1

“IMAGINATION IS
MORE IMPORTANT
THAN KNOWLEDGE”.
(Albert Einstein)
2
“Simple can be harder than
complex: You have to work
hard to get your thinking
clean to make it simple.”
- Steve Jobs
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CONTENTS:
 Angle Modulation
o Definition
o Pros and Cons
o Uses

 Instantaneous Frequency
 Phase Deviation & Frequency Deviation
Constants
 How to Sketch FM and PM Waves
4
FM & PM – Definition :
 In FM systems, the frequency of the
carrier fc is changed by the message signal.
 In PM systems, the phase of the carrier is
changed according to the variations in the
message signal.
 Both FM and PM are nonlinear, and often they
are jointly called Angle-modulation OR
Exponential Modulation methods. 5
EM – Disadvantages :
 Angle modulation, due to its inherent
nonlinearity, is more complex to implement and
much more difficult to analyze.
 FM and PM systems generally expand the
bandwidth such that the effective
bandwidth of the modulated signal is usually
many times the bandwidth of the message
signal.
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EM – Advantages :
 The major benefit of EM systems is their
high degree of noise immunity.
o FM is mor resistant to additive noise than AM.
 Another advantage of angle-modulated
signals is their constant envelope, which
is beneficial when the signal is amplified
by nonlinear amplifiers.
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FM – Uses :
In addition to commercial radio,
it is used as a component of
television signals, for satellite and
microwave communications, and
for digital data transmission.
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INSTANTANEOUS
FREQUENCY
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Concept of Instantaneous Frequency [4]:
 While AM signals carry a message with their varying
amplitude, FM signals can vary the instantaneous
frequency in proportion to the modulating signal m(t) .
 This means that the carrier frequency is changing
continuously every instant.
 At firs sight, this does not make much
sense, since to define a frequency, we must
have a sinusoidal signal at least over one
cycle (or a half-cycle or a quarter-cycle)
with the same frequency.
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Concept of Instantaneous Frequency [4]:
 Consider a generalized sinusoidal signal :
𝜑 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos[𝜃 𝑡 ]
where 𝜃(𝑡) is the generalized angle and is a
function of 𝑡.
 The generalized angle of a conventional
sinusoid 𝐴 cos[𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃0 ] is 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝜽𝟎 viz a
straight line with slope 𝝎𝒄 and y-intercept
𝜽𝟎 . 11
Concept of Instantaneous Frequency [4]:

o Conventional sinusoid
means a constant
frequency sinusoid.
o The angular frequency of
conventional sinusoid
𝐴 cos[𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃0 ] is 𝜔𝑐 viz
a CONSTANT.
o A. Freq = d/dt of G. Angle.

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Concept of Instantaneous Frequency [4]:
 Now consider a hypothetical case of 𝜃(𝑡) viz a
squiggly (wavy) line. A hypothetical case
generalized angle of 𝜃(𝑡) happens to be tangential
to the angle 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝜽𝟎 at some instant 𝒕.
 The crucial point is that, around 𝑡, over a small
interval ∆𝑡 → 0 , the signal 𝐴 cos[𝜃 𝑡 ] and
𝐴 cos[𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃0 ] are identical; i.e.,
𝜑 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos[𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃0 ] 𝑡1 < 𝑡 < 𝑡2
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Concept of Instantaneous Frequency [4]:
o We are certainly justified in saying that over this small
interval ∆𝑡, the angular frequency of 𝝋 𝒕 is 𝝎𝒄 . Because
(𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝜽𝟎 ) is tangential to 𝜽(𝒕) , the angular frequency of
𝝋 𝒕 is the slope of its angle 𝜽(𝒕) over this small interval.
oWe can generalize this concept at every
instant and define that the
instantaneous frequency 𝝎𝒊 at any
instant 𝒕 is the slope of 𝜽(𝒕) at 𝒕. 14
Concept of Instantaneous Frequency [4]:

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Instantaneous Frequency [1]:

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Instantaneous Frequency for a Generic 𝒎(𝒕) [1]:

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Phase Deviation & Frequency deviation [5]:

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Phase Deviation & Frequency deviation [5]:

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 ANGLE
MODULATION
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Definition of PM and FM [1]:

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Phase Deviation Constant and
Frequency Deviation Constant [1]:

𝒌𝒑 and 𝒌𝒇 are called phase deviation

constant and frequency deviation constant,
respectively.

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 𝐝𝝓
Phase Deviation 𝝓(𝒕) & Frequency deviation in FM and PM Systems [1]:
𝒅𝒕

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Relation Between PM and FM [1]:

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Definition of PM and FM [1]:
Phase modulated (PM) carrier is:
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝋 𝒕 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝒌𝒑 𝒎 𝒕

Frequency modulated (FM) carrier is:

𝒕

𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝋 𝒕 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 න 𝒎 𝝉 𝒅𝝉

−∞

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Instantaneous Frequency in FM and PM :
PM wave: 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡
𝑡
FM wave: 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏

𝟏 𝒅 𝒌𝒑
PM wave: 𝒇𝒊 = 𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝒇𝒄 + ሶ
𝒎(𝒕)
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒕 𝟐𝝅
𝟏 𝒅
FM wave: 𝒇𝒊 = 𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎(𝒕)
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒕
Thus, in FM, 𝒇𝒊 varies linearly with the modulating
signal, and in PM, 𝒇𝒊 varies linearly with the
derivative of modulating signal. 26
Angle Modulation – Summary :
PM wave: 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡
𝑡
FM wave: 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝟏 𝒅 𝒌𝒑
Inst. Freq. for PM wave: 𝒇𝒊 = 𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝒇𝒄 + ሶ
𝒎(𝒕)
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒕 𝟐𝝅
𝟏 𝒅
Inst. Freq. for FM wave: 𝒇𝒊 = 𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎(𝒕)
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒕

TV Phase of PM wave: 𝝓(𝒕) = 𝒌𝒑 𝒎(𝒕)

𝒕
TV phase of FM wave: 𝝓(𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝒎 𝝉 𝒅𝝉
TV = Time-varying.
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Example of PM and FM [1]:

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Demodulation of PM and FM [1]:
 The demodulation of an FM signal involves finding
the instantaneous frequency of the modulated
signal and then subtracting the carrier frequency from
it.
 In the demodulation of PM, the demodulation process
is done by finding the phase of the signal and then
recovering m(t).

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Maximum Phase Deviation and
Maximum Frequency Deviation [1]:

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Modulation Indices of PM and FM Systems [1]:

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Example 4.1.1 [1]:

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Example 4.1.1 [1]:

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Example 4.1.1 [1]:

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HOW TO SKETCH
FM & PM WAVES
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36
Ex. 5.1 [4] :
Sketch FM and PM waves for the modulating signal 𝑚(𝑡)
shown below.
Consider 𝑓𝑐 = 100 𝑀𝐻𝑧, 𝑘𝑓 = 105 , and 𝑘𝑝 = 10𝜋.

37
Ex. 5.1 [4] :

FM wave:
𝒇𝒊 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎 𝒕 = 108 + 105 𝑚(𝑡)

(𝒇𝒊 )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 [𝑚 𝑡 ]𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 108 + 105 (−1) = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝐌𝐇𝐳

(𝒇𝒊 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 [𝑚 𝑡 ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 108 + 105 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝐌𝐇𝐳

38
Ex. 5.1 [4] :
FM wave:
(𝒇𝒊 )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 [𝑚 𝑡 ]𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 108 + 105 (−1) = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝐌𝐇𝐳
(𝒇𝒊 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 [𝑚 𝑡 ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 108 + 105 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝐌𝐇𝐳

o Because m(t) increases and decreases linearly

with time, the instantaneous frequency
increases linearly from 99.9 to 100.1 MHz over
a half-cycle and decreases linearly from 100.1
to 99.9 MHz over the remaining half-cycle of
the modulating signal.
39
Ex. 5.1 [4] :

40
Ex. 5.1 [4] :

ሶ
FM for 𝒎(𝒕) ≡ PM fro 𝒎(𝒕).

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Ex. 5.1 [4] :
PM wave:
𝒌𝒑 𝒅
𝒇𝒊 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒎(𝒕) = 108 + 5𝑚(𝑡)
ሶ
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒕

(𝒇𝒊 )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 108 + 5[𝑚(𝑡)]

ሶ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 10 8
+ 5 (−20000) = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝐌𝐇𝐳

(𝒇𝒊 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 108 + 5[𝑚(𝑡)]

ሶ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10 8
+ 5 (20000) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝐌𝐇𝐳

42
Ex. 5.1 [4] :
𝒌𝒑 𝒅
PM wave: 𝒇𝒊 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒎(𝒕) = 108 + 5𝑚(𝑡)ሶ
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒕
(𝒇𝒊 )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 108 + 5[𝑚(𝑡)]
ሶ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 108 + 5 (−20000) = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝐌𝐇𝐳

(𝒇𝒊 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 108 + 5[𝑚(𝑡)]

ሶ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10 8 + 5 (20000) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝐌𝐇𝐳

o Because 𝒎(𝒕)ሶ switches back and forth

from a value of -20,000 to 20,000, the
carrier frequency switches back and
forth from 99.9 MHz to 100.1 MHz every
ሶ
half-cycle of 𝒎(𝒕).
43
Ex. 5.1 [4] :

44
Ex. 5.1 [4] :
 This indirect method of sketching PM [using 𝒎(𝒕)ሶ to
frequency-modulate a carrier] works as long as 𝑚(𝑡) is a
continuous signal.
 If 𝒎(𝒕) is discontinuous, it means that the PM signal has
sudden phase changes and, hence, 𝒎(𝒕) ሶ contains
impulses.
 This indirect method fails at points o the discontinuity.
 In such a case, a direct approach should be used at the
point of discontinuity to specify the sudden phase changes.
 This is demonstrated in the next example. 45
Ex. 5.2 [4] :
Sketch FM and PM waves for the digital modulating
signal 𝑚(𝑡) shown below.
5 𝜋
Consider 𝑓𝑐 = 100 𝑀𝐻𝑧, 𝑘𝑓 = 10 , and 𝑘𝑝 = .
2

46
Ex. 5.2 [4] :
FM wave:
8 5
𝒇𝒊 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎 𝒕 = 10 + 10 𝑚(𝑡)
(𝒇𝒊 )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 [𝑚 𝑡 ]𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 108 + 105 (−1) = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝐌𝐇𝐳
(𝒇𝒊 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 [𝑚 𝑡 ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 108 + 105 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝐌𝐇𝐳

o Because 𝒎(𝒕) switches from +1 to -1

and vice versa, the FM wave frequency
switches back and forth between 99.9
MHz and 100.1 MHz. 47
Ex. 5.2 [4] :
This scheme of
carrier frequency
modulation by a
digital signal is
called frequency
shift keying (FSK)
because
information digits
are transmitted by
keying different
frequencies
48
Ex. 5.2 [4] :

ሶ
FM for 𝒎(𝒕) ≡ PM fro 𝒎(𝒕).

49
Ex. 5.2 [4] :
𝒌𝒑 𝒅 𝟖 𝟏
PM wave: 𝒇𝒊 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒎(𝒕) = 𝟏𝟎 + ሶ
𝒎(𝒕)
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒕 𝟒
o In this case, the derivative 𝒎(𝒕)
ሶ is zero except at points of
discontinuity of m(t) where impulses of strength ±2 are
present.
o This means that the frequency of the PM signal stays the
same except at these isolated points of time !
o It is not immediately apparent how an instantaneous
frequency can be changed by an infinite amount and then
changed back to the original frequency in zero time.
o Let us consider the DIRECT APPROACH: 50
Ex. 5.2 [4] :
DIRECT APPROACH:
Phase modulated (PM) carrier is:
𝒖 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑 𝒎 𝒕
𝝅
= 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎 𝒕
𝟐
+𝑨𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 when 𝒎 𝒕 = −𝟏
=ቊ
−𝑨𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 when 𝒎 𝒕 = +𝟏

This scheme of carrier PM by a digital signal is called phase shift keying (PSK)
because information digits are transmitted by shifting the carrier phase.
51
Ex. 5.2 [4] :
This scheme of carrier PM by
a digital signal is called
phase shift keying (PSK)
because information digits
are transmitted by shifting
the carrier phase.

52
Ex. 5.2 [4] :

53
REFERENCES :
[1] FCS 2nd Ed. [Proakis-2014]

[2] WCE [Sobot-2012]

[3] Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 6th Ed. [Alexander-2017]

[4] MDnACS (4th Ed.) [Lathi-2009]

[5] PoC (7th Ed.) [Ziemer-2015]

[6] [Hsu-2003] 54