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ID: 61157-A1

AQSAFATIMA 60931
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Discuss in detail the advancements in each one of the four information

technologies i.e. Hardware, Software, Networking and
Telecommunication and Data Storage.
Hardware

The term hardware refers to the components used to build a computer. Breaking down the
components into categories, you will find four main groups:
1. Input
2. Output
3. Storage
4. Processing
Although these are the four main categories, there are three more components to consider that do
not fit into those main four:
1. Case
2. Power Supply
3. Expansion Cards
Case
A computer case is used to put the essential components of a computer in. This provides an
enclosed space and easier organization for the components to go.
Power Supply

A power supply unit (PSU) is used to power all components inside the case. It does this by
converting AC power to DC power that is regulated by the PSU. What this means is that each
component needs a certain amount of volts to work and the power supply will regulate the volts
accordingly.
Expansion Cards

An expansion card is used to enhance certain attributes of the system. For example, a sound card
can enhance sound by giving you surround sound capability. Another example is a video card,
this will enhance the graphics of your system.

Input /Output
This category refers to the components a computer uses that receive data and send information.
Input devices do the receiving and the output devices do the sending. Some examples of input
devices are a keyboard, mouse, and a gaming controller. Examples of output devices are a
printer, monitor, and speakers

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Memory
The memory within a computer can be broken down into two categories: short term memory and
long term memory. Short term memory is the random access memory (RAM) while the long
term is either your hard disk drive (HDD) or compact disk drive (CDD). RAM can be tapped into
immediately by programs on a computer allowing it to compute faster, but if the user needs to
save information for later use, using the HDD or CDD is required.
CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) is used to calculate the commands sent to it by the programs
used on the system. It performs all the arithmetic and logical operations. This comes in the form
of a small chip that is connected into the computer motherboard. The motherboard is where all
other devices are connected so they can speak with each other.

Communications Hardware
Communications hardware is important when it comes to letting computer users access
information from the Internet, put information onto the Internet, or interact with other computer
users on a network. This type of hardware includes modems, routers, and network
adapters. Modems and routers are the devices that connect computer users to the Internet:
Signals go from the Internet service provider to the modem, which then converts them into an
appropriate form and sends them through the router to the computer (or, when the computer user
is sending information to the Internet, signals are sent via the router to the modem, which
converts them and sends them to the Internet service provider.)[9] Modems and routers can be
either wired or, increasingly commonly, wireless, communicating with the computer via signals
rather than a physical connection. Network adapters are what allow computers to communicate
on a small, local network. Sometimes, however, a computer may have a network adapter that
consists entirely of software, called a virtual adapter. If this is in use, such as on a virtual private
network (VPN), then no hardware component is needed.
Software:
Computer software is used to communicate with the computer processor to direct certain
operations to be performed. This is done through computer programming languages. Software
can be broken into two parts: System Software and Application Software.

System Software
System software refers to the software used to operate the computer components. This also
provides a foundation for application software, giving it the ability to carry out the desired
functions. System software commonly comes on a system CD, for example a Windows 7 CD.
This CD provides the operating system, drivers, Windows system, and utility software. The
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operating system allows the parts of the computer to communicate. This is done by transferring
data. This is also the specific component of system software that allows for the running of
application software. Utility software maintains the computer systems. Device drivers set up the
ability for the hardware connected to the computer to function. Windows systems is the part that
gives you a graphical interface on your monitor and allows the user to configure all connected
devices.

Application Software
Application software are the programs and applications that are developed to carry out desired
functions by the user. The way an application works is through programming software.
Programming software is the middle man between the system and the actual application the user
wants to run. Some examples of programming languages are Java, C++, and Visual Basic. Some
examples of application software are web browsers and video games

Computer Users and Professionals

Computers are nothing without the people that use them, the common user and the professional.
The common user is anyone that uses the computer for general purposes. This includes checking
emails, playing computer games, typing up a paper, and the list goes on. What distinguishes a
common user from a professional is that a professional works in the field of computer
information technology. Examples of professions in this field are a computer programmer, web
designer, network administrator, and software engineer. These are but a few of the many jobs
involved in the field of computer information technology. These are the people that design the
hardware to build computers, they keep business networks secure, they program software to
communicate effectively with the user and hardware, and develop the latest and greatest software
for the common user to enjoy.
Storage
Storage System
As the demand for technology and technology itself continues to excel throughout history, so
does user's wants and needs. The user's lifestyle pertaining to computers may revolve around
publishing documents, creating presentations, media management, networking on the internet,
and much more. In correlation with their wants and needs, there's the need to be able to have
access to storage of the data being produced. Storage is also referred to as 'memory', as it can be
any type of hardware that's functionality includes, storing data, maintaining downloaded files
along with extracting files as well. This can be performed through both permanent and temporary
storage along with being internal to a device, or external.
As the spectrum of technology storage is a wide-range and continues to grow, benefits of storage
included today are:
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• Cost-efficient
• Speed
• Enhanced efficient
Examples of storage include
 Hard Disk Drives / Solid State Drives
 Storage Area Networks
 Network Attached Storage
 Computer Disk
 USB
 Cloud Computin

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Storage Media, Storage Technology, and Volatility

Storage media is the hardware in which information is physically stored. This differs from the
storage device which is usually the docking bay for the storage medium. One example of a
storage device would be your CD/DVD drive in which you place your disks when inserting them
into your computer or your USB flash drive reader. Storage media would be the actual CD/DVD
disk itself or the memory within your computer known as RAM
(Random Access Memory)
These types of media tend to be faster than the other two since they rely on electrical polarity
within a cell instead of electronic motors to be read or rewritten. This also makes them more
resistant to shock, allows them to run more quietly, and reduces the latency of the media. Typical
storage media of this kind are "jump" drives or "thumb" drives, but some computers use this
technology in their hardware as well.

Clusters, Sectors, and Tracks

Hard disks have many circular pieces called platters inside them. These platters have two sides
are made up of tracks, sectors, and clusters. A cluster is a group of sectors, and a sector divides
tracks into pie shaped sections. Each cluster, sector, and track is numbered in order to help the
computer quickly locate where specific stored data is

Random vs. Sequential

When thinking of storage systems, one could presume that all of your data in one folder is
located next to each other within the hard drive. This is false when talking about random access.
With random access your information can be pulled from any location on the disk. Meaning,
your one folder could have its data scattered about the physical hard drive.
Random access and sequential access of data are two separate ways a computer can access data.
Random access is the ability to access data in any given location within the hard drive, quickly
and efficiently. Most computers use random access today, because it saves the user time, as well
as avoids confusion. Sequential access requires data being accessed in a sequence.

Storage Devices and Storage Media

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The storage medium is a part of the storage system where the actual data is stored, such as on a
DVD or a memory card. This medium can then be put into a storage device like a DVD player or
phone to read this data. You usually find these two parts to be separate pieces, making the
storage medium removable. Some storage devices can be found inside of the system unit, while
others are plugged into an external port. There are letters on the storage device that go along with
this that helps the unit to identify them.

Hard Drives
Hard drives are used as primary storage units to store most data and computer programs to
operate on a computer. The two types of hard drives available for purchase are: internal hard
drives, and external hard drives. There are many things to consider if you are a consumer seeking
these storage devices. The internal hard drive, which can be included in the computer before
purchase, is directly connected to the motherboard, (A.K.A the brain of the computer), as well as
other components inside the tower or casing of the computer/laptop. An external hard drive is
commonly used among users who are either portably transporting data/programs from device to
device, or seeking extra storage space for their files. External hard drives can be very small, and
convenient for traveling with data. There are multiple different options to explore while
considering a hard drive: speed, consistency, and durability. The types of hard drives offered
include either of the following: magnetic storage, optical storage, and electrons which use flash
memory media.
Hard drive interface standards
A hard drive interface (or hard disk interface) refers to "the logical and physical means by which
the hard disk connects to the PC.

• ATA interfaces are cheaper and are still fairly common, but they are slower and outdated.
• SATA interfaces are the most useful: the only problem is that you need to buy additional
adapters for them to interact with older systems, but they are still relatively cheap, they have high
speed, and their wires are small, which frees up more room in the computer and helps prevent
overheating.
• SCSI interfaces are very fast and can handle a wide range of applications and amount of data,
but they are quite inexpensive and impractical for home use; SCSI is used more for networks
than personal use
The Cloud"
Cloud storage, also referred to as "The Cloud", is simply the use of a remote storage device that
is accessed by means of the internet. More specifically, some cloud services focus only on digital
pictures or email messages, while other systems store all kinds of digital data. Some services,
like Google Drive, allow users to save their files in one of many massive data centers Google
operates where, for instance, multiple users can collaborate on projects by having access to the
same file.
Disk Access Time

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Disk access time is a measurement that calculates the amount of time it takes before for a drive
to read and write data. Disk access time involves three major steps: seek time, rotational delay
(or rotational latency), data movement time.

Flash Memory
Flash Memory and How It Works
Flash memory is a type of storage device that uses electronic memory. Flash memory comes in a
variety of ways and is known as a solid state storage device, meaning “there are not moving parts
– everything is electronic instead of mechanical.” Flash memory is used in many different
devices, such as, computers, digital cameras, and mobile phones. Flash memory is a type of
EEPROM chip. EEPROM stands for Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.

Embedded Memory
Embedded memory is becoming an increasingly popular type of flash memory due to its small,
convenient size. In today's society these types of memory can be found in phones, cameras,
gaming devices, and even handheld devices like a GPS.

Flash Memory Cards and Readers

If you want a fast and easy method of storing various types of media, you can't get much better
than a flash memory card. Most modern portable devices contain a flash memory card because of
its versatility and ease of use; cell phones, mp3 players, and digital cameras are but just a few
examples of products that benefit from flash memory cards. However, just like how not all
electronic devices can use the same type of battery, not all flash memory cards are compatible
with every electronic portable device.

USB Flash Drives

The USB storage device is one that has been growing rapidly in popularity. It is a very user
friendly form of storage. To save information to a USB flash drive, one simply must plug in the
USB drive into the USB port (usually on the side or back of the computer), click the "save as"
option on their project, then select the drive on their computer which represents the USB.

Solid State Drives

SSDs serve the same purpose as HDDs: they store data and files for long-term use. The
difference is that SSDs use a type of memory called “flash memory,” which is similar to RAM—
but unlike RAM, which clears its data whenever the computer powers down, the data on an SSD
persists even when it loses power. SSDs use a grid of electrical cells to quickly send and receive
data.

Remote Storage

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Remote storage is there to expand the disk space without hard disks and isn’t connected to the
computer directly but accessed through internet. That way you can access your files wherever
you are, whenever you want, on your laptop or Smartphone or even a different computer. This is
the basic concept of cloud storage. When you need to access a file, you open the file as usual but
if the data isn’t on your local volume, Remote Storage retrieves the information from a media
library. When data is removed from a file, the logical size of the file remains but the physical
size is reduce.

Holographic Storage
Holographic storage utilizes photo-sensitive media and innovative laser beam technology as a
means of computer storage. This new storage method has the ability to store 1,000 DVD's into
this 4 square inch storage device. This is unlike previous methods of data recording, such as
magnetic and optical hard drives, which involve a rotating disk or simple 2D lasers. Instead,
holographic storage begins with a single laser that is split into two separate parts -- the signal
beam (carries data), and the reference beam (reconstructs hologram when prompted).

Storage area network

The storage cloud enables storage devices like a PC, a desktop, or a mobile phone to
communicate with the host computer system, as well as with each other.
Storage area networks are clusters of high performance computers used to transfer huge amounts
of data. SANs are also used for distributed processing applications requiring fast local network
performance and designed specifically for data management. SANs move storage resources off
the common user network and into an independent network

Network Attached Storage

NAS is a type of dedicated file storage device typically connected by a wired networking
Connection, therefore only providing local area network users with storage. NAS supports file
transfers, in which it will back up any data that appears in the form of files, such as email boxes,
web content, and a remote system backup. The main advantage of network attached storage is
that network storage is no longer limited to the amount the computing device can hold. NAS
devices typically look very box-like, without a keyboard or display

NETWORKS
Communication networks can broadly be grouped into the following categories based on the
geographical locations of its computer terminals:

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Remote Job Entry Stations

Remote Job Entry Stations are very useful for large organizations to transfer data and program
generated in their in- house smaller computer to a larger computer which provides better
computing facilities. An RJE provides faster input/output, while the bigger remote computer may
be used for massive data processing and for storing large files, all slower operations like printing
and scanning may be done at the RJE station.

Local Area Network

Local Area Network (LAN) are used to interconnect many computers within a given local area,
more often premises of a single organization building. A very high speed of data transmission
can be attained within a limited geographic area. The network allows its user to share library
programs, databases, languages and special facilities such as an expensive supercomputer. LANs
are typically used in a star, bus or ring configuration and they can be classified into high,
medium and low speed categories. Some low speed LANs designed for use with personal
computers use special cables, while other low-speed networks use telephone wires and digital
PBX controllers..

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Network (WAN) is used to interconnect a number of widely dispersed computers in
various cities of a country or different countries. The main objective of such interconnection is to
allow users of the network to access specialized library programs, databases etc. available at any
of the computers in the network. Two big networks of this type are ARPANET and TYMNET in
USA.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) refers to the inter- connection within geographical limits of
a city or town. Usually referred as "last mile" problem, the MANs shares problems associated
with poor telephone network infrastructure of local telephone authority While the satellite based
WANs provide excellent communication between remote points irrespective of distance,
reliability of intra-city communication in case of MANs are doubtful.

Distributed Data Processing Network

Distributed Data Processing Network consists of many geographically dispersed independent
computer systems connected by a telecommunications network.. DDP networks may be intended
for the use of a single organization or many organizations. The possible DDP networks
configurations include the star, and the ring arrangements.

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Gateway
Gateways consist of software and hardware that are required to interconnect networks amongst
themselves. Gateways contend with any differences in packet sizes, protocols and addressing
methods between the two networks it connect. Gateways are also used to connect LANs to
WANs and WANs, in turn, can be linked through gateways to create national and international
data communication networks.
The communications networks can be grouped into the following three categories based on the
technology and communication media used by them :

Public Switched Telephone Network

The Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN) are managed by common carriers usually
telephone companies/departments the world over.

Public Data Network

Analogous to the public telephone network, many domestic common carriers provide data
communications services via a specialized network called a Public Data Network (PDN). A
public data network may provide circuit switching services and/or packet switching (PSDN) and,
in future, may be expected to provide many other enhanced services.

Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN)

An ISDN is a network that provides end-to-end digital connectivity to support a wide range of
services, including voice and non-voice services. Users are provided access by a limited set of
standard multi-purpose user- network inter-faces.

2. Discuss how these advancements in IT have strongly impacted the businesses in the
conduct of their business functions i.e. Sales and Marketing, Accounting, Finance, HR and
Operation/Production

The Impact of Technological Change on Business functions

Technology has revolutionized the way companies conduct business by enabling small
businesses to level the playing field with larger organizations. Small businesses use an array of
tech – everything from servers to mobile devices – to develop competitive advantages in the
economic marketplace. Small business owners should consider implementing technology in their
planning process for streamlined integration and to make room for future expansion. This allows
owners to create operations using the most effective technology available

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Impact on Operating Costs

Business owners can use technology to reduce business costs. Basic enterprise software enables
a firm to automate back office functions, such as record keeping, accounting and payroll. Mobile
tech allows home offices and field reps to interact in real time. For example, field reps can use
mobile apps to record their daily expenses as they incur them and have them sync automatically
with accounting software back at the office.
Securing Sensitive Information
Business owners can also use technology to create secure environments for maintaining sensitive
business or consumer information. Many types of business technology or software programs are
user-friendly and allow business owners with only minor backgrounds in information technology
to make the most of their tools and features. Improved Communication Processes
Business technology helps small businesses improve their communication processes. Emails,
texting, websites and apps, for example, facilitate improved communication with consumers.
Using several types of information technology communication methods enable companies to
saturate the economic market with their message. Companies may also receive more consumer
feedback through these electronic communication methods.
Technology also improves inter-office communication as well. For example, social intranet
software gives employees a centralizes portal to access and update internal documents and
contracts and relay relevant data to other departments instantly. These methods also help
companies reach consumers through mobile devices in a real-time format.
Increased Employee Productivity
A business can increase their employees' productivity through the use of technology. Computer
programs and business software usually allow employees to process more information than
manual methods. Business owners can also implement business technology to reduce the amount
of human labor in business functions. This allows small businesses to avoid paying labor costs
along with employee benefits.
Even fundamental business tech can have a major impact on employee performance. For
example, by placing employee-performance appraisal information in an online framework,
supervisors can easily create measurable goals for their employees to reach and sustain company
objectives. Business owners may also choose to expand operations using technology rather than
employees if the technology will provide better production output.
Broaden Customer Bases
Technology allows small businesses to reach new economic markets. Rather than just selling
consumer goods or services in the local market, small businesses can reach regional, national and
international markets. Retail websites are the most common way small businesses sell products
in several different economic markets.

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Websites represent a low-cost option that consumers can access 24/7 when needing to purchase
goods or services. Small business owners can also use internet advertising to reach new markets
and customers through carefully placed web banners or ads.
Collaboration and Outsourcing
Business technology allows companies to outsource business functions to other businesses in the
national and international business environment. Outsourcing can help companies lower costs
and focus on completing the business function they do best. Technical support and customer
service are two common function companies outsource.
Business owners may consider outsourcing some operations if they do not have the proper
facilities or available manpower. Outsourcing technology also allows businesses to outsource
function to the least expensive areas possible, including foreign countries
Impacts of Technology in the Accounting Industry
1. Cloud-Based System.
Many accounting firms are now using cloud-based systems to streamline all of their information.
Wherever you are, whatever time of the day, all you have to do is log on, and you will be able to
immediately access your data.

2. More Diverse Roles for The Accountant

Consider how two accountants handle their client accounts. The first doesn’t trust technology, so
he uses it as little as possible. His work consists of keeping the client’s files in order and doing
this year’s taxes.

Developments in accounting software and application have now given accountants more time on
their hands for more diverse tasks. They are able to veer away from time-consuming number
crunching and are increasingly able to expand into more specialized and strategic roles. More
specific and value-adding roles are now up for grabs, and skilled accountants can provide more
high-level specialty services. These may include data analysis and interpretation, providing
financial planning advice and business consulting services, and more involvement in your
company’s ongoing operations.

3. More Efficient Client Transactions

Digitizing data and operations is beneficial not only for those working within the ranks of your
company but also for your clients.

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Imagine the typical old-school accountant-client interaction. The accountant and the client both
have to make time to meet at a specific time and location. They make their way there so that they
can go through documents and discuss the client’s financial situation. If the client gets stuck in
traffic, it throws off the accountant’s schedule. And, if the accountant has some kind of delay,
they’ve wasted the client’s valuable time. Then, an important decision-maker may be angry
enough to switch another accounting firm.

With the advances in accounting technology, there is longer a need for on-site consultations.
Because accountants and clients alike are able to access real-time data remotely, both
parties can simultaneously view, edit, and comment on their statements. Then, they can
convene and discuss in whatever manner is most convenient—including web-hosted video
conference.

4. Mobile Accounting
There are many advantages to mobile devices that small businesses have yet to take advantage
of. There are now mobile applications dedicated to accounting functions.  Here are just a few of
the tasks you can now take care of on your mobile device:

 Create and send invoices.

 Capture receipts.
 Create expense claims.
 Gather signatures.

With a smart phone or tablet and mobile device management from your I.T. support provider,
you can take your office with you wherever you go. That means no more waiting until you get
back to the office. That’s important because your clients are as busy as you are. They’re going to
appreciate your work even more when you can deliver critical answers at the moment when they
need them. And, that appreciation drive

5. Specialized Accounting Software

There now exist more efficient processing tools and specialized accounting software that allow
quicker input and computation of data. Even the act of manually entering information into
software is declining as scanning technology makes it possible to simply photograph a page and
let the software complete the relevant fields itself.

It is important to be precise in your computations when doing accounting work, and having all
your information calculated by a computer has drastically improved accuracy and reduced the
margin of error. Think about what happens when you have even a slight error:

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 You may end up with tax penalties.

 You may face board discipline.
 Your professional reputation could take a hit.

Accounting software has virtually eliminated the sources behind these small but significant
errors.

It has also shifted the accountant’s focus from nitty-gritty details to the issue their clients
care about most—how to protect and grow their business. In the process, it has turned one of
the most traditional of white-collar industries into a fast-paced and dynamic profession.

Accountants In The Age Of Advanced Information Technology

As an accountant in today’s world, it is necessary to stay up-to-date with the most recent
advances in technologies to be competitive and increase your productivity. Take the challenge
and look further into all the intriguing ways technology has changed the accounting industry.
Embracing these changes will prove to be greatly beneficial to both you and your firm.

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