SEQUENCE.

STRATIGRAPHY
APPLICATIONS TO EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT
OF THE OFFSHORE GULF OF MEXICO

Seis Stiat Services. Inc.

11111 Wilcrest Green, Suite 203
Houston, 1X 77042
Ph. 713 532-5588
Fa. 713 532-5599
LaauLl
FRAMEWORK OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY

1. INTRODUCTION

A. PURPOSE OF THE WORKSHOP

B. TOOLS FOR STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS

C. DEFINITIONS

11. EUSTACY, RELATIVE SEA LEVEL, SYSTEMS TRACTS

111. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY

A. CORRELATION

B. DATUMS

C. FACIES AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY

IV. SYSTEMS TRACTS ON A STABLE PROGRADATIONAL MARGIN

A. BASIN FLOOR FAN

B. LOWSTAND SLOPE FAN

C. LOWSTAND PROGRADING WEDGE

D. TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT

E. HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT

V. BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC BASIS OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY

A.THE STRATIGRAPHIC SIGNIFICANCE AND LIMITATIONS OF

BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC DATUMS AND TOPS

1. BENTHONIC FORAMS VS. PLANKTONIC FORAMS AND

 NANNOFOSSILS

2. SHELF VS. BASINAL SETTINGS

B. CONDENSED SECTIONS

1. DEFINITION OF CONDENSED SECTIONS

2. CRITERIA FOR RECOGNITION OF CONDENSED SECTIONS

3. STRATIGRAPHIC AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF

CONDENSED SECTIONS

4. STACKED AND COALESCED CONDENSED SECTIONS.

C. CONDENSED SECTIONS AS THEY RELATE TO SYSTEMS TRACTS.

1. CONDENSED SECTIONS WITHIN THE TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS

TRACT

2. CONDENSED SECTIONS DEVELOPED BETWEEN LOWSTAND

SLOPE FAN AND PROGRADING WEDGE SYSTEMS TRACTS

3. MINOR AND LOCAL CONDENSED SECTIONS WITHIN

PARASEQUENCES

VI. SYSTEMS TRACTS IN DIFFERENT AREAS AND ALONG DIFFERENT

CONTINENTAL MARGINS - APPLICATIONS TO EXPLORATION.

A. UPPER TUSCALOOSA GROUP - ONSHORE LOUISLANA

B. ST. PETER FORMATIONIPRAIRIE DU CHIEN GROUP -MICHIGAN

BASIN

VII. STRATIGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTION.

A. PRODUCTION BY DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES AND

SYSTEMS TRACTS.

B. STRATIGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTION IN A

FIELD.
 C. EXAMPLES OF PRODUCTION FROM SPECIFIC SYSTEMS
TRACTS.

IV. CONCLUSIONS.
WORKSHOP EXERCISES

There are four exercises in the clastics portion of the workshop and one in the carbonate
portion. The first three are to be done in teams of two and are designed to illustrate criteria
for sequence and systems tracts boundaries with various kinds of data. They will be done in
the afiernoon of the first day.

The fourth exercise is a mapping problem that involves a series of intersecting seismic lines,
three well logs, and a biostratigraphic report. The exercise is best accomplished in teams of
three or four. It will occupy the entire second day of the workshop. the carbonate exercise
will be done during the latter portion of the third day.

EXERCISE ONE

Recognition of sequence and systems tract boundaries on seismic data. LINE 1 will be
used to interpret sequence and systems tract boundaries using reflector character, continuity,
tmcation, onlap and downlap.

EXERCISE TWO

Use of well-log and biostratigraphic data to interpret sequence and systems tract
boundaries. Purpose of this exercise is to examine log patterns of the systems tracts. WELL
LOG 2 will be used in this exercise.

EXERCISE THREE
This exercise combines skills used in exercises one and two. A seismic section (LINE 3),
well-log (WELL-LOG 3) and high-resolution biostratigraphic data are used to determine
sequence stratigraphic frarnework for a specific area. In contrast to exercise one, variations
in seismic character are very subtle and analysis of al1 three data types is required to derive a
correct interpretation.

EXERCISE FOUR

This exercise will take the entire second day. Its purpose is to acquaint participants with
techniques used to delineate and map systems tracts, and seismic facies within them. These
data will then be used to select specific well locations.

The first part of this exercise focuses on recognition and correlation of systems tracts within
a depositional sequence in the mapping area. These systems tracts will be evaluated not only
in temis of their seismic character but also in terrns of typical well-log profiles, which occur
within them and their relationship to biostratigraphically defined condensed sections.
The second part will focus in on depositional facies in the slope fan systems tracts of this
depositional sequence. Our data suggest that the lowstand slope fan is the most productive
systems tract in the offshore Gulf Coast. However, it exhibits complex facies patterns and
can range from >75% to <5% sand. Therefore, special attention will be given to sand-prone
facies within this unit. We will also examine the basin floor fan systerns tract, as it is the
most productive systems tract per unit volume of sediment deposited.

Data derived fiom analysis of sand-prone facies in the slope fan and morphology of the
basin-floor fan will be combined with structural data to determine optimum well locations

MATERIALS FOR EXERCISE FOUR

Seismic Lines

Dip Lines: Strike Lines: Well-Tie Lines:

Line A Line E Well-Tie A
Line B Line F Well-Tie B
Line C Line G Well-tie C
Line D Line H

Well Logs
Well A
Well B
Well C

Biostratigraphic Report (Well B)

Checkshot Survey (Well B)
Velocity Data (Well B)

1:48000 (1"=4,000') Shotpoint Map

CARBONATE EXERCISE

Delineate systems tracts in rnixed carbonate siliciclastic-strata using well log, cuttings, and
seismic data.
 La traducción por la computadora

EL TALLER EJERCITA
Hay cuatro ejercicios en la porción de clasticos del taller y de uno en la porción de carbonato. El
primer tres deberá ser hecho en equipos de dos y es diseñado para ilustrar los criterios para la
sucesión y fronteras de trechos de sistemas con varias clases de datos. Ellos serán hechos en la tarde
del primer día.

El cuarto ejercicio es un problema de cartografía que implica una serie de cruzar las líneas de
sísmico, de tres troncos del pozo, y de un informe de biostratigrafia. El ejercicio se alcanza mejor en
equipos de tres o cuatro. Ocupará el segundo día entero del taller. el ejercicio del carbonato se hará
durante la porción postrera del tercer día.

EJERCITE UNO
El reconocimiento de la sucesión y fronteras de trecho de sistemas en datos de sísmico. FORRE 1
será usado para interpretar la sucesión y el carácter de reflector de usar de fronteras de trecho de
sistemas, la continuidad, truncation, onlap y downlap.

EJERCITE DOS
El uso de bien datos de tronco y biostratigrafia para interpretar la sucesión y las fronteras de trecho
de sistemas. El propósito de este ejercicio deberá examinar los modelos del tronco de los trechos de
sistemas. Pozo 2 serán usados en este ejercicio.

EJERCITE TRES
Este ejercicio combina las habilidades usadas en los ejercicios uno y dos. Una sección de sísmico
(Linea 3), bien tronco (Pozo 3) y los datos de la resolución alta de biostratigrafia se usan para
determinar armazón de estratigrafia de sucesión para un área específica. Ejercitar por contraste uno,
las variaciones en el carácter de sísmico son muy sutiles y el análisis de tipos de tres datos se
requiere a derivar una interpretación correcta.

EJERCITE CUATRO
Este ejercicio tomará el segundo día entero. Su propósito deberá informar a participantes con
técnicas están acostumbrado a delinear y trechos de sistemas de mapa, y facies de sísmico dentro de
ellos. Estos datos entonces se usarán para escoger las ubicaciones específicas del pozo.

La primera parte de este ejercicio enfoca en el reconocimiento y la correlación de trechos de

sistemas dentro de una sucesión de depositional en el área de cartografía. Estos trechos de sistemas
se evaluarán no sólo en términos de su carácter de sísmico pero también en términos de perfiles
típicos de tronco de pozo, que ocurre dentro de ellos y su relación al biostratigraphically las
secciones condensadas definidas.

La segunda parte enfocará en en el facies de depositional en los trechos de sistemas de ventilador de

cuesta de esta sucesión de depositional. Nuestros datos sugieren que el ventilador de la cuesta de
lowstand es el trecho de sistemas más productivo en la Costa de Golfo de mar adentro. Sin embargo,
exhibe los modelos complejos de facies y puede recorrer de >75% a -3% de arena. Por lo tanto, la
atención especial será dada al facies prono de la arena dentro de esta unidad. Examinaremos también
el trecho de sistemas de ventilador de piso de palangana, cuando es el trecho de sistemas más
productivo por el volumen de la unidad de sedimento depositado.

Los datos derivados del análisis de facies prono de arena en el ventilador de la cuesta y morfología
del ventilador de piso de palangana se combinarán con datos estructurales para determinar las
ubicaciones óptimas del pozo.

LAS MATERIAS PARA EL EJERCICIO CUATRO

Lineas de Sismico

Lineas de Depresión: Lineas de la Huelga: Pozo Líneas

Linea A Linea E Well-Tie A
Linea B Linea F Well-Tie B
Linea C Linea G Well-Tie C
Linea D Linea H

Pozos
Pozo A
Pozo B
Pozo C

El Informe de biostratigrafia (Pozo B)

La Inspección de Checkshot (Pozo B)
Los Datos de la Velocidad (Pozo B)

1:48000 (1 "=4,000') Mapa de Shotpoint

EL EJERCICIO DEL CARBONATO

Los trechos de sistemas de delinear en estratos mixtos de siliciclastic de carbonato que usan bien
tronco, cuttings, y los datos de sísmico.
RELATlONSHlP BETWEEN SYSTEMS TRACTS
AND EUSTATIC SEA-LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS

Highstand Systems Tract: Deposited during slow eustatic rise

to slow eustatic fall. Eustatic fall is less than rise associated
with subsidence so "relative" sea-leve1 rise occurs.

Transgressive Systems Tract: Deposited during fast

eustatic rise. Rate of rise increased by rise

Lowstand Slope Fan: Deposited during slow fall to slow rise Lower Lowstand
in eustatic sea-level. "Relative" sea-level rise occurs as the rate
of sea-leve1fall is less than rise associated with subsidence.

Eustatic fall - I

Eustatic Sea-leve1 Curve

The central postulate of sequence stratigraphy is that distinct sets of depositional systems
form as "relative" sea-leve1 (or base-level) nses or falls. "Relative" sea-leve1 is the sum of
eustatic sea-leve1 fluctuations and sea-leve1 changes associated with subsidence or uplift.
Along a passive continental margin subsidence occurs as a function of flexura1
downbending. Therefore, relative sea-leve1fa11can only occur when therate of eustatic fa11 is
greater that the rate ofrise associated with subsidence.

The sets of depositional systems are called systems tracts. Specific systems tracts form when
sea-leve1 is at a certain point and rising or falling at a certain rate. Although systems tracts
may be narned for specific depositional facies (e.g. slope fan) they represent time intervals in
which depositional facies fiom fluvial to abyssal plain are deposited. Significant changes in
depositional units in al1 environments may occur with changes in systems tracts. Therefore, a
different exploration strategy can be developed for each systemstract.

Seis Strat Services

11111 Wllcrest Green: Suite 203
Houston, Texas 77042
Phone: (713) 532-5588
FUX (713) 532-5599
 GLOSSARY OF COMMON SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY TERMS

The terms presented below represented those cornmonly used in the discipline of sequence
stratigraphy. They are not presented alphabetically, rather they are presented in logical
groups.

Eustatic Sea-Leve1 &es and fans: These are changes in sea-leve1 due to global fluctuations
in ocean size, volume or flooding along continental fi-eeboards. In the Neogene of the Gulf
Coast eustatic sea-leve1 fluctuations are probably due to variations in glacial ice volume.

Tectonic Subsidence: Subsidence due to local or regional tectonic activity along a

continental margin. Along a passive continental margin, subsidence occurs as underlying
continental crust cools and becomes heavier. Subsidence also occurs along these margins as
a fwiction of sediment loading. Along active continental margins both tectonic uplift and
subsidence may occur. Tectonic subsidence can create local or regional sea-leve1 rise. Uplift
results in local or regional sea-leve1 fall.

Relative Sea-leve1 fluctuations: These are fluctuations in sea-leve1 which develop as a

function of the effects of both eustacy and tectonic subsidence or uplift. Since tectonic
subsidence without any change in sea-leve1 will result in sea-leve1 rise, relative sea-
leve1 fa11 can only occur when the rate of eustatic fa11 is greater that the rate of rise
associated with tectonic subsidence. During times of eustatic rise, relative sea-leve1
rise is the sum of eustatic rise plus rise due to tectonic subsidence. Relative sea-leve1
fluctuations along active continental margins may be a function of both eustatic
changes and local tectonics.

Incised Valley: Valley cut into underlying strata during sea-leve1 fall.

Allocyclic Change: Change in the stratigraphic record which occurred as a function of

"external" phenomena, such as eustacy, tectonism or regional climatic changes.

Autocyclic Change: Change in the stratigraphic record which occurred as a function of

interna1 phenomena, such as delta lobe switching, strearn avulsion and other depositional
processes.

Sequence: A relatively conforrnable succession of genetically related strata bounded by

"Sequence boundaries" which are unconformities and their correlative conformities.

Unconformity: Surface along which erosion andíor sediment bypass has occurred.
Disconformity: Surface characterized by nondeposition.

Haitus: Time interval during which Iittle or no sediment is deposited in a given area.

Systems Tract: Set of depositional systems that develop when sea-leve1 is at a certain point
and rising or falling at a certain rate. This definition is confusing as specific systems
tracts include facies fiom al1 depositional environments. The names of the systems
tracts, however, irnply that they are comprised of depositional facies fiom a specific
environment. For example, the slope fan systems tract (described below) not only
includes facies deposited on the slope but also includes al1 depositional facies, fiom
fluvial to abyssal plain, formed during the time interval at which this systems tract
was deposited.

Definitions of each of the Svstems Tracts:

Lowstand Basin Floor Fan: The lowstand basin floor fan systems tract develops as sea-
leve1 is falls to a point below the shelf edge. Sedirnent is prograded farther and farther
onto the shelf edge, until at some point Oversteepening occurs and this sediment is
redeposited downdip in "basinJloorfans". These are thick, lobate sand-rich deposits
which develop in topographic lows. Deposition occurs by sediment gravity flow
processes below wave base. The flows are trapped in topographic lows when the slope
gradient is reduced and deposition occurs. Mud-rich debris flows may also be
deposited during this time interval. In shallow water, the basin floor fan systems tract
is characterized largely by erosion, however, some fluvial and nearshore deposition
may occur.

Lowstand Slope Fan: This is the most complex systems tract. It develops during the first
stages of sea-leve1 rise when sea-leve1 is still below the shelf-edge. Sediment is
transported through incised vaiieys created during sea-leve1 fa11 or through broad
topographic lows directly onto the slope The slope fan systems tract exhibits a variety
of depositional facies. In deep-water these include, channel levee complexes, slumps,
debris flows, fine- grained interchannel turbidites and fine-grained basin-plain
turbidites. In shallow water it may include fluvial and high gradient deltaic deposits.
Deposition occurs along dip-directed fainvays.

Lowstand Prograding Wedge: This systems tract is deposited when sea-leve1 is at or near
the shelf edge and rising slowly - slow enough such that sedirnentation can keep pace.
 Once sea-leve1reaches a point at or near the shelf edge, dip-directed movement ceases
and detritus is transported along strike by longshore currents. As a result, shelf-edge
delta complexes are formed. Examples of these include the downdip Tuscaloosa
Trend. In deep-water, lobate, sand-rich deposits called shingled turbidites are
deposited. Shingled turbidities are very similar in morphology to basin floor fans and
form by the sarne process.

Transgressive Systems Tract: The transgressive systems tract develops when the rate of
sea-leve1 rise greatly increases. Sedimentation can no longer keep pace and deltaic
progradation ceases. Much of the sand-sized sediment is deposited updip in estuaries.
Reservoir strata, occurs in these updip areas, Much of the outer shelf and slope are
covered with a relatively thin blanket of fine-grained clastics. Strata in this systems
tract often seals reservoir sands of the overlying prograding wedge.

Highstand Systems Tract: The highstand systems tract developed when the rate of sea-
level rise begins to slow and sedimentation can again keep pace. Deltaic progradation
begins again. However, these deltas are very different fiom those of the lowstand
prograding wedge. Sea-leve1 is far up along the shelf, instead of being at or near the
shelf-edge. As a result, wave energy is attenuated by movement along the shelf and
the deltas exhibit greater influence by fluvial processes than deltas of the lowstand
prograding wedge. Deposition occurs along dip-directed fainvays. The deltas also
contain a greater percentage of fine-grained sediment than deltas of the lowstand
prograding wedge. since fluvial processes are not as efficient as wave and current
processes in sorting sediment. In deep-water, highstand deposits tend to be relatively
fine-grained.

Transgressive Surface: Top of the lowstand prograding wedge and base of the transgressive
systems tract.

Maximum Flooding Surface: This surface is developed between the top of the transgressive
systems tract and the base of the highstand systems tract. It marks the point at which sea-
level is at its highest and terrigenous sedimentation is at its lowest.

Condensed section: This tenn defines intervals of a sequence where the amount of sediment
deposited is very low relative to the time in which the interval was deposited. Condensed
sections occur during the end of the transgressive systems tract and the beginning of the
highstand systems tract (bracketing the maximum flooding surface) and at the top of the
slope fan. In deep water, very low rates of deposition occur during the transition from the
lowstand slope fan to the lowstand prograding wedge systems tracts.
Forced Regression: This term defines progradation which occurs along the shelf as a
function of sea-leve1 fall.

Biostrati~ra~hic
terms:

Planktonic: Fauna or flora which live in the water colurnn

Benthonic: Fauna or flora which live on the sea-bottom.

Foraminifera: Single-celled animal which builds a shell of either carbonate (calcareous

foraminifera) or detrital grains (arenaceous forarninifera).Forarninifera may be either
benthonic or planktonic. Planktonic foraminifera are best for time information
whereas as paleobathymmetric data is derived fiom study of benthonic foraminifera.

Calcareous Nannofossils: These are small " m o r plates" which cover soft-bodied single-
celled organisms. These organisms are planktonic. When the organism dies the m o r
plates fa11to the sea bottom and are preserved in great numbers. Chalk is comprised
of "billions and billions" of calcareous nannofossils.

Abundance Peak: Condensed sections are generally characterized by a large abundance

of microfossils. When plotted in log fonn these condensed sections can be identified
by peaks which indicate major increases in microfossil abundance.

Diversity Peak: Peaks which suggest abrupt increases in the number of species of
microfossils. These peaks generally correlate with abundance peaks. However, there are
exceptions. Fauna1 diversity is generally much lower at condensed sections located at the top
of the slope fan systems tract than in condensed sections developed at or near the maximum
flooding surface.
ZNN
Pay Intervaid

Framework horizons are thuse near the pay interval

that are the easiest to interpret
. ~.
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lmportant infill horizons may not always be the 1
easiest to pick.
 Horizon A + ~(HorizonB -Horizon A)
Where x<l
Horizon A

Pseudo-Horizons
 ----
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4 * -
1Horizon Amplitudes Inac
 RANDOM LINE

osa
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Generally, You make your window approximately the size of

one half of the wavelet to the full size of the wavelet
 a
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 Sequence Stratigraphy
What's New?
Jory A. Pacht

1 1111 Wilcrest Green, Suite 203 Houston Texas 77479

(713) 532-5588 www. seis-strat.com

Seis Strat Services, Inc

Do we Need to Interpret Facies When We Can
Image Them?

DOME,
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.
? Demyttenaere, 2000

Seis Strat Services, Inc

 INCREASING SEDIMENT FLUX
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Change in Regression Type With Increases
and Decreases in Accommodation Space

'Normal"
A) Regressim

Relative Sea
Level Rise

'Normal' 'Forced"
Regression

Relatfve Sea
Level Fall

Note: Erosion may obscure this picture

Accommodation in Fluvial Facies
A)

a re - .. -4.-

G e i n Size
a)

C)
I
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L Equilibrium Profile
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D) Negative Accommodation
Erosion

Positive Accommodation
Deposition

Subsidence =
Positive Accom modation

Uplift = Negative
Accommodation

e Posamentier and Allen, 1999

Seis Sbat Serdcas, Inc
In a High Gradient Slope Environment Forced
Regression Deltas May Not Form

e Seis Strat Serviees, Ine

 What's More Important is What happens
on the Shelf During the Late Highstand

As sea-leve2falls the shelf is eroded

and deltas move closer to the shelf
margin. These deltas transitionfrom
fluvial-dominated to wave-dominated.

SALT&SHALE DIAPIRS -
v EPOSITIONAI
BARRER BARS

HEMlPELAGlC
DEUA FRONT

PRODELTA FACIES

~EXPANSIONALONG
v .\GROWTH FAULTS

6 Seis Strat Services, Inc

 Late Highstand Sands At the Shelf Margin May
Not Be Preserved But They Explain A Lot About

Late Highstand
MU#FRONT
(SAND PRONEt

BARRER BARS
(SAND PRONE
-PRODELTA FACIEL
I/ Valleys are Incised N

Ha
SED N
. ,LXPANSION ALONC

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GROWm FAULTS

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INCISED VALLEY

BASIN FLOOR FAN

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Relative Sea-leve1 b PILT AWD SHAL;71 - .

\SLUMPS

1 Early Lowstand 1
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 Where Incised Valleys Are Not Present the
Explanation May Be More Complicated
lNClSED VALLEY

Roho Basin Floor Fan - Outer Neritic to Upper Bathyal

G Seis Stiat Services, Inc

Primary Target - Cib Op 2 Interval

e Seis Strat Services, Inc

Early Lowstand - Basin Floor Fan

Commonly developed immediately on top

of sequence boundaries.
Characterized by amalgamated and layered
sheet sands.
Occurs along the downthrown sides of
growth faults in Roho fault basins and in
topographic lows within salt mini-basins.

e,i ' 2

Seis 51181 Serdces, Inc

CID
P

CID
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Things May get More Complicated When a
Distinct Shelf Break is Not Present

e seis strat Sewices, Inc

'Ti
 Resistivity Characteristics of
Channel and Overbank Strata

Channel Pay 10+ Ohms

Overbank Pay l + Ohm

e Seis Strat Services, Inc

Meandering Versus Straight Channels

Fill by Point Bar Aggradation 1

Prather et al., 1998
BF3
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 Development of the Late Lowstand- What
Happens at the Shelf

The Connection between Updip

Fluvial Facies and Downdip
Deep water Channels is Broken

SAU AND SHALF:

DIAPlRS
PRODELTA FACIES

Relative Sea-leve1
Rises to a point r
, EXPANSION ALONG
GROWTH FAUUS

somewhere beyond
the shelf margin
I

Seis Strat Services, Inc

 Incised Valleys Are Filled and
Shelf-Margin Deltas Are Formed

e Seis Strat Services, Inc

 Incised Valley Fill Play
TUSCALOOSA GROUP SEQUENCE
STIWTIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK

DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS IN
THE MASSIVE MEMBER
mRSE-ORUNEo
MEANOW-8ELT

e Seis Stnt Services, 1°C

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Connectivity Can be a Risk

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Seis Slral Seivices, Inc

Seismic from TGS
 Seismic Characteristics of Late
Lowstand Sands in Deep-Water

Mahaffie, 1998
Seis Strat Services, lnc
 Late Lowstand
Thick well-developed systems tract, even in
bathyal water depths.
Characterized by arnalgamated sheet and layered
sheet sands.
Deep-water sands occur as oblate sheets in both
Roho fault basins and salt mini-basins.

e Seis Strat Services, Inc

 We May Need to Go Way Updip to Make a
Play in the Transgressive Systems Tract

SWAMP & MARSH

DELTA
BARRIER BAR

HEMIPELAGIC
Tr SEDIMENTATION

- 1 Sheet S;

N Down Dip Play- Lowstand

Wave Dominated Deltas

e Seis Strat Services, Inc

Sands May Be Deposited in Estuaries in the
Transgressive Systems Tract

Although Gross thickness is

Unijiorm, Net thickness is Not

e Seis Strat Services, Inc

 Good Highstand Reservoirs Are Updip

MUD RlCH DELTAS

FLUVIAL DOMINATE0

F \ HEMIPELAGIC

SALT&SHALE DlAPlRS
F -v DEPOSITIONAL

@'Seis Strat Seivices, Inc Williams et al., 1997

 V

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Look For the Shoreface Strata in the
Highstand
 Biostratigraphy
Why Have We Been Doing it the
Same Way for 60 Years?

Seis Strat Services, Inc

 The Problem is That Tops Don't Always Work -
This is Especially True With Benthic Species

1 A well here would encounter

But a Well Drilled here

would find Amph. B
lower in the section

Rain water. 1964

Seis Strat Services, Inc
In the Mid-1980's a Different Approach
Was Developed
LmOSTRATIGRAPLm
C SYNTL mESIS
WELL NO. 3

SMALL QEPM
H. 8EUll 9720'
C. MAClNlYREl 4860'

5-
D. BROUWERI 6440e

D. BROUWERI *Am 6880'

D. PENTARADIATOS 7640'

SAMPLE OAP
Peaks represent periods
9000g
A. FAUNA 9460'
of very slow sedimentation
R PSEUMHIMBII They are named for bugs that
S. ABIES 1
occur within the vicinity of
the specifc peak.
This Approach Represented a
Major Advance.
The Problem is That Biostratigraphy
is Still being Done Solely By
Bistratigraphers
 The Answer is in the Changes at the Shelf
Margin

The Connection between Updip

Fluvial Facies and Downdip
Deepwater Channels is Broken
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MAPIRS PROMLTa FACIES
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When Dip-Directed
Sedimentation Ceases,
Slo w Hemipelagic
Deposition Occurs on
Top of Early Lowstand
Strata
e Seis Strat Services, Inc
Evaluation of Long Term Period of Low
Sedimentation

l 1
NANNOFOSSIL ABUNDANCE

I
D. PENTARADIATUS

CALCAREOUS OOZE iY
S. ABlES ACME
O

a -A. TRICORNICULATUS

- C. ACUTUS

W
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0 COALESCED CONDENSED SECTIONS

c J! Seis Strat Services, Inc

 Wanna See Something Really Scary?
Character Correlation Doesn't Always Work

v Seis Strai seivices, Inc

 Any Conclusions Made Regarding
Autocyclicity (Fill and Spill) or
Allocyclicity (Sequence Stratigraphy)
Without Biostratigraphic Data Are
Wild Ass Guesses

O Seis Strat Services, tnc

 Beyond a Certain Resolution; Any Relationship
Between Well Correlations and Reality May Be
Coincidental

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If You Correlated These Logs, Would Your Cross-Section Look Like This?
Slatt et al., 1994
Seis Strat Services, I ~ E
 How Do We Put the Outcrop Into the
Interpretation -Especially When Seismic is our
Major Dataset?

Proximal Fan

Sullivan et a l , 2000
) Seis Strat Serrrices, Inc
 How Do We Put the Outcrop Into the
Interpretation -Especially When Seismic is our
Major Dataset?
Step 2: Study the
outcrop(S) Proximal fan channel architecture illustrating the compensational
stacking of these narrow, erosionally based channels

Detailed photopan showing channel architec

WEST T

S-
O 1000 FEET 2000

Sullivan et a l , 2000
6 w Seis Stiat Beivices, Inc
 How Do We Put the Outcrop Into the
Interpretation -Especially When Seismic is our
Maior Dataset? w -
- -

L
Ross Formation (Transition from
Step 2: Study the Proximal to Nledial Fan 1

1000 500 O

Skoorsteenberg Formation (Transition

from Proximal to Medial Fan)
channel off-axis association channel axis association

O S00 FEET 1000

Sullivan et aL, 2000
bp
Seis Strat Services, Inc
 How Do We Put the Outcrop Into the
Interpretation -Especially When Seismic is our
Major Dataset?
Proximal Fan Channels:
Skoorsteenberg Formation
Outcrop Photo
Step 3: Fonvard ModeC
the Seismic Response

Sullivan et aL, 2000

 How Do We Put the Outcrop Into the
Interpretation -Especially When Seismic is our
Major Dataset?
Transition from Proximal to Medial Fan:
Ross Formation

Step 3: Forward Model

the Seismic Response 1

D C
46 Hz Seismic Response 30 Hz
2

Sullivan et a l , 2000
Seis Strit servicer, Inc
v
 How Do We Put the Outcrop Into the
Interpretation -Especially When Seismic is our
Major Dataset?
O

Step 4: Compare to
the Field Data

B
Proximal Fan Seismic Response

Sullivan et al., 2000

Seis Strat Seivices, Inc
w
 How Do We Put the Outcrop Into the
Interpretation -Especially When Seismic is our
Ma-jorDataset?

Step 4: Compare tu the

Field Data

Proximal to Medial
Fan Transition

Channel Cornple

Sullivan et aL, 2000

Seis Strat Services, Inc
 How Do We Put the Outcrop Into the
Interpretation -Especially When Seismic is our
Maior Dataset?
Reservoir Architecture lnterpretation
Between Diana Appraisal Wells
Step 5: Use Seismic, Wireline Core A

and Appropriate Outcrop Data To

Construct a Reservoir Model. Check
The Seismic Response of that Model
To the Field Seismic data

Sullivan et al., 2000

Seis Strat Services, Inc
 How Do We Put the Outcrop Into the
Interpretation -Especially When Seismic is our
Maior Dataset?

Seis Strat Servicer, Inc

 How Do We Put the Outcrop Into the
Interpretation -Especially When Seismic is our
Maior Dataset?
Step 7: Build Reservoir Model.

*-\=* -

Prox CM
6fMIU Distal COA
Medial COA
Pror COA
%oc#n a s m CA
- -
1 Facies Model----for a 1
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Distal
Fence Diagram
 -
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Do we Need to Interpret Facies When We Can
Image Them?

Demyttenaere, 2000

h.
Seis Strat Services, Inc
Effe

Instructor Jory A. Pacht; Ph.D.

Seis Strut Services, Inc.
11111 Wilcrest Green; Suite 203
Houston Texas 77042
japacht@seis-strat. com
www.seis-strat.com
Syste r n s ~ z c t sSeismic
, Facies, and Attribute Analysis Within a
Scquence-Stratigraphic Framework-Example from the Offshore
b-na Gulf Coast
jory A. &M,Bruce Bowen, Bernard L. Shafíer, and William R. Pottorf
aphy has developed almost as three separate
first, pioneered by Vail and others (1977),
sequence analysis. Sequence analysis is the study
izing and correlating regional stratal surfaces to
cleftrre genetically related rock units that represent discrete
tratigraphic intervals (Van Wagoner et al., 1988).
data are used extensively in sequence stratigraphy,
as W a r y seismic reflections are generated by time-
crxcrcbtive bedding surfaces, and surfaces that separate sets
ot rantemporaneous depositional systems (systems tracts)
(Van Wagoner et al., 1988).
T k a&nd discipline is commonly called seismic facies
andysis. Tt is defined as the description and geological in-
t@r$cgbtionof packages of seismic reflections. Parametcrs
withl~these packages include configuration, continuity,
phase, frequency, and intcrval velocity (Vail et
nt& P h M tliscipline is seismic attribute
analysis. Subtle
in properties of particular reflections are examined
mine rock properties, including fluid content (Seng-
bu&, 1962; Harms and Tackenburg , 1972; Domenico,
980; Balch et al., 1981 Slatt et al., 1987; and
Ow approach to exploration integrates these three disci-
propose that seismic interpretation should be
in three iterative stages: (1) Delineate depo-
t4tiMtrtP q u e n c e s and systems tracts. (2) Delineate and
ic facies within each systems tract. (3) Evaluate
within specific seismic facies. Well-log and bio-
ta must be integrated at al1 phases of this
ffort.
R
This paper describes techniques used in a regional study
of Plio-Pleistocenestrata in the south additions of the West
Cameron through Grand Isle areas, offshore Louisiana
(Fig. 2.1). These techniques have direct application to pet-
roleum exploration and development within the study area
and io analogous play types.
We examined over 20,000 line-miles of migrated seismic
data and 300 well-log suites. Detailed analyses of nannofos-
sils and planktonic foraminifera were conducted in 48 of
these wells. Depositional sequences were delineated and
then subdivided into systems tracts. Each systems tract was
further subdivided into seismic facies. Seismic facies were
mapped in each systems tract in each sequence, along with
total isochron thickness of the systems tract itself. These
maps and sections allow seismic attributes to be evaluated
relative to their location within specific facies.
Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis
Plio-Pleistocene strata in offshore Louisiana were divided
into depositional sequences. Each depositional sequence
was then divided into systems tracts. Finally, seismic facies
were delineated within each systems tract. Systems tracts
are sets of contemporaneous depositional systems (Brown
and Fisher, 1977) that develop when sea level is at a certain
position relative to the shelf edge, and is rising or falling at
a certain rate (Van Wagoner and others, 1988; Posamentier
et al., 1988) (Fig. 2.2). Although the lowstand basin-floor
fan, slope fan, and prograding wedge systems tracts are
named after specific depositional environments that are
parts of these systems tracts, they include al1 environments
within it. Thus, the lowstand slope-fan systems tract in-
Examples of a Sequence-Stratigraphic Frarnework

Figure 2.3. Scqucncc. systerns tract, and seisrnic facies

gcametry dcvclopcd along unstablc progradational,
passive wntinental rnargins.

ir.
mly slope-fm facies but ~ f l t e ~ p m r i w wU*m
de@& as =H.

unstable progradatianal ~:aa~Emntd

' wgIn
82; Winicer and Edwards, 1983). As a marlt,
aW exhibit different gsmne;tries aad &&rent
haracterristics (Vdl, lWB Mitehtim ér d., lm,
Pacht et al., 1989; 19@05i;19Nb) (Rg.%,?l. An apprnsh
xeifates seismic, weM-lag, m d biwhtigmphic data
:S8#&il io delineate sprcou tracts snd asswiMd E&-
mic faas-with t k highmt &@m of accufsicy ~ i M e .
-1

Ibbgi-
Caleareous nannofossils and phnktonic fominiha ex-
--
hibit aburidance p@ksat míixirmum ñooraing surfacm &he
between the tratragessivó and l&Wmd @yssrn&
hafleer, 1987, 1990; A m t r ~ w t ,1987, 1W;
al,, 19m; Pacht et J., 1998a; 19%&
1990). In severa4 sqlienes, a seasad
e top of the slope-ian sptsma
et al., 19439; Pacht et al., 1990) (R.2.4).
ndanee peak -6 a m d faz hi&mt mcunwe
specific nanmfossils &@&osplmktdc farmi-
m u r at OE near tbe peak [ S k h r , 19187).
nce peaks ar tfre madimtm 4kmbg mrf~~e: de-
en relative sera Wl d &L *@ a et
[Maq
L, 1887; Pmmwtk a d.,f 2.2).
At thiS time, the mte af k r r l ~ e m u dm~ i = a t & ~ aws re-
lative1L.v.-+-A
Therefore, planktonk micr~fmsilrn n pre-
 Pacht et al.

I 1 Figure 2.4. Diagram illustraiing the relation between systems

tr&s, well-log irofiies, and abúndance peaks.

ABUNDANCE CURVE

identified by examining both the bounding surfaces and the tive sea-leve1 fall, which occurred when the rate of eustatic
seismic facies contained within them. Systems tracts in Plio- sea-level fa11 was greater than the rate of rise associated
Pleistocene strata of offshore Louisiana also exhibit specificwith subsidence (Jervey, 1988; Posamentier et al., 1988;
upward-coarsening, upward-fining, and aggradational pat- Vail, 1987) (Fig. 2.2). Sandy sediment was prograded far-
terns on spontaneous potential and deep induction well- ther out onto the shelf during sea-leve1 fall. At some point,
logs. Specific criteria used in delineating systems tracts andperhaps near the shelf-edge, oversteepening occurred, and
associated facies on seismic and well-log data in these stratasediment was transported downdip into nearby intraslope
--- A:---i~~ed below. basins by sediment gravity flows (Pacht et al., 1990b) (Fig.
2.5). Much of the shelf was greatly eroded during this time
interval.
wstand Basin-Floor-Fan Systems Tracts Basin-floor fans in the study area are characterized by a
continuous reflection that either downlsips or onlaps against
,..;tand basin-floor fans are the basa1 systems tracts with- the underlying sequence boundary 2.6). Alternative-
1 the depositional sequences. They developed during rela- ly, it may abut against the downthrown side of a growth
 iples of a Sequence-Stratigraphic Framework 25

: 2.5. block diagram illusirating lowstand

floor tan systerns tract as developed in
,re Louisiana.

Figure 2.6. Seismic section showing a basin-floor fan. A gas

6cld is developed within this basin-floor fan. Nearly 100 bcf
d from this field in only three years on-

füult (Table 2.1). Where this upper boundary is not a good
rcflcction, it can be d e k e d by a series of downlapping
reflections in the overlying slope fan. Basin-floor fans are
commonly less than 300 feet (91.5 m) thick. Wherc they are
thick enough to exhibit interna1 reflections, these reflec-
tions are poorly defined, or the fan is characterized by a
transparent zone. Basin-floor fans in offshore Louisiana
occur in local topographic lows and are commonly charac-
Lo wstand Slope- Fan Systems Tructs
Slope-fan systems tracts developed during the first stages of
relative sea-leve1 rise (Vail, 1987; Posamentier et al., 1988;
Jervey, 1988; Pearlmutter, 1985) (Fig. 2.2). Sediment
stored in glaciers was released and flowed downslope
through topographic lows on the shelf directly onto the
slope. In contrast to deposits on stable progradational con-
~ r g i n (as
s described by Vail, 1987), contempor-
 Pacht et al.

able 2.1 Seismic, well-log, and lithologic characteristicsof seismic facies in Gulf Coast systems tracts.

dowmaps against the sequence boundary or

abuts against the downthrown side of a growth
fault.
tand S l o p Fan Channel-levee Facies Channels exhibit concave-upward reflections. Channels commonly exhibit aggradational or
Levees exhibit dis~ontinuouslo semi- fining-upward sequences of blocky sands.
continuous reflections that downlnp away Some chagliels may be shab-filled, however.
from them. Levees exhibit variable lithologies.
Chaotic Facies Random discontinuous seismic reflections. Chwtic facies are commonly sand-nch where
they were formed by small channel-leveecom-
plexes. They exhibit variable Lithology where
they were formed by mas8 wasting.
Overbank Facies Discontinuous to semi-continuousseismic reflec- This facies is generally mud-rich. Thick muds
tions that are subparalld to the seqwnce are separated by spiky aggradational san&.
boundary.
Hemipelagic Facies Parallel semi-continuous to continuous reflec- Thick clays and muds. These muds are carbon-
tions. These reñections may exhibit moderate ate rich in some cases.
to high amplitudes.
Updip Parallel Facies ~aralle¡semi~continuousto continuous reflec- Variable lithology. The facies exhibits aggrada-
tions. tional,coarsening-upward,or fining-upward
sequences of sand, silt, and mud. Strata com-
monly correlatable over several miles.
Lowstand Prograding Semicontinuousto Semi-continuous to diseontinuousreflections Generally sand rich but may be mud rich in
Wedge Continuous Facies that are either concordant or diverge toward oome areas. Well logs generally exhibit
the downrhrown sides of growth faults. coarsening-upwardsequemes wliere they rep-
resent delta-front sedimentation. Finding-
upward sequences are developed in associated
delta piain and fluvial deposits, and agrada-
tional deposits are commonly formed by sedi-
ment gravity Raws.
High-amplitude Reflection or set of reflections that exhibit higb This facies commonly forms at impedance con-
Facies to very high amplitude. trast between ciean sandstones at the top of a I
warsening-upward sequence and muds at the
base of the sequence that overlies it. The
facies aloo rnay occur where thick muds are
deposited on top of the s l o p tan.
Chaotic Facies Random discontinuousseismic reflections. Lithology is highly variable; however, most de-
posits are mud rich.
Semicontinuousto Semi-continuous todiscontinuous rekctions This facies is usually composed of thick muds.
Discontinuous that are concordant. Rare divergente toward Poorly developed fining-upward sequences
Facies the downthrown sides of growth faults. Inter- are wmetimes present.
val is usually thin and commonly below seis-
mic resolutlon.
Chaotic Facies Random discontinuousseisrnic reffections. Facies is mud rich.
Semicontimous to Semi-continuous to discantinwus reflections Facies exhibits thick muds and silts or poorly
Discontinuous that are concordant or Qivergetoward the developed, mud-rich coarsening-upward
Facies downthrown sides of growth faults. sequences.
Chaotic Facies Random discontinuousseismic reflections. Facies is mud- and silt-rich.
Examples of a Sesuence-Stratinra~hic Framework

lwstand slope-ian systcms tract, as de-

vclopcd in offshore Louisiana.
Sand-Prone Channels

lineated by the change in reflection style from the more
continuous reflections of the underlying highstand or basin-
íioor fan systems tracts. The sequence boundary commonly
does not exhibit a well-developed reflection.
The slope fan systems tract is characterized by severa1
processes were named for those features and processes.
J
Facies that may develop by several depositional processes
were given descriptive names.
Channel facies in the slope-fan systems tract are defined
by curved, concave-upward reflections that vary in size
j
-

facies, each of which exhibits specific reflection geometries

(Weimer, 1989, 1990; Feeley et al., 1990; McHargue and
Webb, 1986). These reflection geometries include channel,
from 2 miles (3.23 km) in width to less than seismic resolu-
tion. Associated levee reflections are cut by channel reflec-
tions, and downlap away from them (Fig. 2.8). These chan-
1
,'

Icvee, overbank, chaotic, hemipelagic, and updip parallel
dcposits (Pacht and others, 1990a, 1990b) (Table 2.1).
Facies that represent individual depositional features or
nels and levees commonly occur in stacked complexes. The
overbank facies exhibits semi-continuous to discontinuous
reflections that are subparallel to the sequence boundary.
1
' l.

lowstand slopc-fan systcrns tract

= channel: Iv = Icvcc).

This facies develops alongside channel-levee complexes
(Fig. 2.9).
Channels commonly exhibit thick, well-sorted sandstones
or sandlshale fining-upward sequences. Levees associated
with large channels may exhibit thick, well-sorted sand-
stones as well, although their lithology is highly variable.
Overbank facies, however, are commonly mud-rich (Fig.
2.4). Sandstone percentage decreases greatly away from
channel-levee complexes.
Chaotic facies exhibit random, discontinuous reflections
(Fig. 2.9). Well-logs through this facies suggest that it con-
Figure 1.9. Overbiink iind chiioiic
facies in a slope-f:in sysiems rrnct.
Diagram also shows n bnsin-Roor
fan (bff = b~isin-floor Lin f;icics:
ot>= ovc.rt);ink I'acics; cli = chiiotic
facies).
tains less than 10% to greater than 70% siindstone. Chitotic
facies may be formed by mass wasting and gravity sliding of
both sand and mud-rich masses. In addition, a series of
nested channel complexes at or near seismic resolution will
also exhibit a chaotic pattern. Chaotic facies that represent
stacked channel-levee complexes generally exhibit greater
than 50% sand.
Hemipelagic facies exhibit continuous to semi-continu-
ous reflections, which in some cases, are high in amplitude
(Fig. 2.10). This facies consists largely of carbonate-, mud-,
and clay-rich shales, probably deposited largely by
Figure 2.10. Hemipelagic facies of the slope-fan systems
tract. This amplitude anornaly was formed by carbonate-rich
ooze. No sand or hydrocarbons were observed.
Examples of a Sequence-Stratigraphic Framework
hcmipelagic processes (Pacht et al., 1990a). It also may also
include deposits of other systems tracts that are highly con-
dcnscd and are below seismic resolution.
Rcflcction characteristics in the updip parallel facies are
similar to those developed in the hemipelagic facies;
howcver. the updip parallel facies may contain thick sands.
Thc updip parallcl facies is characterizcd by aggradational
~indcoarsening-upward sandlshale sequences. This facies
probably represents shallow-water, fluvial-deltaic strata
(Pacht ct al., 1990a).
Although lithologies of the hemipelagic and updip par-
allcl facies are very different, both facies exhibit analogous
scismic signatures, probably beeause the geometry of de-
positional units within them is quite similar. Clastic units of
thc updip parallel facies can be correlated over severa1
miles and exhibit little thickness variation rclative to the
rcsolution of seismic data. Hemipelagic units are character-
ized by thin turbidites interspersed between accumulations
of pclagic debris. These units also exhibit uniforni litliology
iind thicknesses over large areas.
Lo wstattd Progradirig Wedge Systerns Tracr
Lowstand prograding wedges developed when sea leve1 was
at or near the shelf edge and was rising at a rate slow
cnough for sedimentation to kecp pace (Vail, 1987;
Posamentier et al., 1988) (Fig. 2.2). Deltas dcvcloped at or
ncar the shelf margin (Pacht and others, 1990a) (Fig. 2.1 1).
Since wave energy was not dissipated by movement across a
broad, shallow shelf, it remained relatively high, and these
deltas were commonly marine-dominated (tcrm from
Figure 2.11. Block diagrarn illustrating the
lowstand prograding-wedge systerns tract, as
dcveloped in offshorc Louisiana.
Galloway, 1975). The deltas deposited well-sorted rescrvoir
sands that extend several miles along strike.
The morphology of this systems tract in the study area,
however, is quite different from lowstand prograding wedgc
deposits developed along stabk progradational margins (as
defined by Haq ct al., 1987; Vail. 1987; and Posamcnticr ct
al., 1988). Progradation is not observed in seisrnic sections.
Instead, reflections diverge toward thc downthrown sides of
growth faults (Fig. 2.12).
These reflections are commonly semi-continuous to con-
tinuous and exhibit low to moderatc amplitudes. Chaotic
facies and continuous high-amplitude reflcctions are also
present (Tablc 2.1). The lower boundary of this systems
tract is commonly defined by onlap andlor downlap onto
the slope-fan systems tract. Strata of the lowstand prograd-
ing wedge also may exhibit greater reflection continuity and
less variation in reflection amplitudc than the undcrlying
slope-fan deposits (Fig. 2.12).
The lowstand prograding wedgc is commonly sand-rich.
although it is characterized in many arcas by thick shalcs.
Well logs exhibit coarsening-upward pattcriis (Fig. 2.4)
throughout much of the study area. High-amplitudc rcflcc-
tions (as opposed to "bright spots," which are discussed
later in this chapter) in this systems tract commonly are
formed by the acoustic impedance contrast between sands
at the top of one of these coarsening-upward sequences and
shales at the base of the succeeding one. Altcrnatively,
high-amplitude reflections in this systcms tract may also bc
formed by thick shales deposited irnmediately above the
lowstand slope fan.
Fining-upward sequences are observed in proximal units
of this systems tract, near the northern boundary of thc
 Piichi e1 al.

Figure 2.12. Seismic section of the lowstand prograding wedgesystems tract (co = continuous to semi-continuous facies; ch = chaotic facies; ha = high-
amplitude facies).

study area. In contrast, downdip equivalents of the low- posits probably formed as a result of transport by sediment
stand prograding wedge may exhibit aggradational se- gravity flows. Slump scars characterized by chaotic fill are
quences and thick, well-sorted sands. sometimes observed updip of these aggradational units.
Coarsening-upward sequences were probably formed The lithology of the chaotic fill varies considerably; how-
largely by delta-front sedimentation. Updip fining-upward ever, it comrnonly contains a greater arnount of mud thnn
sequences may have formed in the associated delta-plain deposits characterized by more continuous reflections in
and fluvial deposits, whereas downdip aggradational de- this systerns tract.

Figure 2.13. Block diagram illustrating trans-

gressive systems tract as developed in off-
shore Louisiana.
Exarnples of a Sequence-Stratigraphic Framework
I'igiirc 2.14. Scismic seclion oí ihc transgrcssivc and highstand systcins tracts. This figurc shows onc of thc iI\ickcst cxamplcs of ihc 1r;iiisgrcssivc syslcins
[r;ict in thc siudy arca (HST = highstand systcms iract; TSI' = tr¿insgrcssivcsystems irzici; co = contiiiuous to disconiinuous Iiicies; cti = chaotic Cacics).
Transgressive Systems Tract
The transgressive systems tract developed when the rate of
sea-level rise increased to the rate at which sedimentation
could no longer keep pace (Fig. 2.2), and the shelf was
flooded. Deltaic progradation ceased, and most sand was
trapped in updip estuaries (Posamcntier et al., 1988; Vail,
1987) (Fig. 2.13).
The transgressive systems tract is very thin over much of
the study area and is commonly below seismic resolution.
Where it is thick enough to be interpreted, it is generally
characterized by discontinuous to semicontinuous, concor-
dant reflections (Fig. 2.14, Table 2.1). Some chaotic bed-
ding is also present. Little to no thickening is observed
along the downthrown sidcs of growth faults in this unit.
Thc transgressive systems tract is separated from deposits
of the lowstand prograd;ing wedge by the transgressive sur-
face (Haq et al., 1987; Vail, 1987; Van Wagoner et al.,
1988). This surface is comrnonly defined by a reflection ex-
hibiting moderate to high amplitudc. Most classic structure
maps in this area were made on transgressive surfaces.
Well-log data suggest that the transgressive systems tract is
dominantly composed of mud and clay. Poorly developed,
lining-upward sequences are sometimes observed at the
base of the unit; however, sandstones are relatively rare
(Fig. 2.4).
P.R. Vail (personal communication, 1988) and Pacht et
al. (1989) observed that the base of the transgressive sys-
tems tract may be characterized by a very well-sorted sand.
This sand was probably deposited during development of
the lowstand wedge and reworked by shelf currents during
development of the transgressive systems tract. However,
without core data, the reworked sand layer is hard to differ-
entiate from clean sands deposited during formation of the
lowstand prograding wedge. In this chapter, therefore, thc
reworked sand layer is considered to be part of the low-
stand prograding wedge.
Highstand Systems Tracr
Highstand systems tracts developed when the rate of rela-
tive sea-level rise slowed to the rate at which sedimentation
was able to keep pace again (Vail, 1987; Posarncnticr ct al.,
1988). Sediment prograded seaward in largc deltaic com-
plexes. These deltas however, were tluvial dominated, as
opposed to the marine-dominated deltas observcd in the
lowstand prograding wedge (Pacht et al., 19!90a) (Fig.

Mud Rich Deltas
2.15). The deltas are developed well updip of the shelf mar-
gin, and wave energy is attenuated by movement across the
shelf.
Highstand strata in offshore Louisiana are defined by
semi-continuous to discontinuous reflections on seismic
data. Progradational sequences are rare. Instead, reflec-
tions are either concordant or diverge slightly toward the
downthrown sides of growth faults (Fig. 2.14). Some chao-
tic facies are present. The highstand systems tract is sepa-
rated from underlying deposits of the transgressive systems
tract by the maximum flooding surface (term from Haq et
al., 1987; Vail, 1987) (Fig. 2.2). Since this surface is com-
monly not characterized by downlap of the overlying high-
stand systems tract (as is the case along stable prograda-
tional margins; Haq et al., 1987), it is commonly difficult
to identify without well-log and biostratigraphic data.
Well-logs in the highstand systems tract exhibit either
silt- and mud-rich coarsening-upward sequences or thick
shales (Fig. 2.4). The highstand systems tracts in the study
area are usually less than 300 feet (91.5 m) thick. However,
local highstand depocenters are present in which these
strata are over 2,000 feet (609.8 m) thick. These depocen-
ters trend along dip.
Sysrems Tract Mapping
Sequence, systems tract, and facies boundaries, as well as
al1 structural features (faults, salt diapirs, etc.), were tied
throughout the data grid, and maps were constructed for
each systems tract. The maps show isochron thickness and
seismic facies for individual systems tracts as well as struc-
tural attributes.
Pacht et al.
Figure 2.15. Block diagram illusirating highstand sys-
tems tract facies as developed in offshore Louisiana.
An example of a map within a slope-fan systems tract can
be shown to illustrate the techniques involved in their con-
struction (Fig. 2.16). Similar techniques were used in con-
structing maps from each systems tract.
Multiple seismic facies may occur within a given thick-
ness of strata at any particular point. Therefore, certain
rules were set up for mapping each systems tract. For exam-
ple, channel, overbank, and chaotic facies occur in the
slope-fan systems tract shown in Fig. 2.16). Since both
overbank and chaotic facies are common in this systems
tract, if the systems tract exhibited greater than 50% chao-
tic facies, it was mapped as such. If it exhibited greater than
50% overbank facies, this was plotted on the map.
Channels, however, were plotted regardless of the rela-
tive percentage of this facies in the overall systems tract.
Channels were noted on maps wherever they occurred
within the specific systems tract. Therefore, channel facies
shown on the map may not correspond to individual chan-
nels that developed contemporaneously. Instead, they may
represent channel complexes developed within the systems
tract throughout its depositional history. Chaotic facies pro-
ximal to growth faults probably developed by mass wasting,
whereas chaotic facies developed near and along the
periphery of the major channel complexes may represent a
series of smaller channel complexes.
Exploration Strategy
Once seismic facies within each systems tract were defined
and mapped, specific exploration strategies were devised to
locate reservoir sands in these units and to properly evalu-
ate amplitude anomalies within them.

Figurc 2.16. Facies and isochron thickness map of part of a lowstand
slopc-fan systems tract in thc south additions of offshorc Louisiana. Thick-
ncsscs are in milliscconds.
Seismic attributes (arnplitude, phase, and frequency of
specific wavelets) are widely studied in the Gulf Coast
due to their value as direct hydrocarbon indicators. Plio-
Pleistocene gas sands in the offshore Louisiana Gulf Coast
are normally unconsolidated and undercompacted. They
exhibit lower impedance than encasing shales and water-
wet sands (Rutherford and Williarns, 1989; Domenico,
1974). As water saturation is reduced, sand vclocity de-
creases as a function of increasing fluid cornprcssibility
(Gassman, 1951; Dornenico 1974). A largc iiiipedance con-
trast devclops, and an amplitude anornaly is comnioiily
observed on stacked scismic scctions (Fig. 2.17). 7
Unfortunatcly, rnany othcr geologic variables can rcsult 1
in large irnpedancc contrasts in these sections. For exam-
ple, carbonatc-rich slialcs cxhibiting high sonic vclocitics.
overlain by lower-velocity silt- and rnud-rich shalcs may
also cxliibit a wcll-dcfincd arnplitudc niiomnly (Doniciiico,
1980) (Fig. 2.10). Dornenico (1980) and K.M. Slatt (pcr-
sonal communication. 1981) obscrvcd that shales in thc
Gulf Coast rnay exhibit velocities that are rnuch faster or
rnuch slower than the sands they surround. Srnall variations
in shale composition can crcate largc variations in both
velocity and density. Finally, Gardner ct al. (1974) notcd
that arnplitude aiiornalics dccrcasc in intcnsity with depth.
Altcrnativcly, rescrvoirs characterizcd by rnultiple. thin
pay zones, or those overlain by shales with similar irnpc-
dance, rnay not show arnplitude anornalies (Rutherford iind
Williarns, 1989; Anstey, 1980) or rnay show anornalies that
are very small relative to reserve size. Therefore, attributc
analysis rnust be done within a sequence-stratigraphic
framework.
Basin-jloor Fan
The basin-floor fan systerns tract is the rnost productive in
the Gulf Coast per unit volurne of sedirnent (Fig. 2.18).
Basin-floor fans are relatively local, however, and de-
veloped in topographic lows. Where present, hydrocarbons
are trapped along updip pinchouts (Figs. 2.6, 2.19). Thesc
fans are generally not present along the tops of large struc-
tures.
Amplitude anornalies rnay not be associated with hydro-
carbon accurnulations in this systems tract. Basin-floor fans
are cornmonly overlain by shales of the overlying, dista1
'
slope fan. These shales are cornrnonly organic rich, and
 Pacht et al.

45
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0 20
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15

10

O
HST PW SF BFF

Figure 2.18. Histogram illustrating relative amounts of production per systems tract in gas and oil fields within the study atea. HST = Highstand systems
tract; PW = Prograding wedge; SF = Slope fan; BFF = Basin floor fan.

Figure 2.19. Seismic section across the same basin-floor tan as

shown in Figure 6. This section shows a trap developed along
an updip pinchout.
Examples of a Sequence-Stratigraphic Framework

Figure 2.20. Oil and gas field within a

clopc-fan systems tract. This field is
cli;iracicrizcdby srnall arnplitude ano-
iii;ilics. which cxhihit concavc-upward
piiicrns chariictcristic o[ channcls in
l l i i \ \!slcms lrilct.

rnay be characterized by relatively low velocity and density. Slope-fan fields commonly produce from many reservoir
Therefore, the impedance contrast between gas-saturated sand bodies. Although these sand bodies may be intercon-
sands in the basin-floor fan and overlying shales may be nected, each one exhibits limited areal extent.
relatively low.
Alternatively, basin-floor fans may also cxhibit "false
anomalies" (high amplitudes not associatcd with hydrocar- Lowstand Prograding Wedge
bons). The impedance contrast between well-sorted sands
in thc basin-floor fan and the muds that overlie it and The lowstand prograding wedge is the most sand rich and
underlie it may be sufficient to produce high amplitudes. second-most productive systems tract in the Gulf Coast
Basin-floor fans may be the most underexplored rescr- (Fig. 2.18). It also has been the most explored. Large, thick
voirs in the Gulf Coast, because they occur well away from sands that trend along strike are frequently present, and
the crests of large structures. There are many examples of most classic hydrocarbon anomalies occur in this systems
undrilled basin-floor fans throughout offshore Louisiana tract (Fig. 2.17). Reserve size can be more accurately re-
(Fig. 2.9). lated to the geographic extent of specific hydrocarbon
anomalies than in the slope-fan or basin-floor fan systems
tracts.
Slope-fan System Tract Stratigraphic traps are commonly not developed in this
systems tract due to'its sand-rich nature. Most hydrocar-
The slope-fan systems tract is the most productive systems bons occur in classic structural traps. The critica1 element in
tract in the study area (Fig. 2.18) (Pacht et al., 19YOb). plays in this systems tract is not reservoir, but rather the
Much of this production occurs in channels and levec de- presence of sea1 facies, in either the lowstand prograding
posits near channels. Sandstone percentage is commonly wedge or overlying transgressive systems tract. Fields are
rnuch lower in overbanbfacies. generally characterized by fewer, larger, and more con-
Large, continuous amplitude anomalics (such as Fig. tinuous pay zoncs than are observed in the slope-fan sys-
2.17) are usually not present in slope-fan gas fields. If pre- tems tract.
scnt at all, amplitude anomalies may be small and follow Deep-water reservoirs are also developed in this systems
the concave-upward pattern associated with channel de- tract in downdip turbidite equivalents of the shelf-edge
posits (Fig. 2.20). However, small anomalies in the slope- delta facies. Since these sands were already extensively win-
fan systems tract may be characteristic of much larger re- nowed by shallow-water marine processes, they are often
scrves than similar-size anomalies in other systems tracts. very well sorted and can exhibit excellent porosity.

Highstand and Transgressive Systerns Tracts
Hydrocarbons are relatively rare in both the transgressive
and highstand systems tracts within our study area. The
transgressive systems tract contains few reservoir sand-
stones. Most sands were deposited north of the study nrea,
along more proximal portions of the shelf, during develop-
ment of transgressive systems tracts.
Minor hydrocarbon production occurs in the highstand
systems tract. Fields in this systems tract are commonly
small, although they may exhibit well-defined hydrocarbon
anomalies. Production often occurs in delta-front snnds.
"False bright spots" (amplitude anomalies not associated
with production), however, are also quite common. Well-
log data suggest that some of these form as a result of im-
pedance contrasts developed between shales of different
cornpositions.
Conclusions
Seismic attribute analyses of one sort or another have often
been presented as "black-box solutions" to the problems of
petroleum explorationists. Case studies are published that
illustrate successful use of a particular technique, and the
technique is then used by other scientists in different areas.
Initial enthusiasm, however, is rapidly followed by disillu-
sionment. Attempts to use wavelet properties to interpret
fluid or rock properties yield non-unique solutions. Seismic
attributes are dependent on a cornplex interaction of many
variables. A specific seismic signature that suggests gas-
saturated sands in one area may indicate silt-rich mudstone
in another.
Sequence-stratigraphic and seismic-facies analysis can
provide important geologic information concerning a par-
ticular area. and help to limit variables that control retlec-
tion characteristics. This is particularly true in offshore
Louisiana, where exploration has focused largely on de-
lineation of hydrocarbon anomalies. Most well-defined
anomalies have already been leased, and expensive "false
bright spots" have been drilled in many areas.
Future exploration in this area will require an integrated
approach. When hydrocarbon indicators are evaluated
within a sequence-stratigraphic frarnework, predictions of
reserve size can be made with greater accuracy. Plays can
be delineated in which anomalies are not present, or the
anomalies are very small in relation to reserve size. The
probability that an amplitude anomaly does not represent a
hydrocarbon accumulation can also be assessed. For exam-
ple, in this study area, an arnplitude anomaly developed
within a lowstand prograding-wedge systems tract is clearly
much more attractive than one formed on top of the trans-
gressive systems tract. The arnplitude anornaly within the
Pacht e t al.
lowstand prograding wedge is likely to be a gas-saturated
sand developed at the top of a coarsening-upward se-
quence. In contrast, the one formed at the top of the trans-
gressive systerns tract may simply represent the irrípedance
contrast between carbonate-rich shales in a condensed sec-
tion (Loutit et al., 1988; Shaffer, 1990) and the mud-rich
shales that surround it.
Acknowledgrnents
We would like to thank Calibre Consulting lnc., TGS
l . GECO G e o ~ h ~ s i c Company
Offshore G e o ~ h ~ s i c aand al
for permission to ~ u b l i s hthis PaPer. Itobert 0. Brooks-
Itobert Lawrence, and David Worthington, of T c S
Offshore Geophysical, have been e s ~ e c i a l lh~e l ~ f u l The
.
paper is a small part of a larger project that has involved
nurnerous people, including John Beard, Matthew Bognar,
Abu Chowdhury, Gloria Cummins, Jeffry Crisp, Larry
Dunn, James Lamb, Dave Risch, Sue Rostrom, Lee Smith,
Kenneth Thies, and Cordon Weisser. Peter R. Vail.
Arnold H. Bouma, and John Sangree served on an advisor~
c ~ u n c i set
l uP for this project and helped g r e a t l ~ .Last,
but certainl~not we would like to thank our clients
for their encouragement and SuPPort.
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