, chisstolite a Sordirite. In some homfelses, traces of the original bedding or clesvage can be seen, ‘The mineral composition varies and the grains are too small to be seen without Taaroseope. | Homfels may also result from the metamorphism of slate, shaley mestone, schist tft and leva. Homfels is occasionally found in Hoxg, Kong ia contact with granite Quartzite Marble ‘This i a fine-to-coarse-grained rock composed of calcite crystals, Its often coloured or streaked by impurities, producing an atractively coloured rock used for ernamental and facing work, If the original limestone contained silica this uay have reseted onah the calcite to form the metamorphic mineral wollatonite, CaSiO, Mable fee recently been found underlying alluvium in Yuen Long. v2STRESS OR DISLOCATION METAMORPHISM ‘The Process This type of metamorphism occurs due to differential sess in the earths erst and along faults (breaks in layers of rock caused by movement ofthe earth's cust) where rocks are broken and crushed to become fault breccia (angular rock fragmeats). Stress or dislocation metamorphism occurs upto 10 kilometres below the surface. At greater depths, rocks undergo plastic flow because of the high, confining pressures, The shearing. of rock along a fault plane causes grinding and crushing known as bbreecition or eataclasis, The resting fine-grained rock is known as mylonite (Fig. B38) Flt zane f monte Fig 6.34 Formation of mylonite by stress metamorphism Cleavage Differential stress in the earth's crust produces a structure in rock known as cleavage and is best seen when shales are converted into a metamorphic rock called slate. Clayey sediments in shale are compressed and minute flaky erystals such as chlorite and mica grow with their long axes at right angles to the direction of maximum stress. ‘The rock develops a preferential direction of splitting or cleavage parallel to the flat flakes of erystals in the rock. (Fig 6.35), Cleavage enavles slate to be split ito thin sheets which can be used for roofing, damp-proof courses and facing slabs, i Ati J-cnsinet, Shs \co> Free dieetion at sees 1 saiee Chevage Fig 35 Development of cleavage B‘Metamorphic Rock Produced by Dislocation Metamory State This is a very fine-grained, exceptionally well-foliated rock, composed of quartz and clay minerals. It is usually back, but it can also be gre, purple or grey-green, It cat be split into thin sheets along the cleavage direction. It is very dense. sad impermeable, and may show traces of original bedding and fossils. Some slates wwe formed from metamorphosed tuffs and other fine-grained rocks, Slate is fond Hong Kong inthe Bride’s Poo! region north of Tolo Channel REGIONAL METAMORPHISM ‘The Process Regional metamorphism occurs when rocks are buried more then 10 kilometres below {Rc garth’ susface, usually at the base of geosynlines or atthe boundaries of colliding ‘ectonic plates, when rocks may be driven down into the earth's crust. Keplonal metamorphism develops under the hydrostatic pressure of evelying rocks and the heat of the geothermal gradient. In other words, it occurs as a result of heat and pressure applied over a very long period of time susient depths rocks show a plastic behaviour and flow from regions of high Pressure to regions of low pressure. The rocks deform without fracture under she stress, whercas atthe surface, the same rocks might show brite fracture ‘The Structure and Schistose Features ‘Due to ihe high confining pressure and high temperature, these rocks behave disteently from rocks atthe earth's surface. Deep-lying, plastic rocks fow i the [thas proved possible to mep the grade of metamorphism by establishing «series of Joie of iereasing metamorphism, each of which i characterised by the fomation of ‘a characteristic index mineral, eran rowing table shows the index minerals formed under varying grades of ‘metamorphism in regionally metamorphosed clayey sediments,Index mineral grade ofmetamorgiiam Chlorte Low Bitte amet Moderate Kyanite Silimanite igh Typical rocks formed during the regional metamorphism of clayey sediments can be seen in the following table which relates the rock formed to the temperature and stress daring the metamorphic process. ‘Rock Formed ‘Temperature T ‘Stress, State Low High Schist Moderate Moderate Gneiss High Low ‘Metamorphic Rocks Produced by Regional Metamorphism Schist ‘This is fine-grained, flaky rock, but may contain coarse crystalline minerals. The ‘minerals in schist can usually be seen with a hand lens. Because of the parallel rientation of minerals, schists break easily along foliation planes into flaky fragments {ich crumble between the fingers. Schistocity is the name given to its property of being divided easily. There are several types of schist which are named afer the predominiant mineral present, ¢., mica-schist, clorite-schist and homblende-schist Schist cam be found in Lok Ma Chau in the New Tersitories Gneiss ‘This is a coarse-grained rock with layers, bands or lenses of light and dare minerals, Pale bands of quartz and feldspar lie parallel to dark bands of biotite and komblende ‘The foliation isthe result ofthe rock being partly melted, which allows plastic flow, cisGeiss may be injected into other rocks. When this occurs itis known as an injected into other rocks. When ths occur itis known as an injection gneiss, Augen gneiss is 4 variety contining eye-like masses of light-coloured minerals such a8 quartz and feldspar with the foliation deflected around them. Gneiss does not occur in Hong Kong, but its found across the border in Guangdong. While Cloud Mountain o the north of Guangzhou is made of gneiss. METAMORPHIC ROCKS IN HONG KONG ‘Metamorphic rocks form about 5% of the surface rocks in Hong Kong. The location of their outerops may be seen on the following map. They occur mainly in the northwest part of the New Territories as the Lok Ma Chau formation. This formation is mainly schist. Marble occurs under the alluvial cover at Yuen Long and slate ‘occurs at Bride's Poo! in the Port Island formation Bmore nes Fig 22 36) ic Rocks In. nsTABLE 4.6 —(continued) eases pebbles an oa cobble Aglomerate Conlomente Anguie Sang Atsinty boske gris votae spi sree Beda Sanditone Qumnite — Greywache rho Untor ins uses one” Sirdwth——eldaar sane eckgrains rome micaworms sort | J =] pero wee 28 ML 4ound —wnsany, | aunbean BNITWisauo S¥P0Y 404 auaH>g wom Pe AAV, Scone