Module 7 – PERMEABILITY OF SOILS

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the module, the students are expected to calculate the
following flow parameters
(a) hydraulic gradient,
(b) flow rate,
(c) average velocity,
(d) seepage velocity, and
(e) hydraulic conductivity.

Introduction
Any given mass of soil consists of solid particles of various sizes with interconnected
void spaces. The continuous void spaces in a soil permit water to flow from a point of high
energy to a point of low energy. Permeability is defined as the property of a soil that allows the
seepage of fluids through its interconnected void spaces. This module is devoted to the study of
the basic parameters involved in the flow of water through soils.

Darcy’s law
Darcy (1856) published a simple relation between the discharge velocity and the hydraulic
gradient:

v = ki

where
v = discharge velocity
i = hydraulic gradient
k = coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity

According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the total head for

flow at any section in the soil can be given by
Total head = elevation head + pressure head + velocity
head
The velocity head for flow through soil is very small
and can be neglected. The total heads at sections A
and B can thus be given by

Total head at A = zA + hA
Total head at B = zB +hB

where zA and zB are the elevation heads and hA and hB

are the pressure heads. The loss of head h between
sections A and B is

h = (zA +hA) − (zB +hB)

The hydraulic gradient i can be written as

where L is the distance between sections A and B.

Hence the rate of seepage q can be given by

Note that A is the cross-section of the soil perpendicular to the direction of flow.

The coefficient of permeability k has the units of velocity, such as cm/s or mm/s, and is a
measure of the resistance of the soil to flow of water.

It must be pointed out that the velocity, v is the discharge velocity calculated on the basis of the
gross cross-sectional area. Since water can flow only through the interconnected pore spaces,
the actual velocity of seepage through soil, vs, can be given by

where n is the porosity of the soil.

Example
A soil sample 10 cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1 m long. A constant supply of water is
allowed to flow into one end of the soil at A, and the outflow at B is collected by a beaker.The
average amount of water collected is 1 cm3 for every 10 seconds. The tube is inclined as shown
in figure. Determine the (a) hydraulic gradient, (b) flow rate, (c) average velocity, (d) seepage
velocity if e = 0.6, and (e) hydraulic conductivity.
Step 1: Define the datum position. Select the top of the table as the datum.
Step 2: Find the total heads at A (inflow) and B (outflow).

Step 3: Find the hydraulic gradient.

If you were to select the outflow, point B, as the datum, then HA= 1 m + 0.2 m = 1.2 m and
HB = 0. The head loss is H = 1.2 m, which is the same value obtained using the table’s top as
the datum. It is often simpler, for calculation purposes, to select the exit flow position as the
datum.

Step 4: Determine the flow rate.

Volume of water collected, Q = 1 cm3, t = 10 seconds

Step 5: Determine the average velocity.

Step 6: Determine seepage velocity.

Step 7: Determine the hydraulic conductivity. From Darcy’s law, v= kzi.

Determination of coefficient of permeability in the laboratory

The two most common laboratory methods for determining the coefficient of permeability of
soils are the following:
1. constant-head test
2. falling-head test

Constant-head test
The constant-head test is suitable for more permeable granular materials. The basic laboratory
test arrangement is shown in the figure.

The soil specimen is placed inside a cylindrical mold, and the constant-head loss h of water
flowing through the soil is maintained by adjusting the supply. The outflow water is collected in
a measuring cylinder, and the duration of the collection period is noted. From Darcy’s law, the
total quantity of flow Q in time t can be given by
where A is the area of cross-section of the specimen. However, i = h/L, where L is the length of
the specimen, and so Q = k(h/L)At. Rearranging gives

Once all the quantities on the right-hand side of equation have been determined from the test,
the coefficient of permeability of the soil can be calculated.

Example
A constant-head permeability test gives these values:
• L = 30 cm
• A = area of the specimen = 177 cm2
• Constant-head difference, h =50 cm
• Water collected in a period of 5 min = 350 cm3
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec.

Given Q = 350 cm3, L= 30 cm, A = 177 cm2, h = 50 cm, and t = 5 min, we have

Falling-head test
The falling-head permeability test is more suitable for fine-grained soils. Figure below shows
the general laboratory arrangement for the test.
The soil specimen is placed inside a tube, and a standpipe is attached to the top of the
specimen. Water from the standpipe flows through the specimen. The initial head difference h1
at time t = 0 is recorded, and water is allowed to flow through the soil such that the final head
difference at time t = t is h2. The rate of flow through the soil is

where
h = head difference at any time t
A = area of specimen
a = area of standpipe
L = length of specimen

The values of a, L, A, t, h1, and h2 can be determined from the test, and the coefficient of the
permeability k for a soil can then be calculated.

Example
For a falling-head permeability test, the following values are given:
• Length of specimen = 8 in.
• Area of soil specimen = 1.6 in.2
• Area of standpipe = 0.06 in.2
• Head difference at time t = 0 = 20 in.
• Head difference at time t = 180 sec = 12 in.
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in in./sec.

We are given a = 0.06 in.2, L = 8 in., A = 1.6 in.2, t = 180 sec, h1 = 20 in., and h2 = 300 mm,
Effective coefficient of permeability for stratified soils
In general, natural soil deposits are stratified. If the stratification is continuous, the effective
coefficients of permeability for flow in the horizontal and vertical directions can be readily
calculated.

Flow in the horizontal direction

Figure below shows several layers of soil with horizontal stratification.

The coefficient of permeability of each soil layer may vary depending on the direction of flow.
So, let us assume that kH1, kH2, kH3,…, are the coefficients of permeability of layers 1, 2, 3, … ,
respectively, for flow in the horizontal direction. Similarly, let kV1, kV2, kV3… , be the coefficients
of permeability for flow in the vertical direction. Considering the unit length of the soil layers as
shown in figure, the rate of seepage in the horizontal direction can be given by

where q is the flow rate through the stratified soil layers combined and q1, q2, q3,…, is the rate
of flow through soil layers 1, 2, 3, … , respectively. Note that for flow in the horizontal direction
(which is the direction of stratification of the soil layers), the hydraulic gradient is the same for
all layers. So,

q1 = kH1iH1 q2 = kH2iH2 q3 = kH3iH3 …. q = kH(eq)iH

where
i = hydraulic gradient
kH(eq)= effective coefficient of permeability for flow in horizontal direction
H1, H2, H3 = thicknesses of layers 1, 2, 3, respectively
H = H1 +H2 + H3 +…
kH(eq)iH = kH1iH1 + kH2iH2 + kH3iH3 ….
Flow in the vertical direction
For flow in the vertical direction for the soil layers shown in figure

v = v1 = v2 = v3 = … = vn

where v1 , v2 , v3, … , are the discharge velocities in layers 1, 2, 3, … , respectively; or

v = kV(eq)i = kV1 i1 = kV2 i2 = kV3 i3= …

where
kV(eq) = effective coefficient of permeability for flow in the vertical direction
k V1, kV2, kV3, … = coefficients of permeability of layers 1, 2, 3, … , respectively, for flow in the
vertical direction
i1, i2, i3,… = hydraulic gradient in soil layers 1, 2, 3, …, respectively

For flow at right angles to the direction of stratification,

Total head loss = (head loss in layer 1) + (head loss in layer 2) + · · · or

iH = i1H1 + i2H2 + i3H3 + · · ·

Example
A layered soil is shown in Figure 7.19. Given:
• H1 = 2 m k1 = 10-4 cm/sec
• H2 = 3 m k2 = 3.2 x 10-2 cm/sec
• H3 = 4 m k3 = 4.1 x 10-5 cm/sec
Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic conductivity,
Factors affecting the coefficient of permeability
The coefficient of permeability depends on several factors, most of which are listed below.
1. Shape and size of the soil particles.
2. Void ratio. Permeability increases with increase in void ratio.
3. Degree of saturation. Permeability increases with increase in degree of saturation.
4. Composition of soil particles. For sands and silts this is not important; however, for soils with
clay minerals this is one of the most important factors. Permeability depends on the thickness
of water held to the soil particles, which is a function of the cation exchange capacity, valence
of the cations, and so forth. Other factors remaining the same, the coefficient of permeability
decreases with increasing thickness of the diffuse double layer.
5. Soil structure. Fine-grained soils with a flocculated structure have
a higher coefficient of permeability than those with a dispersed structure.
6. Viscosity of the permeant.
7. Density and concentration of the permeant.

References:

Budhu, M. (2011). Soil Mechanics and Foundations. Third edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Das,B.M. and Sobhan,K. (2014). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Eight edition. Cengage
Learning

Das,B.M. (2008). Advanced Soil Mechanics. Third edition. Taylor & Francis , New York, USA