6 GROUND WATER FLOW

6.1 Introduction

The flow of water through soil is termed seepage and the soil property that governs seepage is
permeability (or hydraulic conductivity). Seepage is important in soil engineering, for
example:

The permeability of the soil of which an earth or rock-filled dam is constructed controls
the rate of loss of water through dam from the reservoir.

Soil Permeability controls the rate of foundation settlement on some soils.

Soil permeability influences the flow of water into or out of a slope cutting, which, in
turn, controls the strength of the soil at the sides of the cutting.

Soil permeability influences the flow of water out of a barrier, which in turn, controls the
rate of pollution transport.

6.2 Permeable and impermeable soils

Permeable soil: Water can easily flow through a soil in which the void spaces are numerous,
large and well connected. In such case the rate of flow is fast and the soil is said to be
permeable. Gravels and sands are examples of permeable soils.

Impermeable soil: If the flow of water in a soil is almost non-existent because the void
spaces are sparse, minute and not well connected, the soil is said to be impermeable. Clays
are examples of impermeable soils.

6.3 The mechanics of seepage

The void spaces in all soils are connected. The driving power which forces the water to
flow through interconnected voids from one point to another, against the frictional resistance
of the soil grain surfaces is the energy differences between the two points. This energy
difference is usually described equivalently in terms of a difference in energy head of water
or hydraulic head (symbol H). The unit is usually in meter (m)
 Larger energy head

Difference
L in Head = H

Smaller energy head

Figure 6.1 Water through interconnected voids in a soil

For example, in Figure 7.1:

Water flows from point A to point B because the energy (or energy head of water) at A is
greater than B, and it is the head difference (H) between A and B that provides the
driving force.

The energy decreases when going from A to B because energy is used up in overcoming
the frictional resistance of the soil grain surfaces. That is, there is a head loss when the
water flows through the soil from one point to another.

The actual flow path from A to B is through the interconnected voids of the soil, at
varying velocity along the path. In seepage studies, the water is considered to flow
directly from A to B along the effective flow path (such as A-B) at some effective
velocity (average velocity). This velocity is small for soils (the maximum value being
0.6 m/sec) even in very permeable soils.

If the distance between A and B is L and the energy head difference (or head loss)
between A (higher head) and B (lower head) is H, the ratio (H/L) is known as the
hydraulic gradient (i). A large I value means a large driving force to move the water.

The rate of water flow through a soil may be described by Darcy’s Law
6.4 Energy head

In fluid mechanics, it is usual to express energy in terms of an equivalent head of water (or
height of water), the energy generated by a certain column height of water. According to
Bernoulli’s Equation, the total head (ht) of a fluid particle at a point consists of three
components:

u v2
ht = hz + + (1)
γw 2g

where ht = total head

hz = elevation head (measured from the datum and is positive if it is above the
datum)
u
= pressure head (positive if pressure is positive,i.e., larger than
γw
atmospheric pressure)
v2
= velocity head (v = velocity)
2g

For fluid through soil, the fluid velocity is usually too small to be of any significant
contribution to the total energy head and therefore velocity head is neglected, hence:

u
ht = hz + and is usually rewrote as ht = he + h p (2)
γw

where he = hz = elevation head

hp = pressure head

Since both elevation head he and pressure head hp contribute to the total head ht, it is the
difference in total head (which is usually termed hydraulic head H) between the two points
that causes water flow. The concept is illustrated in Figure 7.2.
 H

Figure 6.2 Calculation of total head

Total head at X ht (X) = elevation head at X he(X) + pressure head at X hp(X)

= z 1 + h1

Total head at Y ht (Y) = elevation head at Y he(Y) + pressure head at Y hp(Y)

= z 1 + h1

Total head difference between A and B = ht (X) - ht (Y) = (z1 + h1) + (z2 + h2) = H

Again H is the hydraulic head.

Points to note:

Flow between two points occurs only when there is a difference in total head.

Any elevation can be selected for the datum as a basis for determining the elevation
head; but once chosen it can not be changed. It is only the difference in total head is
of interest..
Example - Calculation of Head

Static water table 2m

1m X

5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum

Figure 6.3 Calculation of head using different datums

Fig 2 Calculation of head using different datum

(Datum at the top of the impermeable layer)

1. Calculation of Head at P
ht(P) = he(P) + hp(P) = 1 + 4 = 5 m

2. Calculation of Head at X
ht(X) = he(X) + hp(X) = 4 + 1 = 5 m

There is a static water table and the total head is constant throughout the saturated zone.

(Datum at the water table)

1. Calculation of Head at P
ht(P) = he(P) + hp(P) = 0 + 0 = 0 m

2. Calculation of Head at X
ht(X) = he(X) + hp(X) = (-1) + 1 = 0 m

When there is a static water table the head is constant throughout the saturated zone, but its
numerical value depends on the choice of datum. It is very important to carefully define the
datum. The use of imaginary standpipes can be helpful in visualising head. The head is then
given by the height of the water in the standpipe above the datum. Note also that it is
differences in head (not pressure) that cause flow
More examples:

In some cases, it is more convenient to first determine the elevation head and the total head
and back calculate the pressure head. The following two examples illustrate the procedures.

Figure 6.4 Downward flow

Figure 6.5 Upward flow

6.5 Darcy’s law

The flow of water through soil was first studied by Darcy in 1850s using a setup similarto
that shown in Figure 7.6. The soil examined was a sandymaterial.

Figure 6.6 Darcy’s experiment setup

Darcy’s experiment results indicated the following relationship:

Q h − h4
q= =k 3 A = k ⋅i ⋅ A (3)
t L

where q = flow rate (volume/time, m3/s)

Q = volume of flow collected in time t (volume, m3)
t = time required to collect Q
k = a constant known as coefficient of permeability (m/s)
h3 = the height above any datum the water rises in a standpipe at the entrance end of
the soil sample (m)
h4 = the height above the same datum the water rises in a standpipe at the exit end of
the soil sample (m)
L = length between the standpipes (m)
A = cross-sectional area of the sample perpendicular to the direction of flow (m2)
(h3 – h4) = total head difference = hydraulic head H (m)
(h3 − h4 )
i= = hydraulic gradient (dimensionless)
L
6.6 Flow velocity

Equation (3) may be rewritten as:

q Q
= = k ⋅i ⋅ (4)
A t⋅A
Referring to Figure 7.6, v is the velocity of downward movement of a drop of water from
position 1 to position 2. Thisvelocity is numerically equal to (k i). Hence k can be
interpreted as the velocity orsuperficial velocity for a hydraulic gradient of unity (i,e., i = 1).

v
So, k = or k = v (for i = 1) (5)
i

From position 3 to position 4 in Figure 7.6, a drop of water flows

at a faster rate than it does from position 1 to position 2 because
the average area of flow channel is reduced (Figure 7.7); but still
continuity must be satisfied, therefore:

q = v A = v s Av
Fig 6.7 Seepage velocity

 A  AL  V  v
∴ v s = v  = v   = v T  = (6)
 Av   Av L   Vv  n

v k ⋅i
or v s = = (7)
n n

where vs = seepage velocity

Av = air void ratio
VT = volume of sample (total volume)
Vv =volume of void
N =porosity

Note that both v and vs are fictitious (imaginary) quantities, but they can both be used to
compute the time required for water to move a given distance in soil.
6.7 Range of coefficient of permeability of soils

Because of the very large differences between grain sizes, density of packing and mixing
possibilities in natural soils, the values of coefficient of permeability for natural soils cover a
wide range. Figure 7.8 shows the range of values together with recommended methods for
the laboratory determination of the coefficient of permeability of particular soils.

Figure 6.8 Coefficient of permeability for various natural soils

6.8 Relationship between void ratio and permeability for coarse-grained soils

Gravels and sands have high values of coefficient of permeability. However, it is often
difficult to obtain samples of these types of sols in the field with disturbing their structure.
Once taken out their structure is changed and thire permeability property changes also.
Because of this reason, samples of these types of soils are usually tested from a loose state to
a dense state which covers the natural values.

The coefficient of permeability of coarse-grained soils are then determined at different void
ratios. (The respective void ratios can be determined by finding the densities and water
contents of the sample when saturated while knowing the specific gravity of the soil solid
grains.)

A graph of void ratio (e) against the corresponding permeability values (k) in log10 scale is
plotted. The resulting plot is a straight line as shown in Figure 7.9. Knowing the in-situ
void ratio (e) the corresponding (k) can be determined.

Figure 6.9 Example of the relationship between void ratio (e) and coefficient of
permeability log10(k) for coarse-grained soil
6.9 Laboratory measurement of coefficient of permeability for coarse-grained soils
(constant-head permeability test)

For coarse-grained soils with high permeability (> 1 x10-3 m/s), water can be allowed to flow
through easily under a constant driving head. The rate of flow can then be measured under
standard conditions (e.g., 1 m of head and 0.1 m test length of sample) in a reasonably short
period of time. In this case, a Constant-head permeaneter (Figure 7.10) is used to
determine the coefficient f permeability.

Q Figure 6.10 Constant-head permeameter

Maintain a constant head of water (hp) at the bottom of the sample by using an
overflow system.

Measure the head loss (H) through the test length (L) of the soil sample using two
H
manometers, M1 and M2, and calculate i =
L

Measure the time (t) required to collect a fixed volume of water (Q) flowing out.

Calculate the area (A) of the soil sample based on the known (measured) dimensions
of the permeability.
Q

Calculate the coefficient of permeability (k) by Darcy’s law: k =
t ⋅i ⋅ A

Repeat the test using various hp. Similar permeability values should be obtained.
6.10 Laboratory measurement of coefficient of permeability for fine-grained soils
(falling-head permeability test)

Sampling: Fine-grained soils (silts and clays) are more easily sampled in the field and
samples are taken with a clay cutter.

Figure 6.11 Sampling with a clay cutter

Push the clay cutter bottom into the ground

Removing the caly cutter from the ground

Trim flat the top and end of the sample

Attach the sample to the variable permeameter setup as shown in Figure 7.12

Figure 6.12 Falling-head permeameter

Test procedures

Open the tap connection to the water supply (Tap 1) while making sure that (Tap 2) is closed.
Leave Tap 1 on until the sample is saturated.
Open Tap 2 on the standpipe and allow the water level in the standpipe to rise almost to the
top of the graduated scale.
Close Tap 1 and allow the water in the standpipe to flow out through the sample under its
own head.
As soon as the water level in the standpipe starts to drop, start a stop watch or clock and
record the level every 10seconds.
Allow the water level in the standpipe o drop to just above Tap 2and then close the tap.

Calculation

From the data recorded, the coefficient of permeability can be determine as follow

a L h a log h − log10 h2
k= ⋅ ⋅ 2.3 log10 1 (8) or k= ⋅ L ⋅ 2.3 10 1 (9)
A t h2 A t 2 − t1

where k =coefficient of permeability

a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A= cross-sectional area of the soil sample
L = length of soil sample
T = time interval during which the head changes from h1 to h2 (This can rewritten
as (t2 – t1).
h1, h2 = level of water in the standpipe at tines t1 & t2
log10 h1 − log10 h2
In equation (9) the unknown is , log10 h1 − log10 h2
t 2 − t1
it is usual to plot a graph of (log10 h) t 2 − t1
Log10 h1
against (t), which is a straight line.
The slope of the straight lie curve is the value of the term
log10 h1 − log10 h2
as follow.
t 2 − t1

Log10 h2
6.11 Coefficient of permeability and fluid (water) temperature

The value of the coefficient of permeability of a soil also depends on the viscosity of the
water flowing through it. The viscosity is in turn a function of temperature. It is usual to
report the coefficient of permeability at any temperature (kT˚C) can be corrected to a
coefficient of permeability at 20˚C by using Figure 7.13 below
Home exercises

(1) Given the following data from a constant-head permeability test, compute the
coefficient of permeability k in m/s at 20˚C.

Volume of water collected from the permeameter = 0.035 m3

Time for collection = 550 seconds
Head difference as shown on the manometers = 2.2m
Length of sample over which head difference was indicated = 0.21 m
Diameter of sample = 0.1 m
Temperature of water = 25˚C

(2) In a falling-head pemeameter test the initial head of 1.5 m dropped to 0.5 m in 2.5
hours. The diameter of the standpipeis6 mm. The soil sample was 210mmlong by 105mm
diameter. Determine the coefficient of the soil.