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Box 114
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The Netherlands dekalb@hendrix-genetics.com

dekalb-poultry.com DEKALB WHITE

PRODUCT GUIDE
CAGE PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Achieving the full genetic potential of the Dekalb White
Backed by a strong portfolio of leading brands, Hendrix
Genetics provides expertise and resources to producers
globally, with operations and joint ventures in 24 countries.

Better Breeding Today – Brighter Life Tomorrow

 The DEKALB Story
Dekalb and The American Dream
The Dekalb story is a classic example of American pioneering
and entrepreneurial thinking. Success in developing and
commercializing hybrid seed corn in the 1930’s and early
1940’s prompted Dekalb Agricultural Association to explore
whether hybridization could be applied to poultry. President
Tom Roberts Sr. and Ray C. Nelson, v.p. of the newly-formed
poultry division, set out to develop hens with superior egg-
laying performance for the nation’s farmers and layer
producers.
Dr. E. E. Schnetzler of Purdue was hired in 1945 as Dekalb’s
director of poultry research. A research farm was established
and in the 1950’s and research concentrated on further
improving the efficient white egg layers.
By purchasing the J.J. Warren company in 1971 Dekalb
gained access to an excellent brown egg layer that was color
sexable. As a result, by the 1980’s Dekalb white and brown
layers were being distributed in over 25 countries and the
poultry operation was named Dekalb Poultry Research, Inc.
(DPRI). Today, as part of Hendrix Genetics, Dekalb layers
continue to be a dominant force in the major layer markets
of the U.S., Europe and Japan.
2 PRODUCT GUIDE
The DEKALB
White Today
Combining excellent livability, extended production
cycles, superb persistency and an excellent feed
conversion ratio, the Dekalb White consistently produces
high numbers of first quality eggs, per hen housed.
Docile behavior and excellent livability allows the Dekalb
White to adapt easily to a variety of environments and
housing systems. Dekalb White eggs are strong shelled
with excellent internal quality, making them suitable for
both table eggs and egg processing markets.
• Highly productive and excellent
feed conversion
• Outstanding livability and good behavior
• Successful in every housing system
• Great persistency
• Superb shell quality
dekalb-poultry.com 3
 CONTENTS
THE DEKALB STORY 2
THE DEKALB WHITE TODAY 3
PRODUCTION SUMMARY 7
REARING TABLE 8
REARING GRAPH 9
PRODUCTION TABLE 1 10
PRODUCTION TABLE 2 12
PRODUCTION GRAPHS 14
REARING PERIOD 16
GOOD BROODING CONDITIONS ARE VITAL TO
GIVE THE CHICKS THE BEST POSSIBLE START 16
Standards of temperature and humidity 17
Lighting program to encourage feed
intake and growth 19
FROM 4 TO 16 WEEKS - BUILDING THE
POTENTIAL OF THE FUTURE LAYER 20
Housing and equipment 20
A GOOD FOLLOW UP WITH A WEEKLY
CHECK OF THE DEVELOPMENT 21
Targets in rearing 21
Targets in production 21
BEAK TREATMENT: A DELICATE OPERATION 21
Age of beak treatment 22
During beak treatment: Attention points 22
After beak treatment: Attention points 22
GENERAL PRINCIPALS OF THE LIGHTING
PROGRAMS IN REARING PERIOD 23
Lighting program and growth 23
Control of sexual maturity 23
Light stimulation 24
Light intensity in rearing 24
PRODUCTION PERIOD 26
Age of transfer 26
Points of attention at loading and transport 26
Lighting as a tool for encouraging a rapid
adaptation to a new environment 27
4 PRODUCT GUIDE
Encouraging water consumption 27
Feeding for physiological needs 28
Encouraging feed consumption 28
Monitoring environmental and
production parameters 29
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LIGHTING PROGRAMS
DURING THE PRODUCTION PERIOD 29
Light intensity in production 29
How to improve shell quality 30
ADJUSTING EGG WEIGHT TO MEET
MARKET REQUIREMENTS 30
WATER: THE MOST CRITICAL NUTRIENT 31
Water quality 31
Monitoring water quality 31
Water consumption 32
PULLET AND HEN HEALTH 33
Biosecurity 33
Welfare and poultry husbandry 33
Disease prevention by immunization 34
Types of vaccines 34
Vaccination methods 35
Ocular (eye drop), beak dipping
and intranasal vaccination 35
Subcutaneous and intramuscular injection 36
Transcutaneous injection (wing web) 36
Vent brush vaccination 37
In ovo injection 37
Drinking water (oral) vaccination 37
Vaccination through a medicator 38
Water vaccination 38
Spray vaccination 40
Parasite control 42
Vaccination against coccidiosis 43
Histomoniasis and round worms 43
Mites 44
Controlling groups of disease by vaccination 44
Respiratory diseases 44
Pertitonitis in layers 45
Diseases of the digestive system 45
Diseases affecting the nervous system 45
Diseases affecting the urinary and reproductive tract 45
Diseases affecting the immune system 46
Disease agents of concern for food safety 46
CONVERSION TABLE 47
Warranty disclaimer 47
dekalb-poultry.com 5
 INTRODUCTION PRODUCTION
Many years of investment in genetic research and development
have resulted in layers with excellent performance traits such as
SUMMARY
livability, production and egg quality.
(18-90
These highly favourable genetic characteristics can only be fully Laying Period
Weeks)
realized when layers are supported with good management
practices, which include, but are not limited to, good quality feed, Livability 95 %
housing and constant attention to the birds behaviour and welfare.
Age at 50% production 141 days
The purpose of this product guide is to help producers to gain the Peak of production 96 %
best possible results from their investment. This will be achieved
by providing conditions in which the layers can thrive. The Average egg weight 62.5 g
information supplied in this publication is based on the analysis of
Eggs hen housed 427
extensive research and field results, produced over time and with
many years of experience. Egg mass hen housed 26.7 kg

We do recognize that many egg producers have developed their Average feed intake 109 g/day
own management programs, as a result of their experience with Cum. feed conversion rate 2.02 kg/kg
specific housing types, climate, feed, market conditions. Therefore
do not hesitate to use your own experience in conjunction with the Body weight 1725 g
guidelines in this guide. And of course, do not hesitate to consult
Shell strength 4200 g/cm²
our distributors who will be happy to help in any way they can.
Haugh units 83
We are constantly seeking to develop our breeding program and
welcome feedback from the field. Please send your technical results
to isa.technicalfieldresults@hendrix-genetics.com. Excel files are
available on request to help you to follow the flock’s performance
and record information.

6 PRODUCT GUIDE dekalb-poultry.com 7

 DEKALB WHITE DEKALB WHITE
REARING TABLE REARING TABLE
Weeks Age Feed intake per Feed intake per Body weight (g) Feed consumption in g
(days) bird per day (g) bird cum. (g)

110

100

90

80

70

60
50

40

30

20

10
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

0
18
1 0-7 6 8 41 55 65 69

17
2 8-14 13 15 129 157 125 132

16
3 15.21 19 21 261 303 194 204

4 22-28 25 27 434 490 266 280

15
5 29-35 30 32 643 713 341 359

14
6 36-42 35 37 886 970 419 440

13
7 43-49 39 41 1,160 1,258 498 524

12
8 50-56 43 45 1,461 1,573 579 609

11
9 57-63 47 49 1,787 1,913 660 694

Age in weeks
10 64-70 50 52 2,137 2,277 741 779

10
11 71-77 53 55 2,508 2,662 821 863

9
12 78-84 56 58 2,900 3,068 900 946

8
13 85-91 59 61 3,311 3,493 977 1,027

7
14 92-98 62 64 3,742 3,938 1,052 1,106

6
15 99-105 64 66 4,193 4,403 1,123 1,181

16 106-112 67 69 4,665 4,889 1,191 1,252

5
17 113-119 71 73 5,160 5,398 1,255 1,319

4
18 120-126 76 78 5,695 5,947 1,312 1,379

3
2
1
The information supplied in this guide is based on many actual flock
1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
results obtained under good environment and managing conditions.
It is presented as a service to our customers and should be used
Bodyweight in g

as a guide only. It does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of

performance in any way.

8 PRODUCT GUIDE dekalb-poultry.com 9

 REARING TABLE
DEKALB WHITE
PRODUCTION TABLE 1
PER HEN DAY PER HEN HOUSED
Egg Egg Feed con- Eggs Egg Feed Body
% Feed intake Age in Feed conver- %
Weeks weight mass per version per per bird mass intake weight
Lay per day (g) weeks sion cum. Livability
(g) day(g) week cum. cum. cum. (kg) (g)

18 77 18 0.5 99.9 1,346

19 5.9 44.3 2.6 82 31.74 19 0 0.0 1.1 61.59 99.9 1,401
20 43.6 47.3 20.6 89 4.32 20 3 0.2 1.7 10.72 99.8 1,450
21 70.0 49.9 35.0 96 2.75 21 8 0.4 2.4 5.93 99.7 1,493
22 85.8 52.2 44.7 102 2.27 22 14 0.7 3.1 4.34 99.7 1,529
23 92.9 54.0 50.2 105 2.10 23 21 1.1 3.9 3.61 99.6 1,550
24 94.4 55.6 52.5 106 2.02 24 27 1.4 4.6 3.20 99.5 1,567
25 94.8 56.9 53.9 106 1.97 25 34 1.8 5.3 2.95 99.5 1,579
26 95.0 57.9 55.0 107 1.94 26 41 2.2 6.1 2.77 99.4 1,591
27 95.2 58.8 55.9 107 1.91 27 47 2.6 6.8 2.64 99.3 1,601
28 95.3 59.4 56.7 107 1.89 28 54 3.0 7.6 2.54 99.2 1,611
29 95.4 60.0 57.2 108 1.88 29 60 3.4 8.3 2.46 99.2 1,621
30 95.5 60.4 57.7 108 1.87 30 67 3.8 9.1 2.40 99.1 1,630
31 95.5 60.7 58.0 108 1.87 31 74 4.2 9.8 2.35 99.0 1,638
32 95.5 60.9 58.2 108 1.86 32 80 4.6 10.6 2.31 99.0 1,646
33 95.5 61.1 58.3 109 1.86 33 87 5.0 11.3 2.27 98.9 1,653
34 95.5 61.2 58.4 109 1.86 34 94 5.4 12.1 2.24 98.8 1,659
35 95.4 61.3 58.5 109 1.86 35 100 5.8 12.8 2.21 98.8 1,665
36 95.3 61.4 58.5 109 1.87 36 107 6.2 13.6 2.19 98.7 1,671
37 95.2 61.5 58.5 109 1.87 37 113 6.6 14.3 2.17 98.6 1,676
38 95.0 61.6 58.5 109 1.87 38 120 7.0 15.1 2.15 98.6 1,681
39 94.9 61.7 58.5 110 1.87 39 126 7.4 15.8 2.14 98.5 1,685
40 94.7 61.7 58.5 110 1.88 40 133 7.8 16.6 2.13 98.4 1,689
41 94.5 61.9 58.4 110 1.88 41 139 8.2 17.4 2.11 98.4 1,693
42 94.3 62.0 58.4 110 1.88 42 146 8.6 18.1 2.10 98.3 1,696
43 94.0 62.1 58.4 110 1.88 43 152 9.0 18.9 2.09 98.2 1,699
44 93.8 62.2 58.3 110 1.89 44 159 9.4 19.6 2.08 98.2 1,702
45 93.6 62.3 58.3 110 1.89 45 165 9.8 20.4 2.08 98.1 1,704
46 93.3 62.4 58.2 110 1.89 46 172 10.2 21.1 2.07 98.0 1,707
47 93.0 62.5 58.1 110 1.90 47 178 10.6 21.9 2.06 97.9 1,709
48 92.8 62.6 58.0 110 1.90 48 184 11.0 22.6 2.06 97.9 1,710
49 92.5 62.6 57.9 110 1.90 49 191 11.4 23.4 2.05 97.8 1,712
50 92.2 62.7 57.9 110 1.91 50 197 11.8 24.2 2.05 97.7 1,713
51 91.9 62.8 57.8 110 1.91 51 203 12.2 24.9 2.04 97.7 1,714
52 91.6 62.9 57.7 110 1.91 52 210 12.6 25.7 2.04 97.6 1,715
53 91.3 63.0 57.6 110 1.92 53 216 13.0 26.4 2.03 97.5 1,716
54 91.0 63.1 57.5 110 1.92 54 222 13.4 27.2 2.03 97.5 1,717

10 PRODUCT GUIDE dekalb-poultry.com 11

 REARING TABLE
DEKALB WHITE
PRODUCTION TABLE 2
PER HEN DAY PER HEN HOUSED
Egg Egg Feed con- Eggs Egg Feed Body
% Feed intake Age in Feed conver- %
Weeks weight mass per version per per bird mass intake weight
Lay per day (g) weeks sion cum. Livability
(g) day(g) week cum. cum. cum. (kg) (g)

55 90.7 63.2 57.4 110 1.93 55 228 13.8 27.9 2.03 97.4 1,718
56 90.4 63.3 57.3 110 1.93 56 234 14.2 28.7 2.03 97.3 1,718
57 90.1 63.4 57.1 110 1.93 57 240 14.5 29.4 2.02 97.3 1,719
58 89.8 63.5 57.0 110 1.94 58 247 14.9 30.2 2.02 97.2 1,719
59 89.5 63.6 56.9 110 1.94 59 253 15.3 30.9 2.02 97.1 1,719
60 89.2 63.7 56.8 110 1.94 60 259 15.7 31.7 2.02 97.1 1,720
61 88.9 63.8 56.7 110 1.95 61 265 16.1 32.4 2.02 97.0 1,720
62 88.6 63.9 56.6 110 1.95 62 271 16.5 33.2 2.01 96.9 1,720
63 88.2 64.0 56.4 110 1.96 63 277 16.9 33.9 2.01 96.8 1,720
64 87.8 64.1 56.2 110 1.96 64 283 17.2 34.7 2.01 96.8 1,720
65 87.4 64.2 56.1 111 1.97 65 289 17.6 35.4 2.01 96.7 1,720
66 87.0 64.3 55.9 111 1.98 66 295 18.0 36.2 2.01 96.6 1,720
67 86.7 64.3 55.8 111 1.98 67 300 18.4 36.9 2.01 96.6 1,720
68 86.3 64.4 55.6 111 1.99 68 306 18.7 37.7 2.01 96.5 1,721
69 85.9 64.5 55.4 111 1.99 69 312 19.1 38.4 2.01 96.4 1,721
70 85.5 64.6 55.3 111 2.00 70 318 19.5 39.2 2.01 96.4 1,721
71 85.2 64.7 55.1 111 2.01 71 324 19.9 39.9 2.01 96.3 1,721
72 84.8 64.8 55.0 111 2.01 72 329 20.2 40.7 2.01 96.2 1,721
73 84.4 64.9 54.8 111 2.02 73 335 20.6 41.4 2.01 96.2 1,722
74 84.0 65.0 54.6 111 2.02 74 341 21.0 42.1 2.01 96.1 1,722
75 83.7 65.1 54.5 111 2.03 75 346 21.3 42.9 2.01 96.0 1,722
76 83.3 65.2 54.3 111 2.04 76 352 21.7 43.6 2.01 96.0 1,722
77 82.9 65.3 54.1 111 2.04 77 357 22.1 44.4 2.01 95.9 1,722
78 82.5 65.4 54.0 111 2.05 78 363 22.4 45.1 2.01 95.8 1,723
79 82.1 65.5 53.8 111 2.06 79 368 22.8 45.9 2.01 95.8 1,723
80 81.8 65.6 53.6 111 2.06 80 374 23.2 46.6 2.01 95.7 1,723
81 81.4 65.7 53.5 111 2.07 81 379 23.5 47.3 2.01 95.6 1,723
82 81.0 65.8 53.3 111 2.08 82 385 23.9 48.1 2.01 95.5 1,723
83 80.6 65.9 53.1 111 2.08 83 390 24.2 48.8 2.02 95.5 1,724
84 80.3 66.0 52.9 111 2.09 84 395 24.6 49.6 2.02 95.4 1,724
85 79.9 66.1 52.8 111 2.10 85 401 24.9 50.3 2.02 95.3 1,724
86 79.5 66.1 52.6 111 2.10 86 406 25.3 51.0 2.02 95.3 1,724
87 79.1 66.2 52.4 111 2.11 87 411 25.6 51.8 2.02 95.2 1,724
88 78.8 66.3 52.2 111 2.12 88 417 26.0 52.5 2.02 95.1 1,725
89 78.4 66.4 52.1 111 2.13 89 422 26.3 53.2 2.02 95.1 1,725
90 78.0 66.5 51.9 111 2.13 90 427 26.7 54.0 2.02 95.0 1,725

12 PRODUCT GUIDE dekalb-poultry.com 13

 14
100
Livability
95
90
85
80 Average
Egg
75 Weight

70 70
65
60 65
55
DEKALB WHITE

Laying
Rate
50 60
45 Bodyweight

40 55

PRODUCT GUIDE
35
30 50 2000
25
20 45 1750
15
10 1500

5
0 1250
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
PRODUCTION GRAPHS

Age in weeks

Egg mass Feed conversion Cum no. of

in g/day g/egg eggs per HH

145 450
140

65.0 135 400

62.5 130

60.0 125 350

120

dekalb-poultry.com
57.5
55.0 115 300
52.5 110

Feed 50.0 105 250

Conversion
Kg/kg 47.5 100

2.20 45.0 200

42.5
2.15 40.0 150
37.5
2.10 100

2.05 50

2.00 0
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90

15
Age in weeks
 REARING PERIOD Equipment and environment

Age (weeks)
Floor Cages
GOOD BROODING CONDITIONS ARE VITAL 0–2 2–5 0–3 3–5

TO GIVE THE CHICKS THE BEST POSSIBLE Ventilation Minimum per hour / kg 0.7m³ 0.7m³ 0.7m³ 0.7m³

START. Stocking densities Birds / m² 30 20 80 45

The period from one day old to the point of first egg production is cm² / Bird 125 220

a critical time in the life of the laying hen. It is during this time that Water supply Chicks / Chick drinker 75 80 (1)
the physiological capability of the hen is developed. Birds / drinker 75 75
Success in the rearing period leads to success in the laying house Birds / nipple 10 10 10 (2) 10 (2)
and this starts with chick arrival. All the standards and programs Feed supply Birds / Starting pan 50 (3)
set out in this section have been proven to give excellent performance
cm of trough feeders 4 4 2 4
in the production stages.
Birds / Round feeder 35 35
Any delay in growth at 4-5 weeks will be reflected in a reduction in
bodyweight at 16 weeks and then in performance. This is particularly
(1): Place one additional drinker per cage for the first week
true for mean egg weight in temperate climates and may cause a (2): Make sure that all the birds have access to at least 2 nipples
delay in start of lay in hot climates near the equator. (3): Spread sheets of paper over the cage bottom to last for 7 days,
remove the top sheet every day

Bodyweight development
Notes:
• The removal of the supplementary starter drinkers should be
• 12
done gradually, making sure that the chicks have acquired the
Growth (g) habit of using the regular drinkers.
• It is useful to monitor water consumption. To maintain litter
Skeletal quality, it is necessary to avoid water spillage, by carefully
BW Growth regulating the drinkers or the nipples.
•6 • The drinkers should be cleaned daily for the first 2 weeks. From
the third week they should be cleaned each week.
Growth g / day

Organs

Calcium • Check that all the birds, even the smaller ones have access to
increase
at prelay
feed and water.
Muscle Reproductive tract
• It is important to use 360° nipples, especially for infra-red beak
treated birds.
Fat

STANDARDS OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY

Medullary bone
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Weeks in age In order to ensure that the equipment and the litter are warm for
chick arrival, we advise starting to raise the house temperature at
least 36 hours before chick arrival so that it reaches a house
temperature of 28 to 31°C. The concrete floor must be at 28°C
and litter at 30°C.
The best way to check if the house temperature is correct during
the first days after arrival is to measure cloacal temperature of the
chicks (40°C/104°F).

16 PRODUCT GUIDE dekalb-poultry.com 17

 Standards for temperature and humidity LIGHTING PROGRAM TO ENCOURAGE
FEED INTAKE AND GROWTH
Brooding Brooding Relative During the first few days, it is important to maintain the chicks
temperature temperature Room
humidity
under a maximumw light regime (22 to 23 hours) with a high intensity
Age in days at the edge of at 2-3m optimum-
temperature (30-40 lux) to encourage intake of water and feed. Afterwards, the
the brooders from the maximum
brooders in% light intensity should be gradually reduced to reach a level of about
10 lux at 15 days of age in dark houses. Light intensity will also
0–3 35°C 29 – 28°C 33 – 31°C 55 – 60
depend on bird behaviour.
4–7 34°C 28 – 27°C 32 – 31°C 55 – 60
Note: a cyclical program could be applied for the first 2 weeks
8 – 14 32°C 27 – 26°C 30 – 28°C 55 – 60 (4 hours of light /2 hours of dark, repeated 4 times to equal 24
15 – 21 29°C 26 – 25°C 28 – 26°C 55 – 60 hours) and then follow recommended lighting program, which is
22 – 24 25 – 23°C 25 – 23°C 55 – 65 18 hours of light on third week.
25 – 28 23 – 21°C 23 – 21°C 55 – 65
Lighting program according to age and rearing
29 – 35 21 – 19°C 21 – 19°C 60 – 70
housing system
After 35 19 – 17°C 19 – 17°C 60 – 70

Rearing in dark or Rearing in hot climate

Notes: semi dark house (open houses)
• The heat losses incurred from contact with the litter are very Light Light Light Light
important during the first days. duration intensity duration intensity
• Provision of two gas brooders or 2 radiant heaters of 1450 1 – 3 days 23 hours 20 – 40 lux 23 hours 40 lux
Kcal is advised for 1000 birds. 4 – 7 days 22 hours 15 – 30 lux 22 hours 40 lux
• Temperature and relative humidity should be uniform 8 – 14 days 20 hours 10 – 20 lux 20 hours 40 lux
throughout the building.
15 – 21 days 18 hours 5 – 10 lux 19 hours 40 lux
The distribution behaviour of chicks is the best indicator of
22 – 28 days 16 hours 5 – 10 lux 18 hours 40 lux
temperature:
29 – 35 days 14 hours 5 – 10 lux 17 hours 40 lux
• On floor system, the distribution of chicks in each pen or
throughout the building will help you to manage the correct
temperature of the house. Below are some key-points to provide day old chicks with a good
start.
• If the chicks crowd together under the brooder -> temperature
is too low. Key points:
• Flush the water lines prior to arrival, and make sure that no
• If the chicks are close to the surroundings -> the temperature disinfectant is left in the water lines when the chicks arrive.
is too high.
• Make sure that the nipples and round drinkers are on the correct
height - nipples at chick eye level and round drinkers on the
Distribution behaviour according to temperature: floor.
• Put paper under the nipples to attract the chicks and extra feed
over the chick paper or paper trays.
• Check the nipples / round drinkers to ensure the water supply
is sufficient. When nipples are used the chicks must see the
water drop on the nipple.
Too cold Too warm Draught Ideal • The feed should be distributed when the chicks have drunk
enough water to restore their body fluid (about 2 hours after
being placed in the brooding pens), especially when the birds
have travelled for a long time.
• In hot climate environments, flush the line just before chicks
arrived to provide them fresh water.

18 PRODUCT GUIDE dekalb-poultry.com 19

 All these recommendations will help to: A GOOD FOLLOW UP WITH A WEEKLY
• Get a good start and a low mortality level during the first 2
weeks CHECK OF THE DEVELOPMENT
• A good frame and immune system A weekly control of the growth is a must to check the real evolution
of the flock: the earlier you know the earlier you can correct.
• A good uniformity from the start
TARGETS IN REARING
FROM 4 TO 16 WEEKS - BUILDING THE • To produce a uniform flock with a bodyweight in accordance
POTENTIAL OF THE FUTURE LAYER with the target age at sexual maturity
After a good start, the objective of the 4-16 week period is to prepare • To obtain the correct bodyweight at 4 weeks to secure frame
the birds for egg production with the best development of: development
• The frame • To achieve steady growth between 4 and 16 weeks with a good
• The bodyweight development of the digestive tract
• The uniformity
TARGETS IN PRODUCTION
• The digestive tract.
• To make sure that between 5% lay and peak of production the
These objectives can be achieved by providing:
bodyweight increase is at least 300g for brown layers and 200g
• A correct stocking density and housing conditions for white layers. For these reasons it is essential to exercise
• A lighting program adapted to rearing conditions control over bodyweight on a weekly basis from 0 to 30 weeks
• Beak treatment performed by trained people of age, and after that, at least once every month.
• Good management of the feeding program and feeding • Controlling the quantity of feed distributed will not on it’s own
techniques ensure good growth because the requirements vary according
to:
• Good biosecurity
- the energy level of the diet
HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT - the house temperature

Floor Cages
- the health status of the flock
Age (weeks)
5 – 10 10 – 17 5 – 10 10 – 17
Ventilation Minimum per hour / kg 4m³ 4m³ 4m³ 4m³
BEAK TREATMENT: A DELICATE
Stocking densities Birds / m² 15 10 15 10
OPERATION
Birds / m² (hot climate) 12 9 12 9
This operation is normally carried out for two main reasons:
cm² / Bird 220 350 • To prevent feather pecking and cannibalism
Water supply Birds / drinker 100 100 • To reduce feed wastage
Birds / drinker Beak treatment is a delicate operation and only specially trained
75 75
(hot climate) personnel should perform it. If improperly done, it may result in
Birds / nipple 9 8 10 (1) 10 (1) birds having difficulty eating and drinking and lead to a non-uniform
Feed supply cm of trough feeders 5 7 4 6
flock as a consequence.
Birds / Round feeder 25 23 25 23

(1): Make sure that all the birds have access to at least 2 nipples

20 PRODUCT GUIDE dekalb-poultry.com 21

 AGE OF BEAK TREATMENT
In addition to technical recommendations, any local codes and
regulations concerned with animal welfare should be observed.
The decision about the age of beak treatment depends mostly on
the housing system and local regulations:
• In cage productions, in dark houses, when the intensity of
artificial light is low, beaks should be treated at one day old or
at 7 to 10 days.
• Production in open-sided houses, giving exposure to high natural
light intensity, one single beak tipping at 7 to 10 days will not
prevent pecking entirely. Under these conditions, beak
treatment should be carried out twice: a light tipping at 10 days
and then a second operation between 8 and 10 weeks of age,
where local regulations allow it.
DURING BEAK TREATMENT: ATTENTION
POINTS
The operator should be seated comfortably so that each beak is
cut in the same manner
• Do not rush the process: too high a rate (number of birds/
minute could lead to a higher chance of errors and
poor=uniformity.
• Change blades when required: maximum recommended usage
for a blade is 5.000 birds.
• Make sure the tongue of the bird does not get burned.
AFTER BEAK TREATMENT: ATTENTION POINTS
• Increase the water level in the drinkers and decrease the water
pressure in the pipes to make it easy for the birds to drink.
• Make sure that the depth of the feed is adequate, do not empty
the feeders for a week after beak treatment.
Beak treatment is a very delicate operation and it is important
enough to be done correctly. Improper beak treatment can
damage bird livability and uniformity and consequently affect
negatively the overall flock performances.
22 PRODUCT GUIDE
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE LIGHTING
PROGRAMS IN REARING PERIOD
Chickens are sensitive to changes in the duration of illumination,
and this will influence the age of sexual maturity. In addition, feed
consumption is greatly influenced by the duration of day length.
Lighting programs have, therefore, different objectives.
During rearing, they allow us to encourage growth and to control
the birds’ sexual maturity. For this reason, we consider lighting
programs to be essential to achieve;
• The recommended bodyweight at 5% lay.
• In order to obtain an egg weight which conforms to the target
from start of lay.
• To achieve high overall production.
LIGHTING PROGRAM AND GROWTH
In addition to the influence on growth, the lighting program plays a
determinant role for 3 essential reasons:
• Progressive growth of the digestive system.
• Gradual adaptation to a body clock (above all, anticipation of a
dark period).
• Lack of night time energy supply when dark periods are too
long.
Observations of the feeding and drinking behaviour show a first
peak of feed intake in the 2 to 3 hours that precede a dark period,
and a second peak shortly after lights come on. The crop is used
during these peaks of consumption as a storage organ.
The introduction of a dark period from the start of the rearing period
is important to progressively develop the crop capacity, which plays
the role of feed reserve. However the amount of feed stocked remains
insufficient for the nocturnal energy needs.
CONTROL OF SEXUAL MATURITY
The purpose of lighting programs is to control the age at point of lay
and above all to avoid the influence of the variations in natural day
length. Do not underestimate the effect of even the slightest
variations in day length.
dekalb-poultry.com 23
 Role of bodyweight Ideal light intensity will be determined in practice by the following
Photo stimulation is not necessary to stimulate production even needs:
when the pullets are reared under very short day lengths. • Light required to inspect the birds well.
• A trial carried out by Lewis (1996)(1) shows that with a day • The degree of darkness of the building (light leaking in)
length greater or equal to 10 hours, the age at 50% lay does • The intensity to be used during laying period.
not vary, or only a little. On the other hand, a day length kept
Lighting programs have to be adapted to the rearing facilities (dark
at 8 hours appears to delay sexual maturity by one week. This
or open house systems), to the conditions of production, to the
delay of maturity with 8 hours at the plateau is explained by
climate and to the egg weight profile demanded by the market. In
the lower growth obtained compared to 10 or more hours of
order to get an efficient light stimulation, the day length increase
lighting program.
has to be done in the morning.
• These observations are confirmed in latitudes close to the
For rearing in dark house systems and production in an open house
Equator. With very little change in day length, we have seen
system, it is necessary to maintain a high light intensity throughout
that sexual maturity is mainly activated by obtaining adequate
all the rearing period in order to avoid a sudden increase of light
bodyweight.
intensity.
The higher the latitude is the higher the differences in sexual maturity
The lighting programs suggested below are only guides. They have
between summer and winter flocks are.
to be adapted to the real circumstances of the rearing farm and
according to performances previously obtained.
LIGHT STIMULATION
• The variation of light duration greatly influences sexual maturity. Guide line for lighting program for rearing in a dark poultry
Under certain conditions, we can observe a response to a light house
stimulation from 6 weeks of age. However, the more sensitive
period is between 10 and 12 weeks of age. Light GUIDE LINE FOR LIGHTING PROGRAMME FOR REARING IN A DARK POULTRY HOUSE
Duration
• According to the program being used, the age at 50% can vary
by up to 6 weeks
Light stimulation will change the bird`s weight at sexual maturity,
its adult weight and as a consequence, the egg weight, which is C
directly related to the bodyweight of the bird at first egg.
Bird weight at sexual maturity will be 75g lower when light B

stimulation is advanced one week. Egg numbers will be greater but A

egg weight will be reduced by about 1g. Total egg mass produced
does not seem to be affected by reasonable variations in the age
of sexual maturity (Lewis 1997)(2).
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Age in weeks

For this reason, it is preferable to determine the time of light A B C

Lighting program Lighting program Lighting program

stimulation according to bodyweight rather than the of age of the during temperate period during hot season during maturity
bird.
We consider essential to achieve the recommended bodyweight at
LIGHT INTENSITY IN REARING light stimulation and at 5% lay, in order to obtain an egg weight which
Little information is available. However some work has shown that conforms to the target, and to achieve high overall production.
light intensity can be very low. Morris (1995)(3) showed that an
intensity greater than 1 lux did not modify sexual maturity.

24 PRODUCT GUIDE dekalb-poultry.com 25

 PRODUCTION
PERIOD
The transfer from the rearing farm to the laying facilities is a major
stress, accompanied by changes in environment (temperature,
humidity…) and equipment. It should be carried out as fast as
possible, ideally being completed within a day. Be sure the production
house is clean, disinfected and temperature is minimum 17°C.
Then, between transfer and the peak of production, a rapid increase
in feed intake is necessary since the bird has to cover:
• Its requirements to grow to the adult bodyweight.
• Its requirements to achieve peak of production.
• Its requirements to get a rapid egg weight increase.
AGE OF TRANSFER
We advise transferring the birds at 16 weeks, maybe even at 15
weeks, but never after 17 weeks.
Because of the stress to which birds are subjected during transfer
and immediately afterwards:
• It is extremely important that transfer is completed before the
appearance of the first eggs: most development of reproductive
organs (ovary and oviduct) occurs during the 10 days prior to
the first egg.
• We advice that vaccinations are given at least a week before
transfer, so as to obtain a good vaccine response.
• De-worming of the flock, if necessary, is best done in the last
days before moving, depending on the de worming product
used.
• A late transfer or too long a transfer often leads to delayed
start of lay and higher mortality and increases the risk of floor
laying in non-cage systems.
POINTS OF ATTENTION AT LOADING AND
TRANSPORT
The following rules should minimise stress at handling of the birds
at loading and during later transport:
• The birds should have an empty digestive tract at the moment
of loading, but they must have access to fresh drinking water
up to the time of being loaded.
• Choose the best time for transport during the day or night,
depending on the weather circumstances.
26 PRODUCT GUIDE
• Crates or containers, equipment, trucks etc. must be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected.
• Make sure that air can circulate freely around the crates, but
protect pullets from direct air flow. Containers or crates should
not be overloaded, particularly in hot weather on long distance
hauls.
• Avoid unnecessary stops during transit of the birds.
LIGHTING AS A TOOL FOR ENCOURAGING A
RAPID ADAPTATION TO A NEW ENVIRONMENT
Immediately after the birds arrive at the laying unit, it is very
important to put into practice the following techniques to help the
birds adapt to the new environment, particularly to cages and nipple
systems.
• Apply 22 hours of light the first day.
• Light duration should be decided according to what has been
used during rearing.
• Increase the light intensity for 4 to 7 days to help the birds in
the darkest cages to find nipples.
• Then reduce light intensity gradually while ensuring that normal
water intake continues. A high light intensity for longer than 7
days can increase the risks of pecking.
ENCOURAGING WATER CONSUMPTION
Birds can become dehydrated during transfer. The water loss rate
ranges between 0,3% and 0,5% per hour according to atmospheric
conditions.
• Pullets should drink before feeding: the absence of feed helps
them find the nipple drinkers more easily.
• Make sure that the water pipes have been rinsed before pullets
arrival.
• Wait for 3 or 4 hours before distributing feed and check if
drinking system is working properly.
• If the pullets have not been reared on nipples, decrease the
pressure and allow some leakage of water during the first few
days.
• If nipples are planned for production, it is helpful to add at least
one nipple for 200 birds to the other drinking equipment used
in rearing, as a “nipples school”.
• A daily water consumption control is of paramount importance.
dekalb-poultry.com 27
 FEEDING FOR PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
• About 2 weeks before the first egg is laid, the medullary bone,
which acts as a reservoir of calcium for eggshell formation,
develops. Therefore a pre-lay diet needs to be used, containing
enough calcium and phosphorus, for this bone formation. This
diet should be switched to a layer diet as soon as production
reaches 2% to avoid any demineralization.
• Then, an early lay feed with a high content of amino acids (about
7% higher than after peak diet) should be used. This feed needs
to satisfy requirements for early production, growth and
reproductive development.
ENCOURAGING FEED CONSUMPTION
From the start of lay to the peak of production, feed consumption
should increase by about 40% to allow the birds to meet their
requirements for egg production and growth.
To encourage bird appetite and feed intake, the following advice
should be put into practice:
• Maintain the temperature at point of lay as close as possible
to the temperature to which the birds became acclimatised
during rearing. Growth at the point of lay is reduced above
24°C, and is extremely low above 28°C.
• Minimize house temperature variations and avoid draughts.
• Use an adapted light duration, achieving 15 hours of light at
50% of production.
• Providing 1hour 30 minutes to 2 hours of supplementary light
in the middle of the dark period will help to attain the correct
bodyweight by allowing an extra feed intake (“midnight feeding”).
• Limit the number of feed distributions according to equipment
to avoid selective feeding and competition for large particles
which could lead to lack of uniformity.
• Adapt the feeding times as to achieve 60% of feed consumed
in the last 6 hours of the day and to have empty feeders for 2
to 3 hours in the middle of the day. This technique avoids a build
up of fine particles and its consequent negative effect on feed
intake.
• Use a layer feed with the correct grist (80% of particles between
0,5 and 3,2 of diameter).
28 PRODUCT GUIDE
MONITORING ENVIRONMENTAL AND
PRODUCTION PARAMETERS
A close control of the following parameters will help you to check
the real evolution of the flock during this critical period for the future
performances:
• Feed consumption (daily).
• Water consumption (daily) and water/feed ratio.
• Temperature (min-max) and relative humidity (daily).
• Evolution of bodyweight (weekly until peak of lay), by weighing
the birds up to 35 weeks of age.
• Evolution of egg weight (daily for the first weeks of lay).
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LIGHTING
PROGRAMS DURING THE PRODUCTION
PERIOD
In production as well as in rearing, the lighting program greatly
influences feed consumption. In addition, during all its life, a chicken
remains sensitive to changes in the duration of illumination.
The objective of the lighting programs during the production period
is:
• To encourage growth at start of lay.
• To counteract the harmful effects of decreases in natural day
length.
• To control the livability through the light intensity management.
• To improve eggshell quality.
Other lighting programs can also be introduced during the production
period to adapt the egg weight to market demand, to improve eggshell
quality or to control feed intake for some breeds.
LIGHT INTENSITY IN PRODUCTION
The light intensity required is low. No significant differences have
been found in the different trials with today’s breeds. But as stated
for the rearing period, we encourage an increase in light intensity
for a few days from the transfer time in order to help the bird to
discover its new environment and to find easily water and feed
systems.
Thereafter, the light intensity can be reduced step by step to a
minimum of 0,5 lux at the feeder level in the dimmest areas of the
laying house as long as during the rearing stage light intensity doesn’t
exceed 10 lux.
There is a strong relation between bird activity, stocking density
and feather loss during production.
dekalb-poultry.com 29
 HOW TO IMPROVE SHELL QUALITY
All methods that help to increase the quantity of calcium stored in WATER: THE MOST
CRITICAL NUTRIENT
the gizzard before lights off and to ingest a soluble form of calcium
after lights on, have a positive effect on shell quality. According
after transfer we advise:
The water is the most critical nutrient for the poultry. The daily
For white layers: control of water consumption is essential. If an animal does not
• Encourage maximum feed intake during the last 4 hours of the drink, it will not eat and can not produce.
day (distribute 4 hours before lights out).
• Arrange to have feeders empty in the middle of the day to WATER QUALITY
encourage feed intake in the afternoon. Good quality drinking water is very important for (production)
• Ensure that the calcium content of the feed has 50% in particles animals. Birds must always have easy access to the drinking water,
of 2 to 4 mm to encourage retention in the gizzards and storage the water must be fresh and bright. Taste and smell seem to be of
for the night period. less importance to the birds but are indicators for the water quality.
• Provide 50% of the calcium in easy soluble power form for
quick availability at lights on. Poultry
Parameter
Important note: Good quality Do not use
During the hot season or in summer, heat stress can delay the pH 5 – 8,5 <4 and >9
oviposition time, mainly when birds are panting. Panting provokes
Ammonium mg/l <2,0 >10
a loss of carbon dioxide and bicarbonate in blood plasma. As a
consequence, oviposition times are delayed. In these circumstances Nitrite mg/l <0,1 >1,0
the maximum feed possible has to be given during midnight lighting Nitrate mg/l <100 >200
and early in the morning to maintain production and shell quality.
Chloride mg/l <250 >2000

ADJUSTING EGG WEIGHT TO MEET MARKET Sodium mg/l <800 >1500

REQUIREMENTS Sulfate mg/l <150 >250
Egg producers want to produce eggs of a size which matches market Iron mg/l <0,5 >2,5
demand and in the end satisfies the needs of their customers and Mangane mg/l <1,0 >2,0
optimises margins.
Lime/chulk content <20 >25
The principal factors affecting egg weight are:
Oxidizable organic matter mg/l <50 >200
• Genetic aspects
H2S non detectable non detectable
• Bodyweight at sexual maturity (so at the time of the first egg
is laid) Coliform bacteria’s cfu/ml <100 >100
• Feed consumption and growth from first egg till achieving of Total bacteria count cfu/ml <100.000 >100.000
adult bodyweight
• Nutritional factors; For eggshell quality reasons, a minimum MONITORING WATER QUALITY
of 60% of the feed, needs to be distributed in the afternoon.
The value of any analysis depends on when, where, and how the
sample has been taken, (where it enters the house or at the end of
the system). One should not forget that an analysis only refers to
the quality of the water at the time when the sample was taken, and
is never a guarantee of its quality at another time. Where farms have
their own water supply, it is necessary to take a sample at least twice
a year (one at the end of winter, the other at the end of summer).

30 PRODUCT GUIDE dekalb-poultry.com 31

 PULLET AND
On farms using the mains supply an annual measurement should
be adequate. It is important to realise that the sodium thiosulphate,
contained in the flasks supplied by the laboratories carrying out
bacteriological tests on water, only neutralises chlorine or bleach.
It has no action on quaternary ammonium compounds. HEN HEALTH
Bird health results from the interface between adequate biosecurity,
WATER CONSUMPTION
animal welfare, poultry husbandry, nutrition, immunization, and
Water consumption depends on ambient temperature. Above 20°C, general disease prevention, control and monitoring. This section
consumption increases to enable the bird to maintain body temperature is intended to serve as a general guide for maintaining healthy
(respiratory evaporation). flocks. Details on actual procedures should be provided by a poultry
The actual consumption depends on temperature and humidity of the health professional.
ambient air. The following table shows the relationship between water
and feed consumption according to house temperature: BIOSECURITY
Water to feed ratio according to temperature in rearing and laying The concept of biosecurity may be complex and difficult to generalize
period. or adapt for every possible circumstance. The objective of biosecurity
is to prevent infectious disease from affecting otherwise healthy
Temperature Rearing Production flocks. Among the many strategies used to prevent infectious
15°C 1.6 1.70 (210 ml) disease, some of the most effective ones include:
20°C 1.7 1.80 (205 ml) a) limit access of unnecessary visitors; b) avoiding visits to multiple
25°C 2.3 2.10 (230 ml) farms in the same day; c) shower in and out of any poultry facility;
d) even when showering is not possible, it is imperative to wear
30°C 3.0 3.10 (320 ml) clean clothes or coveralls. Footwear and hairnets that should not
leave the farm being visited; e) establish, maintain and monitor
adequate programs for rodent and insect control. In addition, it is
In hot periods it is essential to provide cool water for the birds. In a hot
important to consider all major risks in terms of biosecurity such
climate, cool water will improve productivity. It is extremely important
as moving birds into and from the farm; sales, maintenance,
to protect the water tanks from the direct sunlight.
equipment and construction personnel; manure removal personnel,
vehicles and equipment. Service personnel should not visit any
flocks after having been in contact with flocks with known, suspect,
or obvious signs of disease caused by agents such as MG, MS, ILT
or IBV.

WELFARE AND POULTRY HUSBANDRY

Overall bird health is relatively easy to maintain by simply applying
good husbandry. The health and productivity of chickens is closely
related to their welfare, which in turn depends on the use of adequate
biosecurity and husbandry practices. In many areas, official
regulations dictate specific requirements related to animal welfare
and it is important to ensure compliance with regulatory agencies.
Local or national poultry associations and Government institutions
are usually a good source of welfare guidelines that are relevant
for each geographical area.

32 PRODUCT GUIDE dekalb-poultry.com 33

 DISEASE PREVENTION BY IMMUNIZATION
An individual becomes “immune”, “immunized” or resistant to a
specific disease after inoculation with a specific vaccine, or after
exposure to a disease agent in the field. Vaccination programs
should be designed to “immunize” flocks against diseases with an
economic impact; and against disease agents that could potentially
compromise food safety. The entire disease control program relies
on sound and well-designed vaccination programs and adequate
biosecurity, husbandry and nutrition. At the same time, vaccinations
should be administered at times or ages when their detrimental
impact is minimal, and at times when the best possible benefit can
be obtained from them.
Most vaccination programs are intended to immunize chickens
against diseases that affect the immune system; cause tumors in
chickens; affect the respiratory, urinary or reproductive tracts;
affect the nervous system; induce disease in the intestinal tract; or
represent a food safety concern. Fortunately there are vaccines
and vaccination methods available to protect chickens against most
of these groups of conditions.
Prior to using any vaccines, ensure that their use is legal and that
it will not disqualify specialty flocks because of the type of
preservatives contained in the vaccines.
TYPES OF VACCINES
There are many types of vaccines available for commercial poultry.
It is important to become familiar with their basic characteristics
related to their potential for protection, safety, ease of administration,
relative cost, reactivity, compatibility with other vaccines, etc. This
is a list of some of the most important types of vaccines:
• Live virus vaccines
• Recombinant virus vaccines
• Live bacterial vaccines
• Inactivated bacterial vaccines (bacterins)
• Gene modified and deletion mutant live bacterial vaccines
• Autogenous inactivated bacterial vaccines
• Autogenous inactivated viral vaccines
• Live coccidiosis vaccines
• Live Mycoplasma vaccines
• Inactivated Mycoplasma vaccines (bacterins)
• Recombinant Mycoplasma vaccines
• Competitive exclusion products
34 PRODUCT GUIDE
VACCINATION METHODS
It is important to understand the characteristics of each vaccine
and to use each product according to the manufacturer’s
recommendations. Vaccines are designed and approved for
individual or mass application methods.
Individual vaccination methods include:
• Ocular (eye drop)
• Beak dipping or intranasal
• Subcutaneous injection
• Intramuscular injection
• Transcutaneous injection (wing web)
• Vent brush application
Mass vaccination methods include:
• In ovo injection
• Drinking water vaccination
• Spray vaccination
OCULAR (EYE DROP), BEAK DIPPING
AND INTRANASAL VACCINATION
Eye drop vaccination is commonly used to protect chickens against
respiratory viruses, Mycoplasma and occasionally against infectious
bursal disease. Ocular vaccination is most suitable for delivery of
live vaccines against diseases or agents such as (but not exclusively)
Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, infectious laryngotracheitis,
avian metapneumovirus and Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Eye drop
vaccination is likely the most effective and safest method for
respiratory viruses. Direct contact of the vaccine with the mucosa
of the eye will result in stimulation of the Harderian gland and a
strong local immune response.
Despite being highly effective, eye drop vaccination is labor intensive
and time consuming and thus it is usually limited to application of
vaccines that must be administered via the ocular route and by no
other method, such as some (but not all) live MG vaccines and live
attenuated vaccines against ILT. Intranasal and beak dipping
application of vaccines has the same objectives as the ocular route.
Intranasal application is popular in some countries but beak dipping
is rarely used. The vaccine is administered by depositing a drop
(usually 30 ul or 0.03 ml) of reconstituted vaccine directly on the
eye or into the nostrils. The advantage of eye drop application is
that if applied properly, every bird receives a similar dose of vaccine
and is thus likely to be immunized (protected) against the disease,
as opposed to mass application methods, which unavoidably result
in suboptimal coverage since not every bird receives an equally
immunizing dose.
dekalb-poultry.com 35
 Because eye drop vaccination requires individual handling of birds,
biosecurity is most important and the vaccination crews must follow
strict biosecurity procedures so as not to bring infectious diseases
to the flock being vaccinated. For the beak dipping method to be
successful, both nostrils must be immersed in the vaccine. This
method is suitable only for chicks up to 7 days of age and is used
for immunization against NDV or IBDV. It is used in areas or farms
where even vaccine uptake is not possible using the drinking water
or spray methods, or with the objective of minimizing vaccine
reactions.
SUBCUTANEOUS AND INTRAMUSCULAR
INJECTION
Injection via the intramuscular and subcutaneous routes is reserved
primarily for inactivated vaccines and bacterins. The vaccination
equipment should be sterile and the needles used should be of the
proper caliber and length for the age of the bird and also for the
type of product being injected. The needles should be replaced
with sterile needles at least every 500 injections to prevent injections
with bent or blunt needles, and to avoid transmission of some
diseases from infected to non-infected chickens. Most inactivated
(killed) vaccines are administered at approximately 12-14 weeks
of age. Should it be necessary to vaccinate younger chickens with
inactivated products it should be kept in mind that handling and
administration of inactivated vaccines or bacterins between 6 and
11 weeks of age might delay or alter the development of the pullets.
Inactivated viral vaccines are usually available in a water-in-oil
(WO) or water-in-oil-in-water (WOW) emulsion, which are typically
not very reactive. Thus, such products can be injected with
confidence intramuscularly or subcutaneously, provided the
injection is done in the proper area and without depositing any of
the vaccine product in the cavity or directly into the internal organs.
Inactivated products containing Mycoplasmas and/or bacteria
such as Salmonella may be quite reactive and every effort should
be made to minimize the local vaccine reactions that can be derived
from the injections. For subcutaneous injections, it is especially
important to avoid the thymus by injecting the vaccine in the middle
line (avoiding the sides of the neck), and by not injecting too close
to the head or the base of the neck. For intramuscular injections
(in the breast muscle), every effort should be made to avoid injecting
the product into the cavity. Vaccinations in the thigh may contribute
to reduced adverse reactions but care must be exercised to minimize
injuries resulting in lameness.
TRANSCUTANEOUS INJECTION (WING WEB)
Transcutaneous (wing web) application is used almost exclusively
to vaccinate chickens against poxvirus (POX). For convenience,
manufacturers of vaccines have added other agents such as chicken
infectious anemia virus (CAV) and avian encephalomyelitis virus
36 PRODUCT GUIDE
(AE) to POX vaccines and thus it is possible to vaccinate pullets
simultaneously against AE, POX and CAV in one injection. The latter
(CAV) is only necessary in layer breeders but AE and POX are
routinely used in commercial layers. In addition, there are
recombinant vaccines with a poxvirus as a vector carrying genes
that express proteins from ILTV or MG. Thus, such products can
also be administered by wing web application.
VENT BRUSH VACCINATION
Vent brush vaccination was developed decades ago to protect
chickens against ILTV using vaccine strains that were extremely
reactive and caused vaccine-induced ILT. The procedure involves
dipping a rough brush into the reconstituted ILTV vaccine vial and
brushing harshly the mucosa of the vent. This procedure is still used
with relative success in some countries for administration of live
attenuated vaccines against ILTV.
IN OVO INJECTION
In ovo vaccination is a mass-application procedure that is reserved
for vaccination of embryos in the hatchery and is typically done at
17 to 19 days of incubation. The procedure was designed for
immunization against Marek’s disease virus (MDV). With the advent
of recombinant vaccines, in ovo vaccination can now be used to
protect chickens against diseases such as Marek’s disease, fowl
poxvirus, infectious laryngotracheitis, infectious bursal diseases
(Gumboro) and Newcastle disease. In addition, coccidiosis vaccines
are now registered and approved for in ovo administration.
DRINKING WATER (ORAL) VACCINATION
Vaccination via the drinking water is a suitable method to vaccinate
pullets against hardy viruses such as infectious bursal disease virus
(IBDV) and CIAV, but it can be used to immunize against diseases
such as Newcastle, infectious bronchitis, colibacillosis, salmonellosis
and other diseases. Along with spray vaccination and in ovo
vaccination, administration of live vaccines via the drinking water
is considered a mass-application method. Although practical, mass
application methods usually result in less-than-optimal vaccine
coverage and thus protection might be suboptimal compared with
individual vaccination methods.
Vaccination via the drinking water should be used in birds one week
old or older because water consumption in younger pullets might
be too irregular. Oral vaccination can be done by directly adding
the vaccine into the water reservoirs supplying water to the barn
to be vaccinated; it can also be accomplished by using “medicators”
or “dosifiers” that can be connected to the main water pipelines
feeding the drinkers.
dekalb-poultry.com 37
 The method relies on the preparation of a stock solution of vaccine
that is to be placed in a container (a clean bucket) from which the
medicator draws small quantities of vaccine that is mixed
automatically with fresh incoming water in the water pipelines. For
example, 28,5 ml of stock solution of vaccine is drawn by the
medicator and mixed with every 3,78 liters of fresh water to be
consumed. This method requires that the birds to be vaccinated
are thirsty so that water consumption helps to consume the vaccine
rapidly (within approximately 60 minutes). Thus, access to water
by the birds should be interrupted for approximately 2 hours
(depending on the temperature, humidity, age of the birds, etc.)
prior to vaccination. Because the stock solution is drawn in a pulse
manner, and because it must be mixed with incoming water
automatically before it is delivered it is not possible to achieve an
even vaccination in all birds.
VACCINATION THROUGH A MEDICATOR
Vaccination through a medicator is one of the methods of vaccination
with live virus vaccines which is least recommended, although it is
a suitable method for administration of drugs, vitamins, etc.
Coccidiosis vaccination using a medicator should be avoided because
the Eimeria oocysts will tend to settle and the actual dose of oocysts
per bird will vary greatly, and so giving very poor results.
WATER VACCINATION
Water vaccination can also be accomplished using a water pump
to “inject” or “force” the vaccine into the water lines, which is a
popular and very effective method of mass application using the
drinking water for delivery of live vaccines. Water pump vaccination
requires a closed water system (nipple drinker lines) and can be
used successfully for delivery of vaccines against diseases or disease
agents such as IBDV or CIAV. As with other methods involving
water delivery, this one requires that the birds be thirsty prior to
delivering the vaccine to them. Wherever possible, the drinker lines
are raised high enough so as to prevent drinking by the birds in the
2-3 hours prior to vaccination.
Water vaccination requires flushing the drinker lines with fresh
water to minimize the amount of unwanted residues. Commercial
products can be used to clean the drinker lines thoroughly prior to
vaccination. Even after the use of commercial products, it is
recommended to flush the lines with clean fresh water before
vaccinating the flock. This is particularly important in operations
that have hard water, or in operations that have used antibacterial
drugs or other products that may have formed a film in the drinker
lines. Prior to vaccination, it is important to water-starve the pullets
to be vaccinated so that most will consume vaccine upon its
administration. Check the drinkers or nipple drinkers to ensure
they are clean and operational and shut down all water sanitizing
systems. Allow the birds to become thirsty by interrupting their
access to water.
38 PRODUCT GUIDE
The amount of time required for the birds to become thirsty will
depend on their age, environmental temperature, feed formulation,
etc. The goal should be for all pullets to consume the vaccine in a
matter of 60 minutes. If the birds consume the vaccine in less time,
it would mean they were too thirsty. On the other hand, if it takes
the birds more than one hour to fully consume the vaccine this
would be an indication that the water was not removed long enough
prior to vaccination.
A few essential steps for water vaccination are listed as follows:
• Clean and flush the water lines.
• Turn off the water sanitation system.
• Ensure proper functioning of the drinker system.
• Water-starve the pullets enough for them to consume the
vaccine in less than one hour.
• Verify that the vaccine to be administered has been stored
according to the manufacturer’s recommendations; that it is
still viable (before expiry); and maintain a record of the type of
vaccine, serial (lot) number, number of doses per vial and number
of vials used, as well as the expiry date.
• Reconstitute the vaccine in an aseptic manner and verify that
the number of vials used matches the number of doses to be
given. The amount of vaccine to be consumed in volume should
be equivalent to approximately 1/7 the total water consumed
the previous day.
• Use a commercially produced vaccine stabilizer or powdered
skim milk to help protect the vaccine viruses. Closely follow
the recommendations of the manufacturer of the vaccine
stabilizer. If skimmed milk is used, approximately 2.5g of well-
dissolved skim milk per liter of water plus vaccine is enough to
protect the vaccine from any residual chemicals or minerals in
the drinking water. Keep the reconstituted vaccine cool and
away from exposure to the sunlight.
• Deliver the vaccine into the drinkers and drinker lines. To ensure
a complete fill out of the drinker lines (pipes) add a visual aid
such as commercial blue dye and let the vaccine be flushed to
the end of the lines until blue dye is seen at the end of the lines.
At this time close the end of the water lines and allow the birds
to drink. If the vaccine is delivered into open water systems, it
is important to walk slowly through the house to stimulate
water consumption and to help distribute the birds in the house.
• Check at least 100 birds throughout the barn to verify that
they have consumed the vaccine. If enough dye was used, it
should be easy to observe a blue coloring of the tongue, head
feathers and occasionally the crop, which is visible through the
skin. Vaccine coverage of at least 90% should be a realistic goal.
dekalb-poultry.com 39
 SPRAY VACCINATION
Spray vaccination is used primarily for immunization against
respiratory viruses such as Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and
infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). However, it should be noted that
spray vaccination should involve the less invasive forms or strains
of viruses, such as the B1B1 strain of Newcastle, or H120 of
infectious bronchitis. In general, the more invasive the virus, the
better the protection against disease but the harsher the vaccine
reactions, especially in flocks infected with Mg or some strains of
MS. Coccidiosis vaccines are sometimes sprayed on the feed of
layer breeders in some areas. Some live Mycoplasma gallisepticum
vaccines (but not all) can be sprayed directly on chickens in the field.
Each type of equipment intended for spray vaccinations may be
different and the operator must be thoroughly familiar with each
piece of equipment and its spray patterns, pressure and particle
size. For example, pressurized sprayers are excellent to deliver
vaccine to the respiratory tract but because of the small particle
size that they produce, the vaccine will tend to remain suspended
in the air or it may be sucked towards the house fans if they are not
turned off prior to vaccinating the birds. With some types of sprayers
the equipment must be located not more than 50 cm over those
birds to be vaccinated. This method is therefore not practical for
mass application over chickens on the ground. Rather, sprayers
intended for horticultural use or pesticide application in the
horticultural industry have proved very popular and effective for
application of live respiratory vaccines in the field. The particle size
will range between 100 and 300 um, which is suitable for most
respiratory viruses. In general, spray vaccination is used for
protection against respiratory viruses and Mycoplasma in pullets;
and for protection against respiratory viruses in hens in production.
A few essential considerations for spray vaccination are listed as
follows:
• Prior to choosing spray vaccination to immunize chickens against
respiratory viral diseases, consider all possible options. Be
aware that spray vaccination against Newcastle disease and
Infectious Bronchitis generally provides better protection than
water vaccination, but vaccine reactions can be harsh,
particularly in Mycoplasma-positive chickens. Spray vaccination
against Infectious Laryngotracheitis should be avoided and
must never be done in chickens in production. Only vaccinate
healthy chickens.
• For adult flocks, verify the flock antibody titers prior to
vaccination. If antibody titers are low, vaccine reactions may
be harsh.
• Ensure that the vaccination equipment has been thoroughly
cleaned, disinfected and rinsed to remove all traces of vaccine
and disinfectant.
40 PRODUCT GUIDE
• Drive the birds (if reared on the floor) to an area of the barn
where they can be vaccinated without them flying or moving
freely away from the vaccination equipment.
• Calculate the total number of doses and the total volume of
diluent (distilled deionized water) required to vaccine all
chickens. The water used should not be chlorinated and should
have a pH of 5,5 to 7,0.
• Turn off the lights, brooders and ventilation system while
ensuring the birds do not overheat or suffocate. The flock
should be relatively calm at the moment of spraying the vaccine
on them.
• Reconstitute the vaccine aseptically and in the shade, and only
immediately prior to vaccinating the flock.
• Use appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including
protective mask and goggles.
• Adjust the spray nozzle to a proper droplet size. Coarse sprays
(>80-120 microns) are recommended for priming vaccinations
and also for invasive vaccines. Fine sprays (50-60 microns) are
recommended for boost vaccinations in older chickens, but
only after they have been primed with similar viruses.
• MG-infected chickens tend to react too severely to spray
vaccinations, particularly if the droplet size is too small.
• Use distilled water to dilute the vaccine (the amount should
be adjusted to every situation). If a pressurized spray apparatus
is used, it should be kept in mind that this type of equipment
delivers droplets with a diameter range of 50-1000 microns,
and thus only part of the vaccine will be inhaled. Thus, it is
necessary to spray the vaccine at a distance not larger than
50cm from the chickens. This type of equipment typically
requires a relatively large volume per chicken house (15-20
liters). For situations where a controlled-droplet application
apparatus is used, the droplet size is considerably more uniform
(~50-150 microns). Although the droplet size is more uniform
with this type of equipment, some of the droplets are too small
and may remain in suspension for quite some time after the
vaccine is sprayed. This may represent a problem because a
vaccine that stays in suspension a long time may decrease in
virus titer before it is inhaled and much of the vaccine ends up
on house and equipment surfaces but not in the chickens. In
addition, if much of the vaccine remains in suspension (in the
form of a mist), re-activating the ventilation system will draw
the vaccine out of the house through the exhaust fans.
• Only spray-vaccinate healthy birds. Avoid spraying birds that
are infected with MG.
• Adjust the nozzle to obtain the desired droplet size.
• Wear a mask and goggles for personal protection when spray-
vaccinating.
dekalb-poultry.com 41
 • Make sure the sprayer to be used is clean and has no residual
disinfectant. The vaccine containers of the spray apparatus
should be rinsed with distilled water prior to and after every
use.
• Use only one dose per bird or less.
• Reconstitute the vaccine only immediately prior to use.
• Close up the house including curtains and doors and shut the
ventilation system and dim the lights while the birds are being
vaccinated and if possible, during 20-30 minutes post-
vaccination (provided the air quality and temperature allow
for a temporary shut down without compromising the flock
integrity). If the flock is in a high temperature area, vaccinate
birds at night or early in the morning. Make sure the ventilation
system is not running at the time the vaccine is being applied
or that it runs at a minimum power. Dim the lights to a minimum
to settle the birds.
• Spray the birds evenly and thoroughly at least twice and ensure
that all calculated doses are used evenly. The heads and upper
body of the sprayed birds should appear wet after vaccination.
• Make a point of not leaving the farm without making sure the
ventilation system and the lights have been re-engaged.
Ventilation should be restored approximately 20 minutes after
the initiation of the vaccination process.
• Rinse, clean, disinfect and re-rinse the vaccination equipment
before leaving the farm.
• Destroy all residual vaccine and vaccine vials by incineration.
Follow local regulations regarding adequate disposal of vaccines,
vaccine vials and biological materials.
PARASITE CONTROL
The most common internal parasites in laying hens include coccidia,
Histomonas (“black head”), Capillaria worms, round (Ascaridia)
worms, and cecal (Heterakis) worms. External parasites frequently
seen in layer operations include the Northern fowl mite
(Ornythonyssus), the red mite or roost mite (Dermanyssus) - poultry
lice are less frequent but can occur in commercial operations. The
Northern fowl mite completes its entire life cycle on the birds,
whereas the red mite feeds on the birds only at night. As a whole,
mites are external parasites that must be controlled to avoid drops
in egg production, dermatitis around the vent, restless birds,
increased mortality and farm employee discomfort. Some mites
are known to carry other disease agents and can induce anemia if
the infestation is severe and thus must be controlled.
VACCINATION AGAINST COCCIDIOSIS
Pullets reared in battery cages do not ordinarily experience
significant internal parasitic diseases. However, if they have access
to droppings in the hen house because of the type of equipment
42 PRODUCT GUIDE
and manure removal systems, outbreaks of coccidiosis could
potentially occur. Regardless of the type of operation, it is important
to ensure immunity against coccidiosis, which can be accomplished
by using one of two common methods. Where legal, pullets reared
on the floor may be treated with anticoccidial drugs for 8-12 weeks
to allow for a gradual acquisition of immunity. Commonly used
drugs for this purpose include (not exclusively) amprolium and
salinomycin. However, other anticoccidial drugs have been used
successfully. Perhaps the best approach to control coccidiosis in
pullets reared on the floor is vaccination. Pullets can be vaccinated
by spray at the hatchery with one of the various commercially
available vaccines. It is important to use a commercial product that
will contain at least E. acervulina, E. maxima, E. tenella and E. necatrix.
Coccidiosis vaccines for broiler chickens do not contain E. necatrix,
an essential component of coccidiosis vaccines for longevity in
birds. When coccidiosis vaccines are used it is critical not to medicate
the flock with any drug that coccidia would be sensitive to, in order
to allow at least two complete coccidial cycles, which normally
occurs at approximately 14-16 days of age, depending on various
factors including litter moisture, bird density, environmental
temperature, etc. It is also important to allow vaccinated birds to
remain in the brood chamber for the duration of at least 2 complete
coccidial cycles before allowing them to occupy the entire barn. If
vaccinated pullets are given to the entire barn prior to the second
cycle being completed, many of them will not be properly immunized
and might develop coccidiosis at a later age, with the significant
consequences of increased mortality, delayed growth, poor
uniformity and the need for treating the flock. Specialty flocks may
not be treated with drugs of any kind and thus it is critical to ensure
proper coccidiosis control with the use of vaccines.
HISTOMONIASIS AND ROUND WORMS
Histomonas meleagridis (HM) is the causative agent of histomoniasis
(“black head”) and almost exclusively affects pullets reared on the
floor, particularly in premises with dirt floors. The condition, which
can be devastating, has made a comeback after the ban of many
anti-parasitic drugs and is difficult to control since there are no
drugs that can be used legally in many areas of the world. Because
the microscopic parasite depends to some extent on the life cycle
of cecal worms and earthworms, one of the strategies for control
involves the control of worms. Early administration of drugs against
round worms might contribute to maintain HM under control. The
layer industry most commonly uses piperazine and anti-worm
compounds from the family of the benzimidazole drugs such as
levamizole or albendazole. Controlling worms reduces the challenge
posed by HM. Where legal, HM infection may be treated with drugs
such as nitarsone, but even this drug is only partially effective.
Control of HM involves not only treating birds against worms, but
also proper cleaning and disinfection, adequate husbandry, and
proper coccidosis control, particularly of E. tenella.
dekalb-poultry.com 43
 MITES
The best form of prevention for mite infestation is biosecurity.
Infested flocks should never be visited before visiting mite- free
flocks. Mites can be mechanically carried from farm to farm in
clothes, footwear, on people, equipment, egg boxes, etc. Such
parasites usually thrive in sexually mature flocks and thus most
treatments become necessary while the infested flocks are in
production. Effective control requires direct application of
“acaricide” products. A variety of products can be used for mite
control, including pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates,
mineral-based products, vegetable oils, citrus concentrated extracts
and other products. Some of these products can be administered
by dry (dust) spray, or as a wet spray. Prior to using any of these
products it is critical to determine whether they are approved for
use in hens in production, and also whether the personnel applying
the products requires personal protective equipment.
Some products are less effective if applied dry but quite effective
when applied wet directly on the birds, which requires considerable
more time than the application of dry products. Treating birds
against mites is frequently expensive and it may be necessary to
treat an infested flock more than once. After the affected flock is
removed, thorough cleaning and disinfection and chemical treatment
of the premises and equipment is necessary. The best approach is
to exercise adequate biosecurity and never to transit from infested
flocks to clean flocks, or to share equipment and egg boxes between
infested and clean premises.
CONTROLLING GROUPS OF DISEASE BY
VACCINATION
Infectious diseases can be grouped by the organ system they affect.
Thus, infectious diseases can affect the respiratory, digestive,
nervous, urinary, reproductive and immune systems among others.
Other diseases tend to affect the integument (skin or cutaneous
tissues) and yet some others are considered a concern for food
safety.
RESPIRATORY DISEASES
Respiratory diseases of major concern in commercial layers include
Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, avian influenza, avian
metapneumovirus infection (swollen head syndrome), avian
mycoplasmosis (MG and MS), infectious coryza, avian pasteurellosis
(fowl cholera) and Gallibacterium anatis infection. All such diseases
or disease agents can be prevented or controlled by using a
combination of biosecurity and vaccination. In general, vaccination
against respiratory viruses is done with live vaccines followed by
killed (inactivated) vaccines. Live attenuated avian influenza vaccines
are not available, but recombinant vaccines and killed vaccines are.
Bacterial diseases (infectious coryza, fowl cholera and Gallibacterium
infection) are typically prevented by means of inactivated (killed)
44 PRODUCT GUIDE
vaccines or bacterins, which are given once or twice during the
rearing period. Bacterins are usually administered by intramuscular
or subcutaneous injection at approximately 10-14 weeks of age.
Live vaccines against viral respiratory diseases may be administered
by spray or in the drinking water once or multiple times while the
flocks are in production.
PERTITONITIS IN LAYERS
Peritonitis in layers is frequently caused by E. coli strains that are
unrelated to the E. coli strains which affect cattle or humans.
However, they can induce severe economic losses if there is no
adequate control. Colibacillosis associated with peritonitis in layers
is not strictly a respiratory condition, but E. coli can penetrate via
the respiratory tract (descending infection).
E. coli can also penetrate via an ascending route (via the reproductive
tract), or possibly from the intestinal tract, a mechanism that has
not yet been confirmed. Peritonitis in layers should be controlled
by a variety of approaches, including maintaining proper husbandry
practices, adequate ventilation, and vaccination against E. coli
among other strategies. Vaccination against E. coli in layers is a very
effective method of control and is commonly done by using live
vaccines by spray or in the drinking water twice during rearing,
once at hatch and once a few weeks later. Live E. coli vaccines can
also be given safely to flocks in production or close to the onset of
production, if they were not vaccinated during rearing.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Diseases of the digestive system that are preventable by vaccination
include the parasitic disease coccidiosis. Coccidiosis vaccines are
typically administered at the hatchery in ovo or by spray, or by spray
on the feed during the first week of life.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Diseases affecting the nervous system such as avian
encephalomyelitis (AE) require effective vaccination for prevention.
Flocks may be vaccinated via the drinking water or by transcutaneous
injection in the wing web, usually along with POX vaccination at
approximately 10-12 weeks of age. AE vaccines should not be given
for the first time before 10 weeks of age or too soon before the
flock initiates egg production because they can induce disease or
drops in egg production.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE URINARY AND
REPRODUCTIVE TRACT
Diseases affecting the urinary and reproductive tracts are
represented typically by infectious bronchitis. Prevention of
infectious bronchitis requires vaccination at various ages with the
same or similar serotypes of virus circulating in the field.
dekalb-poultry.com 45
 It may be necessary to vaccinate the pullets 3-4 times with live
viruses during rearing, and once with a killed vaccine containing at
least the same or similar serotypes circulating in the field. Still, in
many instances it might be necessary to vaccinate flocks in
production by spray several times in order to maintain a healthy
urinary, respiratory and reproductive tract.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Diseases affecting the immune system can be numerous. Well-
known diseases affecting the immune system include infectious
bursal disease (IBDV, or Gumboro disease), chicken infectious
anemia (CIAV), and Marek’s disease (MDV), the latter being a disease
that also causes tumors and mortality. IBDV can be prevented by
vaccination with live attenuated vaccines, immune complex vaccines,
or recombinant vaccines. Live attenuated vaccines are becoming
less popular because of the frequent need to give them multiple
times in order to control IBDV effectively during the rearing period.
Still, they have contributed very positively to the effective control
of IBDV in the field, particularly in floor rearing operations. Live
attenuated IBDV vaccines are given 3-4 times during the first 8
weeks of age, beginning with an initial application at approximately
14 days of age. It is not necessary to vaccinate commercial layers
against CIAV because they are only susceptible to this
immunosuppressive agent during the first 3 weeks of life, and the
layer parents should provide protection after being exposed and/
or vaccinated themselves. All layer pullets should be vaccinated
against MDV to prevent losses to mortality, immunosuppression
and tumors.
DISEASE AGENTS OF CONCERN FOR FOOD SAFETY
Salmonella control requires a very complex approach, part of which
involves vaccination. Where legal, vaccination against Salmonella
is one of the most effective means of control and is usually done
with live attenuated or genetically modified vaccines against S.
typhimurium, followed by killed vaccines against S. enteritidis or
containing other Salmonella serovars that may be residents in a
particular area or operation. It is recommended to use two live
Salmonella vaccines and at least one killed vaccine containing SE
and other serovars to reduce the probability of infection in the field.
References
1) Lewis, P. D. 1996. The domestic hen's response to photoperiodic influences. Pages
737-745 in Proceedings of XXth World's Poultry Congress. Vol II. New Delhi, India.
2) Lewis, P. D., G. C. Perry, and T. R. Morris. 1997. Effect of size and timing of photoperiod
increase on age at first egg and subsequent performance on two breeds of laying hen.
Br. Poult. Sci. 38:142-150.
3) Morris, T. R., P. J. Sharp, and E. A. Butler. 1995. A test for photorefractoriness in
high-producing stocks of laying pullets. Br. Poult. Sci. 36:763-769.
46 PRODUCT GUIDE
CONVERSION
TABLE
1 mtr. =3,282 feet 1 foot =0,305 mtr.
1 sq. mtr. =10,76 sq. feet 1 sq. foot =0,093 sq. mtr.
1 cub. mtr. =35,316 cub. feet 1 cub. foot =0,028317 cub. m.
1 cm. =0,394 inches 1 inch =2,54 cm.
1 sq. cm. =0,155 sq. inch 1 sq. inch =6,45 sq.cm.
1 kg. =2,205 lbs. 1 lb. =0,454 kg.
1 g. =0,035 ozs. 1 oz. =28,35 g.
1 ltr. =0,22 gallons 1 gallon =4,54 ltr.
1 bird per square metre =10,76 square feet per bird
3 birds per square metre =3,59 square feet per bird
4 birds per square metre =2,69 square feet per bird
5 birds per square metre =2,15 square feet per bird
7 birds per square metre =1,54 square feet per bird
11 birds per square metre =0,98 square feet per bird
13 birds per square metre =0,83 square feet per bird
1 cubic meter/kilogram/hour =16,016 cubic feet/lb./hour
1 cubic foot/lb./hour =0,0624 cubic meter/kilogram/
hour
F° =9/5 °C+32 °C =5/9 (°F-32)
45 °C =113 °F 22 °C =72 °F 10 °C =50 °F
40 °C =104 °F 20 °C =68 °F 8 °C =46 °F
35 °C =95 °F 18 °C =64 °F 6 °C =43 °F
30 °C =86 °F 16 °C =61 °F 4 °C =39 °F
27 °C =81 °F 14 °C =57 °F 2 °C =36 °F
24 °C =75 °F 12 °C =54 °F 0 °C =32 °F
1 Joule per second = 1 Watt = Volt x Ampere
1 KJ =1000J
1 MJ =1000KJ
1 MJ =239 Kcal
1 Kcal =4.2 KJ
1 KWh =3.6MJ - 860 Kcal
1 BTU =1055J
Warranty Disclaimer
This product guide for layers has been prepared by Institut de Sélection Animale B.V.
and its affiliates (“ISA”) with the greatest possible care and dedication to inform and
assist ISA’s customers on the various manners of production to improve their production
results while using ISA products. However, specific circumstances at the farm of the
customer may impact the usability and reliability of the statements and information
mentioned in this product guide. No implied or explicit guarantees are given by ISA
as to the accuracy and completeness of the provided information in this product
guide. Applying the information as stated in this product guide in the customers’
production environment remains a decision of the customer, to be taken at its sole
discretion. ISA will not be liable for any losses or damages whatsoever, whether in
contract, tort or otherwise arising from reliance on information contained in this
product guide.
7150-2
dekalb-poultry.com 47