CON4382 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 1
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS AND
ROAD NETWORK HIERARCHY
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER:

• Concepts of fundamental traffic characteristics: speed, density, and volume

• Basic traffic flow model, design speeds and highway capacity

• Road network hierarchy, classifications and functions

• Standard carriageway cross-section and facilities

Module Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Apply the principles of geometry and motion physics in the design and evaluation
highway alignment schemes with considerations of highway safety and traffic
characteristics such as speed, flow and capacity;

2. Propose pavement structures and perform schematic pavement design appropriate for
different site characteristics and highway functions in accordance to current practice of
the local and worldwide authorities; and

3. Devise the drainage provisions for road gully systems for runoff collection on highway
facilities and the piping scheme for urban stormwater drainage systems in accordance to
current practice of the local authorities.

In compliance with the Copyright Ordinance in Hong Kong, the following material(s) is/are
recommended for this chapter:

 Findley, D. J., Schroeder, B., Cunningham, C., & Brown, T. (2015). Highway
Engineering: Planning, Design, and Operations. Butterworth-Heinemann.

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1.1 Fundamental traffic characteristics

1.1.1 Speed

A time mean, or arithmetic mean, speed is defined as the average speed of all vehicles passing a
point on a highway over some specified time period:

∑ 𝑢𝑖
𝑢𝑡 =
̅̅̅
𝑛

A space mean, or harmonic mean, speed is defined as the average speed of all vehicles
occupying a given section of a highway at a specified time:

𝑛
𝑢𝑠 =
̅̅̅
1
∑
𝑢𝑖

1.1.2 Flow and Volume

Flow is defined as the number of vehicles per unit time passing a point in space, and is usually
expressed in vehicles per hour. Volume is defined as the number of vehicles counted in a
specified time interval.

1.1.3 Density

Density (or concentration) is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of
highway and is generally expressed as vehicles per kilometre or vehicle per kilometer per lane.

𝑞
𝑘=
𝑢𝑠
̅̅̅

where 𝑞 and ̅̅̅

𝑢𝑠 are flow and space mean speed respectively, and 𝑘 is the density.

1.1.4 Headway

The time headway is the time interval between the front bumpers of two consecutive vehicles.

1.1.5 Spacing and Gap

Spacing is the physical distance between the front bumpers of two consecutive vehicles. Gap is a
measure of the time between the rear bumper of the first vehicle and the front bumper of the
second vehicle.

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1.2 Traffic flow

1.2.1 Time-space vehicle trajectories

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1.2.2 Traffic flow model

Models of traffic flow are often classified as either microscopic or macroscopic. Microscopic
models describe the motion of individual vehicles and interactions with one another.
Macroscopic models describe the relationships among, speed, flow and density. Traffic flow
models describe the relationship among traffic states such as speed, flow and density.

There are five boundary conditions that a good traffic stream model should satisfy:-
a) The flow 𝑞 should be zero when the density is zero;
b) The flow 𝑞 should be zero when the traffic is in a jam-packed condition, i.e. 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑗 , the
maximum density, attainable during a traffic jam;
c) The mean speed 𝑢 should be zero in a traffic jam;
d) The mean speed 𝑢 should be the “free speed” 𝑢𝑓 when the concentration 𝑘 is zero; and
e) The addition of a small amount of traffic to an empty system will hardly depress the
mean speed 𝑢 from the hypothetical value 𝑢𝑓 .

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1.2.3 Peak Hourly Flows/Design Flow Ratios P/Df

Comparison of predicted flows to design flows may be useful in analyzing a network. Such
comparisons should however always be related to hourly flows as daily flows can be extremely
misleading due to the variability of peaking characteristics. Table 2.4.2.1 indicates the
implications of various Peak Hourly Flows/Design Flow ratios, (P/Df) for dual carriageways or
single 4-lane carriageways with no frontage access and no standing vehicles. The table is not
applicable to single 2-way 2-lane carriageways, as the operational characteristics of such roads
are often dictated by road junctions, kerb-side activities, pedestrian crossings and opportunities
to overtake.

With regard to existing roads, care should be exercised in interpreting P/Df ratios as many
lengths of existing road are constrained by the capacity of existing junctions, and lack of
stopping restrictions. Whilst from Table 2.4.2.1 a P/Df ratio of 0.7 might infer adequate operating
conditions, the effect of junctions or traffic signals both within and at the end of the road link
may be such that the design flow could never be achieved in practice, and the link might be
severely congested well before a P/Df ratio of 1.0 is reached.

Table 2.4.2.1 Implications of P/Df Ratios

P/Df Ratio General Operational Characteristics
Up to 0.3 Free-flow conditions
Travel speeds at the free-flow speed generally prevail
Ability to manoeuvre within traffic stream almost unimpeded
Minor disruptions are easily absorbed without change in speed.
0.3 - 0.5 Easy flow conditions
Travel speeds close to free-flow speed
Ability to manoeuvre within traffic stream slightly restricted
Minor disruptions are easily absorbed with localised reduction in speed.
0.5 - 0.75 Generally easy flow conditions.
Travel speeds begin to be restricted by traffic conditions.
Ability to manoeuvre within traffic stream is noticeably restricted.
Minor disruptions may cause local congestion with short traffic queues.
0.75 - 1.0 Well used flow conditions.
Travel speeds reduced by increasing traffic volumes.
Ability to manoeuvre within traffic stream is severely restricted.
Minor disruptions may cause local congestion with traffic queues.
1.0 - 1.2 Unstable flow conditions.
Travel speeds substantially reduced and are highly variable & unpredictable.
Little or no room to manoeuvre within traffic stream.
Minor disruptions will cause substantial congestion with long traffic queues.
> 1.2 Forced or breakdown flow conditions.
Crawling travel speed.
Highly unstable traffic operations with widespread congestion and extensively long
traffic queues.

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1.2.4 Design speeds

The speed to which road alignment of the road should be designed is called the design speed.
The functional classification of roads on its own is not sufficient for road design purposes and a
more detailed classification referring to the volume and the speed is also required. The volume of
traffic will govern the width and the number of lanes of the road; and the alignment of the road
will be determined by the design speed.

1.2.5 Highway capacity

Highway capacity is defined as the ability of a road to accommodate traffic volume. The flow
attains a maximum value (i.e. 𝑞𝑚 , the capacity) for an optimal density 𝑘0 , which can be obtained
by differentiating equation 𝑞 = 𝑘𝐹(𝑘).

Figure: A forced condition in a speed-flow relationship.

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1.3 Road network

1.3.1 Road network hierarchy

The aim of defining the road network hierarchy is to develop a pattern of routes. A good
hierarchy should become the foundation of a coherent, consistent and auditable maintenance
strategy. For adopting a coherent network classification, the carriageway classification follows
the road types specified in the Transport Planning and Design Manual, Volume 2 as shown in
the following table.

Category No. Category Name Brief Description

EX Expressway Roads designated as Expressways under the Road
Traffic (Expressway) Regulations.
UT Trunk Road (Urban) Roads connecting the main centers of population. High
capacity roads with no frontage access or development,
pedestrians segregated, widely spaced grade-separated
junctions, and 24 hour stopping restriction.
RT Trunk Road (Rural)
PD Primary Distributor Roads forming the major network of the urban areas.
Roads having high capacity junctions, though may be
at-grade, segregated pedestrian facilities wherever
possible and frontage access limited if not entirely
restricted, and 24 hour stopping restrictions.
DD District Distributor Road linking Districts to the Primary Distributor
Roads. High capacity at-grade junctions, with peak
hour stopping restrictions and parking restrictions
throughout the day.
LD Local Distributor Roads within Districts linking developments to the
District Distributor Roads.
RR Rural Road Roads connecting the smaller centers of population or
popular recreation areas with major road networks.
Frontage access should be limited wherever possible
and junction design whilst not necessarily grade
separated should be of a high capacity standard.
FR Feeder Road Roads connecting villages or more remote settlements
to Rural Roads.
Note: The road types and descriptions are reproduced from the Transport, Planning and Design
Manual, Volume 2 (T.P.D.M. V.2), Chapter 3, 2013.
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1.3.2 Classifications

Rural
 Little frontage development
 Infrequent intersections
 Relatively low traffic volume
 Low pedestrian movement
 Mainly functioned as an
intercity expressway
Urban
 Abundant frontage development
 Frequent intersections very often with traffic control
 Extremely high traffic volume
 High pedestrian movement
 Mainly functioned as an expressway through a city
or as a ring road around a city

Expressway
Roads are designated as Expressways under the Road Traffic (Expressway) Regulations. An
expressway may be formed from a trunk road or a primary distributor road. Details of
Expressway standards are contained in Chapter 6 of T.P.D.M. V.2.

1.3.3 Functions

Item Trunk Primary District Local Rural Rural

Road Distributor Distributor Distributor Roads Feeder

Connecting Main Major urban Districts to Developments Smaller Villages or

centres of road network Primary to District centres of more
population Distributor Roads population remote
Roads to major settlements
road to Rural
networks Roads.

Traffic High High to Medium Medium to High to Medium to

volume medium low medium low

Type & Interchange High High At grade High At grade

spacing of only, @ 1- capacity capacity at intersections, capacity intersections
intersections 2 km apart intersections grade some with at grade
may be at intersections traffic junctions
grade with traffic controls
controls

Restriction:

 Frontage Limited Restricted Direct access Direct

No access Limited
access access access access
Some access
 No 24 hr
24 hr @ Peak restriction Some
24 hr
Stopping hours restriction
24 hr Some
 No Parking 24 hr 24 hr restriction
24 hr
Some
restriction
Pedestrian Yes Yes where No No
segregation possible

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1.4 Standard carriageway

1.4.1 Cross-section

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1.4.2 Facilities

A road with a rural cross-section will cost less to construct but usually require more land. A road
cross-section can have opposing traffic lanes either undivided (single) or divided (dual) road.
The choice of types of cross-section will mainly be determined by the characteristics of the
environment the highway is situated.

Traffic Lanes: A traffic lane is the part of the road that is reserved for vehicular traffic. The
number of lanes will depend on the volume and the type of traffic ranging from one to twelve
lanes or more although two-lane roads are most predominant.

Shoulders: A shoulder is that part of a rural road adjacent to the traffic lane that is primarily
used as a refuge area for parked vehicles. When its surface is constructed of the same pavement
as the traffic lane, it is called a hard shoulder. Where a grass surface is provided, it is called a
verge.

Footway: A footway is the part of an urban road for pedestrian traffic. The width of a footway
will depend on the amount of pedestrians with a minimum width of 1.5m being standard.
Footways are usually separated from the traffic lanes with kerbs.

Kerbs and Channels: Kerbs are normally constructed along the edge of a traffic lane to delineate
the traffic lane from the rest of the element and in case of the existence of a footway, to provide a
barrier between the vehicular and pedestrian traffic. It is usually constructed with a channel for
the drainage of surface runoff.

Central Reserve and Median: A central reserve or a median is essentially an element of a divided
roadway (dual road). Its main function is to separate two streams of opposing traffic to reduce
the risk of conflict. A median is used in urban area and is 1 to 5m wide. It is often delineated by
kerbs on both side and act as a refuge island for pedestrians crossing the road. Other function of
a median is to provide space for lighting, traffic signals, signs, landscaping and planting as well
as to accommodate level differences between pavements. In rural area, a central reserve is used
and is generally 10m or wider with a ditch in the middle for the drainage of the surface runoff.

Figure: An illustration diagram of a two-lane two-way carriageway

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1.5 Annual Traffic Census

The use of automatic traffic counters for the measurement of traffic volume was first initiated in
1961. It was expanded to a full routine traffic census in 1965 and in that year the first report
dealing with traffic flows throughout the territory was issued. With gradual developments in the
subsequent years, a comprehensive system was established in 1971.

In 1983, a comprehensive review of the Annual Traffic Census system commenced, which
comprised a survey on the usage of the Annual Traffic Census report in November 1983, the
conceptual development of a new survey methodology of statistical coverage in May 1985, and
subsequently the execution of a pilot scheme on the new methodology throughout the year of
1986. In 1988, it was decided that the new methodology should replace the old one and be fully
implemented to cover the whole territory starting from the year 1989. The statistical methods
employed in the new methodology enable the computation of error margins for the various
estimates of traffic flows.

Soft copies of the Annual Traffic Census reports are posted on the Transport Department’s
webpage to facilitate use by readers. The annual average daily traffic (A.A.D.T.) estimated by
Growth Factor is employed in the territory showing the changes as compared with that of
previous years. Following the completion of Review of the Annual Traffic Census conducted in
December 1999, a new, user-friendly format of reporting has been introduced. The following
page is an example.

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Stn. Road type Road name From To

No.
6084 EX Fanling Highway Wo Hop Shek INT Kau Lung Hang, Lo Wai

Stn. Road type Road name From To

No.
6100 DD Kwai Tsing Rd Kwai Tsing Rd Tsuen Wan Rd

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Relevant Discussion:

 Retrieve Annual Traffic Census from the Transport Department’s webpage.

 Identify the elements of road cross-sections of station number 6084 and 6100 including
Traffic Lanes / Shoulders / Footway / Kerbs and Channels / Central Reserve (or Median) if
any.

Creation/Revision Record

Version Date Revised by

1.0 28 August, 2017 Benson K.H. HUNG
1.1 2 August, 2018 Benson K.H. HUNG
1.2 11 January, 2019 Benson K.H. HUNG

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