University of the Cordilleras

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
1st Trimester, 2021 - 2022

Highway and Railroad Engineering

EARTHWORKS
Earthwork operations
for highway improvements
includes scientific methods
and procedures that involve
the soil or the earth on its
natural form that precedes
the construction of the
pavement itself.

One of the major

objectives in selecting a
particular location for a
highway is to minimize the
amount of earthwork required
for the project.

Earthworks operations involves:

1. Staking works (Clearing grubbing and scalping operations conducted by construction survey
party)
2. Excavation – The process of removing soil also termed as “CUT”
3. Grading – fixing of earth surface
4. Embankment works (Fill/Backfill) – process of adding/backfilling of soil also termed as “FILL”
5. Compaction - Increasing density
6. Disposal

Four classes of Excavation as Defined by AASHTO:

1. Rock Excavation-Materials that cannot be excavated without blasting or the use of

rippers and all boulders of other detached stones each having a volume of 2 cu yd or
more.

2. Common Excavation – Excavation of materials of whatever character encountered in

the work.

3. Unsuitable - Excavation The removal and disposal of deposits of unsaturated or

saturated mixes of soil and organic matter not suitable for embankment.
4. Borrow Excavation – Excavation of approved material required for embankment construction.
1
Sources: Traffic & Highway Engineering by Garber& Hoel
google.com
Other types of Excavation:

* Unclassified Excavation
The type of excavation classification used by most agencies which includes excavation
containing materials such as garbage, solid waste, and other types of materials.

* Roadway and Drainage Excavation

Excavating and grading of the roadway ditches, including the removal and disposal of all
excavated materials and all works needed for the construction and completion of the cuts,
embankment slopes, ditches, approaches, intersection, and similar portions of the work.

*Excavation for Structures

Excavating of materials in order to permit the construction of pipe culverts, concrete box
culverts, foundation for bridges, retaining walls, and practically all other structures that may be
required in a particular job.

Embankment
Are included in portions where the grade line of the roadway be raised to some distance
above the level of the existing ground surface to maintain design standards or prevent damage to
the highway through action of surface or ground water.

Factors affecting embankment includes height, stability of slopes, stability of foundations, and
selection of embankment materials.

* Fill also means backfilling or embanking

or placing embankment

Cut means removing of soil or excavating of

soil

Last figure is a combination of both, the

road cross section shown with fill on the left
side and cut on the right on earth’s surface.

2
Sources: Traffic & Highway Engineering by Garber& Hoel
google.com
Embankment Factors
1. Height – The elevation of the top of the sub grade should be at least 0.60m above the water table

2. Slopes – A minimum of 12m in width for two lane highways, but may depart from standards
depending on rights of way restrictions and unstable soil conditions.

* Recommended: 2:1 slope (2 horizontal and 1 vertical)

Type of Earth Volumes

1. Bank volume - Volume of material as it lies in the natural state
2. Loose volume - Volume of material after it has been disturbed by a loading and excavating
process
3. Compacted volume - Volume of material in the compacted state, also referred to as a net in-
place volume.

TYPES of CUT and FILL SECTIONS:

1. Level Section: The ground is level in a direction transverse to the centerline

2. Three-Level Section: Rod
readings are taken at each
slope stake in addition to the
reading taken at the center, as is
normally done where the ground
is sloping
3. Five-Level Section: Rod readings
are taken at the center stake,
slope stakes and at points on
each side of the center at a
distance half the width or
roadbed
4. Irregular Section: Observations
are taken to points at irregular intervals

3
Sources: Traffic & Highway Engineering by Garber& Hoel
google.com
Methods of Calculating Earthwork Quantities:

1. Volume by End-Area Method

Where:
= A = Area at the start of the station
considered
2. Volume by Prismoidal Correction
A = Area at the end of the station
= ( )( + + ) considered

3. Prismoidal Correction A = Area at the middle of the station length

C = Centerline height of A
= ( )( − )( − )
C = Centerline height of A

*relationship of the three formulas:

= −

4
Sources: Traffic & Highway Engineering by Garber& Hoel
google.com
Example01: At station 4+020, the width of a rectangular canal is 4.20 m and the depth is 1.80 m. At the other
station 4 + 080 the dimensions are 4.80 m wide by 2.10 m deep.
(a)Determine the volume of excavation between the two stations by end area method.
(b) Volume by prismodal Formula

Station = 4 + 080
A2 = rectangle = (4.80m)(2.10m)
A2 = 10.08 m2

*for the length, L

L = (4+080) – (4+020) =60m

Station = 4 + 020
A1 = rectangle = (4.20m)(1.80m)
A1 = 7.56 m2

(a) Volume by end area method

V = L
7.56 m + 10.08m
V = (60m)
2
Ve = 529.20 m3 (answer)

5
Sources: Traffic & Highway Engineering by Garber& Hoel
google.com
(b) Volume by prismoidal formula
A1 = 7.56 m2
A2 = 10.08 m2
Am = ?
L =60m

*in determining the area of the middle, just get the average of the dimensions (since it is at midpoint/middle)

Am = (4.50m)(1.95m) = 8.775m2
L
V = ( )(A + 4A + A )
6
60m
V = [7.56m + (4 x 8.775m ) + 10.08m ]
6
Vp = 572.40 m3 (answer)

6
Sources: Traffic & Highway Engineering by Garber& Hoel
google.com