Tunnels: Department of Main Roads Road Planning and Design Manual Tunnels

Department of Main Roads Chapter 23
Road Planning and Design Manual Tunnels
23
Chapter 23
Tunnels
May 2006
i
Manual Contents
Chapter 1
Chapter 13
Framework of the Road Planning and
Intersections at Grade
Design Manual
Chapter 2 Chapter 14
23
Design Philosophy Roundabouts
Road Planning and Design Fundamentals Auxiliary Lanes
Chapter 4
Chapter 16
Application of Design Principles and
Interchanges
Guidelines
Traffic Parameters and Human Factors Lighting
Speed Parameters Traffic signals
Cross Section Intelligent Transport Systems
Safety Barriers and Roadside Furniture Roadside Amenities
Chapter 21
Chapter 9
Railway and Cane Railway Level
Sight Distance
Crossings
Alignment Design Bridges and Retaining Walls
Horizontal Alignment Tunnels
Chapter 12
Vertical Alignment
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Table of Contents
23.1 General Introduction 23-1
23.2 Justification for Tunnels 23-1
23.3 Types of Tunnels 23-4
23.4 General Design Considerations 23-10
23
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List of Figures
Figure 23.3(a) Typical Tunnel Types 5
Figure 23.3(a) cont. Typical Tunnel Types 6
Figure 22.3(b) Canopy Tube 8
23 Figure 22.3(c) Canopy Tube
Figure 23.4 Typical Tunnel Section (6 Lanes)

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12
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Chapter 23 Amendments – June 2006

Revision Register
Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date
Rev Section by
No.
1 - First Issue Steering
Committee
May
2006 23
23
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23
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Chapter 23
Tunnels
engineering, fire safety engineering and
23.1 General Introduction
communications engineering. Interaction of
A tunnel is a closed or roofed structure the specialist designers in each of these
carrying a road through, or under an
obstacle. This obstacle may be anything in
areas is necessary to obtain the best
solution. Decisions on the location and
form of tunnels must only be undertaken
23
the path of a preferred road alignment such
as a mountain, a body of water, a building with the advice of these specialist
or a complete development. designers.
A short tunnel is also termed an underpass, 23.2 Justification for

but in general any covered length of road Tunnels
over 90 metres long should be treated as a
tunnel (NFPA, 2001). Selecting a tunnel solution may be justified:
Tunnels are some of the most expensive • on new routes under densely developed
parts of road infrastructure but in some urban areas where land acquisition
cases, they are necessary to overcome costs are high;
circumstances where other solutions cannot
• through mountains to avoid steep
be applied. The initial construction cost of a
grades and longer routes;
tunnel may be more than ten times that for a
bridge at the same location (in terms of road • under rivers and large bodies of water
carriageway provided) with high operating to keep shipways clear;
and maintenance costs. Yet a tunnel may • to avoid impact on cultural heritage or
still be the best option for the site for a environmentally sensitive areas; and
range of reasons.
• where clearance requirements or land
Choosing between a bridge and tunnel use prevent construction of bridges.
requires consideration of a range of factors
of which cost is only one. It is often the The high capital cost of tunnels is well
case that the choice will be made on the known. To justify expenditure on a publicly
basis of factors other than cost (see Section funded tunnel, many issues other than the
23.2). costs of initial construction and on-going
operation and maintenance, have to be
This Chapter describes the basis for considered as they need to be with any
deciding to adopt a tunnel solution, the option.
types of tunnels that can be used and the
factors to be considered in designing a PIARC (1983) suggests three types or
tunnel. levels of evaluation for a tunnel or
alternative structure (including alternative
Tunnel design is a multi-disciplinary route options) as a solution.
activity requiring geometric design,
structural design, electrical and mechanical
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They are shown below with modifications changes as a result of the effect of the
for Queensland conditions. The factors to tunnel on the total traffic network; and
be considered are those:
• noise reduction treatment such as
• to which a monetary value can be ventilation attenuators and sound
attributed (quantitative); barriers.
• which are measurable but to which a Operating costs include:
monetary value cannot be given; and
• ventilation and lighting;
23 • which can only be given a subjective

value (qualitative).
•
•
fire life and safety services;
mechanical and electrical services;
Criteria having a Monetary Value
• inspections;
These criteria include both direct and
• training of emergency services
indirect costs attributable to the project.
personnel; and
These are set out in detail in the following
paragraphs. • traffic control.
Planning and design costs include: Maintenance costs include:
• surveys and field investigations • road surface;

including geotechnical hydrology, • cleaning; and
hydraulic etc;
• replacement of equipment over the life
• public consultation including any of the tunnel (over 100 years).
models and displays;
User benefits:
• planning and environmental reports;
• reduced travelling times and length of
and
travel (both passenger and commercial
• design costs including plans, vehicles) offset by any toll charges (if
specifications and estimates. any);
Land Acquisition Costs include: • reduced number of accidents; and
• land costs for private, commercial and • reduced traffic flow on other roads.
industrial properties;
Changes to land and property values and
• relocation costs; and rentals:
• accommodation works. • changes to land and property values and
Construction costs include: rentals near and above the tunnel or
surface alternatives; and
• cost of actual structure;
• possible leasing back of resumed land
• cost of operational equipment
after construction has been completed.
(including all traffic control equipment
and fire, life and safety equipment • Indirect effects:
associated with the tunnel); • future developments on the surface (e.g.
• the cost of links to existing streets closed for a pedestrian mall);
infrastructure and any necessary and
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• changes to overall traffic patterns and Air pollution is concentrated at the

transport routes with consequent entrance, exit and intermediate ventilation
changes in user operating costs. outlets in tunnels. Careful siting of these
features is required to minimise the impact
Social costs:
on the adjacent property.
Building a tunnel involving a new highly
Visual Intrusion
trafficked route may benefit one part of the
community to the detriment of another. The The degree of visual intrusion of road
23
net benefits (costs) should be included in infrastructure may be a source of annoyance
the analysis of the total costs of a proposal. to some people. The extent of this effect on
the overall amenity is difficult to quantify.
Other social costs difficult to quantify are
Tunnels have the advantage of being hidden
discussed in the section on “Qualitative
from view but the portals will need
Factors” below.
consideration from this point of view.
Measurable Criteria Ventilation outlets may have to be remote
Other criteria, which are able to be from the site, or disguised inside other
measured but are difficult to cost, may be structures, to achieve acceptable results.
important in deciding to adopt a tunnel Vibration Effects
solution. They may also form the basis of
Vibration effects on buildings and other
objections to a proposal.
structures should be considered for both the
Some of the measurable but difficult to cost construction and operation stages.
criteria are discussed in the following
Level of Service
sections.
PIARC (1983) describes “level of service”
Noise
in the following words:
Tunnels provide a means of eliminating
“This has to do with the users' feeling of
noise from the area through which they
well-being about driving conditions and
pass. However, care will be needed at the
lack of disturbance. Throughout the world,
portals and any intermediate air vents to
the notion of level of service attracts careful
ensure that noise levels are satisfactory.
consideration since it can affect the
Overall reduced noise levels may be a
geometric standards of the proposed road.”
significant reason for adopting a tunnel
solution. A quantitative assessment of the traffic
Level of Service can be undertaken using
Main Roads (2000) sets out the criteria for
the procedures of the Highway Capacity
levels of noise from a road before noise
Manual (see also Chapter 5).
attenuation measures should be considered.
Air Pollution Qualitative Factors
The air pollution emanating from a section There are some factors that cannot be given
of road may be measured and added to that monetary value or completely quantified.
from the surrounding environment to They are largely related to environmental
establish the impact of the road and assess protection or social consequences and
the suitability of the proposal. include:
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• displacement of people whose homes Cut-and-Cover Tunnel

have been resumed;
This type of tunnel is constructed in a
• effect on Cultural Heritage sites, trench excavated from the surface and is
buildings etc; appropriate for shallow depths in suitable
soils. Special cases of this type of
• changes to the landscape which may
construction include:
increase or decrease the value of a site,
including the effects on the community • contiguous pile wall tunnels (or
23
and tourism; variants);
• changes in community relationships • “Top Down” construction; and
due to severance or a new route;
• “Canopy Tube” method at surface
• aesthetic value of the project for users impediments such as railways and other
and the community; obstructions.
• flexibility for increasing the traffic • Factors to be considered for cut and
capacity of the road infrastructure in the cover tunnels include:
long term future (say beyond 20 years);
• ease with which the soil can be
• temporary disadvantages or nuisance excavated;
value during the construction phase to
• depth of water table below the natural
the commercial and general
surface;
community; and
• availability of the surface material
• the impact on animal life and bio-
being removed for backfilling during
diversity in general.
the construction period and the
For a tunnel, these qualitative factors are consequences for the subsequent land
generally positive except at the portals and use;
at ventilation exits.
• the need to dewater/pump the
excavation;
23.3 Types of Tunnels
• stability and earth pressure on the
Tunnels are constructed in a wide range of sidewalls and loads and surcharges on
physical and operational circumstances that the tunnel roof;
will determine the type of tunnel used.
• temporary construction loads;
Types of tunnel include for example:
• uplift forces; and
• cut-and-cover at shallow depth;
• access restrictions.
• cast-in-situ in a waterway;
• immersed tube for underwater
crossings;
• bored tunnels; and
• tunnels excavated through rock.
Figure 23.3(a) Illustrates some typical
tunnels.
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23
Figure 23.3(a) Typical Tunnel Types
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23
Driven Tunnel – Enlarge Section for Ventilation Fans
Figure 23.3(a) (continued) - Typical Tunnel Types
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In the contiguous-pile wall tunnel, each side • prebore holes horizontally under the
of the tunnel is formed from contiguous surface in the direction of the tunnel
bored or cast-in-place piles, with or without (this may have to be done in stages
liners depending on the soil conditions, depending on the length of the tunnel);
driven to below the tunnel floor. (A typical
• insert a steel tube into the prebored hole
pile wall is shown in Figure 23.3(b). The
and fill with grout;
space between the walls is excavated after
driving the piles, thus exposing the surface • install a steel set at the portal to support
23
of the contiguous piles. (Temporary or the ends of the tubes (a steel set is a
permanent propping may be required.) supporting frame constructed with steel
Cladding is placed on the face of the piles I-beams);
to present a pleasing internal appearance to • excavate the material under the tubes
the tunnel and to achieve the required on a front in stages and install a steel
reflectivity of the tunnel walls. set at the end of each stage
Drainage using filter drains is essential, as (approximately 750mm centres);
the piles are essentially earth retaining • continue this process until the exit
walls. portal is reached;
After excavation between pile walls, • shotcrete between the sets;
capping beams are cast over the pile walls,
• place reinforced concrete for floor,
roof slabs placed and the floor constructed.
sides and roof (the extent of this will
“Top down” construction is used where depend on the overall design, the
traffic interruptions have to be kept to a construction process and the intended
minimum or where soil types permit this role of the steel sets in the final
method. In this form of construction, the structure).
roof of the tunnel is constructed on the
The design of the supports and their extent
ground before the material below is
will depend on the type and extent of the
excavated. This allows the surface to be
material present at the site. E.g. the location
reinstated while the excavation is in
and extent of competent rock will affect the
progress, thereby reducing the time of
extent of the steel sets and their founding
closure of the road on top.
level.
The “Canopy Tube” method is used in
Figure 23.3(c) illustrates the Canopy Tube
isolated areas where traffic interruptions
concept. The Pipe Canopy type shown in
cannot be tolerated for any period of time
Figure 23.3(a) is another version of this
and less costly alternatives can not be used.
concept.
Figure 22.3(c) illustrate this form of
construction. It is also referred to as “Fore
Poling Method” from mining terminology.
The process is:
• establish a portal by excavating a
vertical face beside the road or other
facility under which the tunnel is to be
constructed;
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23 Figure 22.3(b) Pile Wall
Figure 22.3(c) Canopy Tube
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In an urban environment, additional Temporary support is required before the

considerations are: final lining is placed - precast segments,
shotcrete and/or rock bolts depending on
• severance effect of the removal of
the material excavated. The cost of liners
surface material, cutting off access for
can vary widely depending on the soil
both vehicles and pedestrians;
types, presence of swelling clays, soft rock
• cutting off and/or relocating public and/or water.
utilities;
In tunnels excavated using the Tunnel
•
•
noise from the construction site;
vibration effects on properties;
Boring Machine (TBM), the liner is placed
continuously behind the TBM as it
advances. The TBM may grip the sides of
23
• air pollution ; and
the tunnel (by expanding) or thrust off the
• settlement of buildings adjacent to the liner as it advances. There are many
excavation due to changes in the water different types of TBM for various
table or excavation techniques. situations.
Under large waterways where soft ground
Cast-in-Situ Tunnel in a Waterway
conditions are common Earth Pressure
Where permitted to temporarily block a Balance Machines (EPBM), Slurry Shield
waterway, and if practical, the tunnel may Tunnel Boring Machines (SSTBM) and
be constructed in two halves or by using a shield driven tunnels have been used.
number of travelling caissons.
In these shields, the cutting head is enclosed
The first half of the tunnel is constructed within a watertight bulkhead containing
within a temporary caisson. On completion earth or bentonite slurry, which stabilizes
of the first half, the waterway above the the face. Behind the sealed bulkhead the
constructed section is then opened and the rest of the tunnel remains under normal
second half of the tunnel constructed in a atmospheric pressure.
procedure similar to the first.
Tunnelling materials (earth, rock, clay,
Immersed Tube Tunnels water, bentonite and other chemicals) are
directed through the TBM cutting head and
For underwater crossings the immersed
out the rear end. In addition to the TBM
tube tunnel may be appropriate where
itself, there is a considerable amount of
conditions are right. Precast reinforced
material transportation equipment that
concrete sections of the tunnel are
removes these products, recycles the
manufactured in a dry dock, floated and
bentonite, and delivers power and
towed to their location above a dredged
hydraulics, water, chemicals and pre-cast
channel, sunk into position and joined to
segments.
previous sections.
Both air and water (and lubricating
Bored Tunnels chemicals) can be lost through the tunnel
face. Tunnels of circular cross-section are
Bored or driven tunnels are constructed
formed.
where there is sufficient overburden.
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Tunnels through Rock applicable mandatory International

Standards, PIARC and NFPA publications
Rock tunnels are excavated in a firm,
provide considerable reference and
cohesive medium, which may vary from
guidance material (see References at the
relatively soft rock and sandstone to very
end of this Chapter).
hard igneous rocks such as granite.
Excavation may be by drilling and blasting Some general design considerations are:
and temporary supports may consist only of
• Design Speed;
rock bolts. TBMs can also be used in some
23 circumstances.
23.4 General Design

•
•
Cross-section Elements;
Alignment;
Considerations • Grading;
• Drainage;
Tunnels have distinguishing characteristics
such as: • Operations (including emergency
ingress and egress, and maintenance
• the absence of junctions, parked requirements);
vehicles, bicycles (except for rare
exceptions) and pedestrians; • Ventilation;
• an enclosed road with lateral and • Fire;

vertical restrictions; • Lighting;
• artificial illumination; and • Communications;
• artificial ventilation. • Structural requirements; and
Because of these characteristics, some • Electrical requirements.
drivers may be apprehensive about entering
Risk analysis procedures can have benefits
and leaving the tunnel and become
for safety. Designers should:
conscious of driving too close to tunnel
walls (thus possibly reducing the effective • undertake a comprehensive risks/safety
lane width), and misjudging the steepness analysis to determine the best operation
of grades (hence misjudging braking procedures; and
distances). However, tunnels exhibit a • provide control systems that allow any
better accident record than the open road, incident to be detected in order to
due to a combination of factors such as: reduce to a minimum the response
• drivers becoming more alert in the times for such incidents.
changed environment of the tunnel; It is necessary to:
• absence of roadside obstacles; • identify the risks;
• standard of construction; and • assess the causes of possible failures;
• safety features incorporated in the • determine the effects of those failures;
tunnel. and
Where there are no Australian Standards for • provide solutions to minimise the
elements of tunnel design, and no consequences of failures.
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These principles should be applied when stopping and should be continuous through
considering the details of following sections the tunnel if possible. If this shoulder is not
(see also the section on “Dangerous continuous, parking bays or pull-off bays
Goods”). should be provided at intervals not
exceeding 250m, and the width should
Design Speed provide the shy line distance (Chapter 7,
For safety reasons, the maximum allowable Section 7.2.2).
speed in two-way tunnels throughout the In limited lane tunnels an accident or
world is between 60 and 80 km/h.
In one-way tunnels, the speed limits are
vehicle break down will cause traffic to
stop and backup if the vehicle cannot be
moved quickly to a break down lane or a
23
between 80 and 110 km/h, the higher
speeds found in very long tunnels. road shoulder. The stationary traffic causes
Clearances at the “desirable” end of the increased demand on the ventilation system
range should be provided in high-speed as well as stress to drivers. It is therefore
tunnels. important that adequate shoulders or
emergency pull-off areas be provided.
Factors to consider in determining the
design speed for the tunnel include: For roadways with separate tunnels for each
direction, the shoulders next to the centre
• Speed environment on the approaches;
wall should be sufficiently wide to provide
• Geometric limitations in the tunnel; and the shy line distance (see Chapter 7, Section
7.2.1).
• Tolerable speed reduction between
successive geometric elements Busway tunnels should be designed in
accordance with the Busway Planning and
Cross-section Elements Design Manual (QT and Brisbane City
The following elements of the cross-section Council, 1998).
of a typical tunnel shown in Figure 23.4 The available space in tunnels is also
may be taken as a guide for multi-vehicle required to provide for ventilation, lighting,
use. public utilities, drainage, access and
emergency and fire equipment. Appropriate
Traffic lanes 3.5 m wide (plus any
traffic control devices (extent may depend
required curve widening)
on the length and location of the tunnel)
must also be provided. The overall cross
Shoulders 2.5 m wide to act as a
section must provide for these services
breakdown lane.
while maintaining the required roadway
Horizontal Refer to Chapter 7, Section clearances.
Clearance 7.10.3
Vertical Refer to Chapter 7,

clearance
Section 7.10.4
The 2.5m shoulder provides space for

broken down vehicles or emergency
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23
Figure 23.4 Typical Tunnel Section (6 Lanes)
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Alignment than 0.5%. Sumps must be provided with

Alignment for highway tunnels should be explosion proof pumps and electrical
straight, where possible. Horizontal curves equipment.
based on sight distance should be of
Drainage
desirable radii, rather than minimum
standards to alleviate the feeling of Water and other liquids may enter a tunnel
discomfort experienced by some drivers in from various sources such as:
tunnels. • rainfall runoff from portal areas;
The geometric requirements for busway
only tunnels are set out in the Busway
•
•
rainwater carried in by vehicles;
groundwater infiltration;
23
Planning and Design Manual produced for
the South East Queensland Regional • wastewater effluent from wash-down
Busway Network (QT and Brisbane City activities;
Council, 1998).
• accidental spillage of fuel from
Grading damaged vehicles and the wash-down
of such products;
Driver perceptions can be affected by the
combination of the wall joints and tunnel • operation of fire suppression systems;
grade. Where the wall joints are and
perpendicular to the grade, not vertical, this • accidental rupture of a fire main or
can distort the perception of distance. The hydrant.
TRRL Report (TRRL, 1987) gives
It may be more economical to allow some
examples of drivers’ misjudgments on
groundwater infiltration, removing the
gradients between 3 and 5 percent, caused
water by longitudinal grading or by
by this phenomenon leading to accidents. It
pumping, rather than incurring the expense
also notes that build-up of spilt oil on
of trying to achieve a fully watertight
gradients of 4 percent or more has caused
enclosure.
heavily laden articulated vehicles to lose
traction. To help drain water, it may be desirable to
place the floor at a small longitudinal grade
There is a direct relationship between grade
not less than 0.5% (see section on
and the breakdown rate of vehicles in
“Grading” above). A free draining tunnel
tunnels.
will deliver economies in drainage costs.
Grades in road tunnels should therefore be
The section on “Fire, Life and Safety”
limited to 3.5% in general. For long two
considers whether a separate drainage
lane tunnels with two-way traffic, a
system should be provided for washing
maximum grade of 3% is desirable to
down spills of dangerous goods from
maintain reasonable truck speed.
accidents.
Where a future light rail may be placed in a
A single drainage system should meet the
busway tunnel, 3% is the maximum
following requirements:
permissible grade.
• specified flood immunity (100 year
In underwater tunnels or tunnels with low
ARI);
points, grades should preferably not be less
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• collection at portals and in the tunnel • Manuals; and

via gullies at appropriate intervals, with
• Training.
longitudinal pipe network to sumps -
gullies and equipment must be flame These are considered in more detail below.
proof ; Bicycles and Pedestrians
• sumps sealed and vented to the Bicycle lanes are rarely provided in road
atmosphere - duty and stand-by pumps tunnels. Where provided, they should
must be provided; desirably be separate from the vehicle lanes
23 • sump and pump capacity designed to be

compatible with the inflow rate;
and protected from vehicular traffic by a
barrier.
• pumps and associated control gear In some tunnels without separate lanes,
designed to operate automatically via bicycles are only permitted at night or times
level switches; of low vehicular traffic density.
• closed sumps with forced ventilation - Pedestrian walkways in vehicular tunnels

duty and stand-by extraction fans are are generally provided for exit in an
required. (Monitoring of pump emergency. These walkways should be not
operation at a Central Control Centre is less than 1.0m wide and level with the top
desirable); of the kerb. In addition to serving as a
walkway for emergency exit, they can also
• wastewater complying with effluent
be used by maintenance and traffic
standards specified by the relevant
operations personnel.
Authorities and drainage from the
tunnel passed through appropriate gross The emergency walkway may sometimes
pollutant traps for capture of be at a lower level with a mountable kerb
hydrocarbons and other undesirable between the walkway and the adjacent
pollutants prior to discharging into traffic lane so that the walkway may act as
waterways; and an emergency stopping place for vehicles. It
may also be provided in a separate,
• the drainage system designed to be
enclosed combined services / escape void.
easily cleaned and maintained. In
particular, adequate space is required in It is essential that the design provides a
all sumps to allow cleaning and pedestrian walkway accessible to road users
maintenance of pipes, pumps and all with a disability (drivers or passengers)
associated equipment. without assistance.
Pedestrian emergency escape tunnels
Operations
parallel to the vehicular tunnel and
Some operational issues to be considered pedestrian refuge areas with independent air
are: from the surface have been provided in
some major tunnels (Rechnitzer et al,
• Bicycles and pedestrians;
1999). In some circumstances, remaining in
• Dangerous goods; the vehicle may be the preferred option.
• Control of entry in emergency (see also This allows radio re-broadcast (where
Section on Fire below); provided) of emergency instructions.
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However, fire combustion products can o Non-Flammable Non-Toxic Gases

travel very quickly, thus engulfing (some of these gases have oxidizing
passengers stranded in vehicles, eliminating or corrosive effects e.g. refrigerated
visibility and means of egress, where liquid air, compressed oxygen)
otherwise an escape may have been
o Toxic Gases (cause death or serious
possible earlier.
injury to human health if inhaled
The ventilation system should be designed e.g. chlorine, methyl bromide, nitric
to draw smoke and fumes away from the oxide)
danger (accident) area.
Dangerous Goods
• Flammable Liquids (liquids whose
vapours ignite on contact with a source
23
of ignition and having a flash point not
The carriage of dangerous goods through a
higher than 610°C e.g. petrol, kerosene,
proposed tunnel must be considered at the
paint thinners)
earliest stages of the planning for the
tunnel. Specialist expertise should be • Flammable, Spontaneously Reactive
sought from the Dangerous Goods Unit, or Dangerous When Wet Solids
Land Transport and Safety, Queensland
o Flammable Solids (solids easily
Transport. Factors to be considered are
ignited by external sources such as
discussed in the following paragraphs.
sparks and flames e.g. sulphur, red
Spillage of dangerous goods being phosphorus, matches)
transported through a tunnel may result in
o Spontaneously Combustible
fire or explosion or other undesirable
Substances (substances liable to heat
effects. In addition, accidents involving
spontaneously and ignite,
vehicles carrying hazardous goods may
particularly when wetted by water,
have disastrous consequences (explosion,
or in contact with moist air e.g.
toxic gas release, etc).
carbon, white phosphorous, calcium
Hazardous goods may be classified dithionite)
according to their nature and the degree of
o Dangerous When Wet Substances
hazard. Australia has adopted a system
(those evolving flammable gases
based on the United Nations classification,
when in contact with water e.g.
which provides for nine classes identified
calcium carbide, sodium metal)
by a unique diamond for each class.
• Oxidizing Agents (Substances which
The classes of dangerous goods are:
may not be combustible in themselves,
• Explosives (substances or articles used but by yielding oxygen or other
to produce explosion or a pyrotechnic processes increase the risk and intensity
effect) of fire in other materials with which
they come in contact)
• Gases (gases stored in tanks or
cylinders under pressure, compressed o Oxidizing Agent (When in contact
liquefied gases) with finely divided combustible
materials, oxidizers may cause fire
o Flammable Gas (e.g. acetylene,
and burn with almost explosive
LPG - liquefied petroleum gas)
violence (e.g. Calcium
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Hypochlorite- Swimming Pool danger not covered by other classes e.g.

Chlorine, Sodium Peroxide) Aerosols, Dry Ice, Asbestos)
o Organic Peroxides (Liquids or Before banning the carriage of these goods
solids that support the burning of through a tunnel, a detailed risk assessment
combustible materials. Under should be carried out to assess the
prolonged exposure to fire or heat, suitability or otherwise of the route
containers of these materials may compared with the alternatives. Alternative
explode. Decomposition of these routes may have adverse economic, social
23 substances may give rise to

evolution of impurities such as
acids, toxic and flammable gases
and environmental consequences or even
create a higher risk of accidents.
Some studies have shown that:
e.g. benzoyl peroxides, methyl ethyl
ketone peroxide, MEKP) • The total human risk can be higher on
the longer route;
• Poisonous, Toxic, Harmful and
Infectious Substances (Solids or • The chance of multiple fatalities is
liquids which are liable to cause death greater in tunnels than on the
or serious injury to human health if alternative route;
swallowed, inhaled or by skin contact. • Economic risks on the tunnel route are
Nearly all toxic substances evolve toxic higher than the alternative route if the
gases when involved in a fire or when tunnel can be destroyed.
heated to decomposition e.g. Calcium
In any risk assessment, the Dangerous
Cyanide, Lead Arsenate.)
Goods Unit of Queensland Transport
o Toxic Substances (e.g. Industrial should be contacted for advice. Further
products) guidance may be obtained from Rechnitzer
o Infectious Substances (e.g. medical et al (1999), which describes the cause and
waste) consequences of nine accidents involving
dangerous goods in tunnels internationally,
o Radioactive Goods (materials or
and five accidents in tunnels that did not
combination of materials which
involve dangerous goods.
spontaneously emit radiation e.g.
uranium) Although total banning of the transport of
hazardous goods through tunnels may seem
• Corrosive Goods (solids or liquids
intrinsically desirable, such action may not
possessing in their original state, the
be necessary as other measures may give a
common property of being able to
satisfactory solution with an appropriate
damage living tissue to a greater or
level of safety.
lesser extent. Many give vapours that
irritate the nose and eyes, some are The following strategies have been used to
toxic and a few produce toxic products minimise the risk of accidents and the
when decomposed e.g. Hydrochloric consequences of spillage in tunnels:
Acid, Sodium Hydroxide) • restricting transit times;
• Miscellaneous Dangerous Goods
Substances and articles which present a
May 2006
23-16
• placing vehicles carrying dangerous established and understood (appropriate

goods in an escorted convoy (with or manuals).
without restricting times of operation);
Control of Entry in an Emergency
• product and quantity limitations;
Traffic signals should be provided at the
• speed and distance limits; entrance to tunnels to control entering
traffic in an emergency. They should be so
• diversion to a route with lower risk;
positioned that they can stop traffic from
• applying load limits;
23
using one, two or all lanes in the tunnel as
• inspection of vehicles before entry; and required. These signals can also be used in
other circumstances such as:
• guidance systems (caterpillar, Ariane
thread, running rabbit etc). • periods of maintenance in the tunnel;
and
Risk can also be reduced by limiting the
consequences of a crash by passive • times when congestion may threaten to
measures such as: overload the ventilation system and
relief is required.
• fire resistance of the structure and
facilities; Appropriate signals and signs remote from
the tunnel may also be required to divert
• explosion resistance;
traffic to alternative routes in times of
• road surfaces not likely to burn; and closure of the tunnel.
• drainage systems directed into collector For busway tunnels, direct communication
tanks. with buses should be available to control
their movements (e.g. diverting them to
Active measures to reduce the
alternative routes when excessive delays in
consequences of a crash include:
the tunnel occur for whatever reason).
• continuous monitoring by closed circuit
Manuals
television;
It is essential that detailed operating and
• roadway inspection;
maintenance manuals be kept for all
• fire detection; elements of plant and equipment. All
• explosion proof radio communications maintenance and repair work must be
equipment; and carried out safely with the utmost efficiency
to give minimum disturbance to traffic.
• ventilation.
Operating and maintenance manuals should
The monitoring of the passage of vehicles
cover:
carrying dangerous goods, and the detection
of spills and fire are described in the • drawings;
sections on “Fire, Life and Safety” and • systems descriptions;
“Communications”.
• systems performance;
In the event of a spillage or accident,
• equipment description;
immediate action is required and
emergency systems should be well • manufacturers’ technical literature;
May 2006
23-17
• any supplementary data available; upstream against the air flow (back
layering) are shown in the section on “Fire,
• operations procedures;
Life and Safety”.
• maintenance procedures including
In longer tunnels, special air ducts carry the
expected replacement intervals of parts,
polluted air away to selected exit points and
test certificates and test reports.
others bring fresh air into the tunnel
These manuals can be more easily prepared (transverse ventilation).
at the design stage in conjunction with the
23
Fans regulating the ventilation are
operating personnel than at later stages of
automatically controlled according to traffic
the process.
volumes, pollution levels and fire detection.
Detailed operational procedures at times of They must have manual override.
emergency must always be readily available
Traffic sensors are required to determine
to staff.
the number of vehicles in the tunnel and at
Training what speed they are travelling. Ventilation
Although accidents and other emergencies needs are automatically adjusted as required
in tunnels may be infrequent, regular to dilute the emissions from vehicles to an
training sessions on emergency procedures acceptable level in the tunnel. Carbon
should be carried out as any accident or monoxide and smoke monitors are also
spillage or breakdown of equipment may required to automatically control fan
affect many vehicles and people in a tunnel. speeds.
Ventilation The ventilation system in a tunnel should be

designed in accordance with recognized
Vehicle exhaust emissions contain toxic
methods described in the Technical
(notably carbon monoxide, CO), and
Committee Reports on Road Tunnels, to the
noxious gases, smoke, and particulates.
Permanent International Association of
In short tunnels, they may be removed by Road Congresses (PIARC) 1987, 1991 and
longitudinal ventilation, often assisted by 1995.
roof mounted jet fans to give discharge at
Due to recent accidents in Europe, revised
the portals, provided this concentration and
European standards are expected to be
subsequent dispersion of pollutants to the
released.
air at the exit to the tunnel is acceptable. Air
quality is of particular concern in cases The external noise levels of the ventilation
where economic justification for a tunnel plant should not exceed acceptable
has been partly based on the recovery of standards for nearby noise sensitive
developable land over the roof slab. development. (Refer to the Road Traffic
Noise Management: Code of Practice.)
For tunnels longer than 200 metres,
longitudinal bi-directional smoke Internal noise levels (i.e. those occurring
ventilation systems and control panels inside the tunnel) should also be limited to
should be provided as required by the acceptable levels. Typically, the maximum
Queensland Fire and Rescue Service. tunnel noise level resulting from the
Tunnel air velocities to ensure smoke and ventilation system, measured 1.5 metres
hot combustion gases do not spread above road level at the centreline of each
May 2006
23-18
traffic lane, should be not greater than Traffic Monitoring

85dBA without traffic and with all fans
Traffic sensors are required to regulate the
operating at normal operating speed.
degree of ventilation required.
Ventilation is also necessary to disperse any
Sensors also assist in controlling traffic
smoke, which reduces visibility. The
outside the tunnel, to allow traffic including
capacity of the system must be adequate to
buses to be diverted away from the tunnel
provide an increased effort over the normal
when unacceptable traffic delays, for
operational requirement of steady through
23
whatever reason, occur in the tunnel.
vehicle movement.
Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Dioxide
Other aspects of ventilation are:
(NO2) and Visibility Levels
• Portal discharge;
Carbon monoxide (CO) is the most
• Traffic monitoring; dominant of the toxic vehicle gas
emissions.
• Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrous Oxides
(NOx); About 10% to 20% of the emitted nitrogen
oxides (NOx) are converted to nitrogen
• Visibility levels; and
dioxide in very long tunnels.
• Occupational Health and Safety (OHS)
Visibility is reduced by the attenuation of
requirements.
light by small suspended particles in smoke.
Portal Discharge The particles absorb and scatter light
Calculations for the dispersal of tunnel reducing the amount reaching a driver’s
exhaust gases at portals should be based on eye.
the PIARC requirements set out in PIARC A light beam continually loses its intensity
Committee on Road Tunnels (1995a). as it travels through smoky air. The process
Pucher et al (1999) provides discussion of is defined in the formula:
this subject under Australian conditions.
E = E0 x e-KL
The direction and effect of prevailing winds
Where
at the portal, together with plume buoyancy,
must be considered. Recycling of diluted E = light intensity after travelling the
exhaust gases into fresh air intakes or distance L in smoky air
adjacent portals with undesirable, but not
E0 = light intensity at the beginning
toxic, effects can occur and must be
considered in the design and location of the e = base of natural logarithms
system. K = coefficient of extinction (m-1)
Discharging tunnel air through a chimney L = length of light ray between emission
vertically into the atmosphere is a more and reception (m)
efficient way of diluting the exhaust gases
In tunnel ventilation, visibility is usually
than discharging at a portal. This method is
expressed by the extinction factor, K.
commonly used on long tunnels (e.g.
Sydney Harbour Tunnel, M5 Motorway K = 0.005/metre - indicates clear tunnel air
tunnel, Sydney). with visibility several hundred metres.
May 2006
23-19
K = 0.007/metre - indicates a slight Fire, Life and Safety

haziness of the tunnel air.
Fires in tunnels are usually caused by
K = 0.009/metre - indicates an air quality mechanical or electrical faults in vehicles;
providing a foggy impression. less frequently by accidents; and rarely by
mal-functions of the installations in the
Variations in peak visibility may occur
tunnel.
during the day when, for example, several
diesel trucks are in line, or when the Automatic temperature activated detectors
23
ventilation is adjusting to cater for peak are preferred to smoke detectors and there
requirements. should be sufficient to cover the whole
length of the tunnel.
Turbidity is sometimes used for the term
“visibility” as defined above and in PIARC Ventilation and other tunnel equipment
publications. must remain in operation for a sufficient
period before failure to aid evacuation.
For tunnels under 300m in length, the
following criteria must be met: The desired goal is to provide an evacuation
path from the tunnel and to facilitate fire
• Carbon Monoxide (CO): 100 ppm
fighting operations.
maximum for a 15 minute exposure
period. The highest priority in the event of a fire is
the saving of life followed by the saving of
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): 1.5 ppm
property. Design and documentation of
maximum allowing for conversion of
proper procedures for these situations are
10% of NOx to NO2 within the tunnel
essential (see “Manuals” above).
(allow for background levels of
pollution in intake air). Major design considerations for fire
protection include:
• Visibility: K = 0.005/m maximum for
free flowing traffic. • Fire type (cellulose or hydrocarbon);
It is desirable that CO and smoke • Detection;
monitoring systems be installed and
• Smoke control;
employed to increase the fan speeds
automatically when required to deal with • Load for ventilation purposes;
changes in concentrations of these gases. • Built in redundancy of equipment;
Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) • Deluge / drencher systems;
Requirements
• Flame proof pits;
For maintenance purposes, the design of
• Foam;
walkways and access to equipment should
meet OHS requirements for confined space, • Fire hydrants;
working conditions and safety. Air quality
• Evacuation egress;
during maintenance should meet the
requirements defined by PIARC Committee • Dual drainage system; and
on Road Tunnels (1995a). • Fire engineering design brief.
Bus tunnels require consideration of longer- Evacuation Egress
term driver exposure.
May 2006
23-20
In short tunnels, the tendency will be for the For longitudinal ventilation, as soon as
public to exit through the portals in times of fire/smoke is detected there should be an
emergency. An adequately lit route automatic increase in fan speeds to help
(walkway or roadway) to the portals should disperse the smoke and prevent back
be provided. layering (moving upstream of the fire) from
taking place.
NFPA 502 (NFPA, 2001) and the
Emergency Services suggest that there Tunnel air velocities to stop smoke from
should be an emergency exit door at each spreading upstream should be greater than
fire hydrant location with suitable
supporting emergency communications.
3m/s. Maximum adverse wind speed should
be 6m/s to cope with buoyant combustion
product spread.
23
Where there are two tubes (parallel tunnels
separated by a wall), emergency doors It should be noted that the thermal effects of
allowing exit from one tube into the other fires significantly reduce tunnel airflows
are suitable. It would be an extremely compared to non-fire situations. Airflow
remote possibility that an reductions of the order of 1 to 11 percent
accident/emergency would occur on both for a 10 MW fire and 51 to 62 percent for a
sides of the wall at the same time. Footways 100 MW fire have been observed (Brisbane
of sufficient width to avoid doors opening City Council, 1999).
into, and discharging people into the traffic
As ceiling temperatures may be very high
lane are required. Appropriate warning
in a fire (8000°C in a test school bus fire,
lights in the tunnel being entered would
Rechnitzer et al, 1999), it should be
also alert drivers in that tunnel to the
assumed that at least one fan set would be
emergency evacuation.
made non-operational in a fire.
The doors of emergency exits should be
The required rating for smoke fans and
smoke and toxic gas resistant, signed and
wiring is 2 hours at 2500°C for a design fire
lighted for easy recognition as an
of 30MW (truck) with allowance for de-
emergency exit. When opened, these doors
rating to allow for operation in a hot smoke
should not obstruct the sight distance of
stream. In the longer tunnels, exhaust fans
traffic.
may remove the smoke through special
Detection conduits rather than blow the smoke
longitudinally through the tunnel.
Fire detectors should preferably be of the
linear fine wire type, which respond to Fire Load for Ventilation purposes
increase in radiant heat. The detectors
For short tunnels (less than 300m) where
should cover the full length of the tunnel
dangerous goods are not permitted, the
and automatically call the Fire Brigade in a
smoke ventilation design criteria shall be
Direct Brigade Landline when required.
based on a 30 MW fire, equivalent to that
Manual call points complying with AS from one bus or truck.
1603.5 for use by motorists, as well as fire
For longer tunnels, the design fire shall be
warning bells, should be provided .
50 MW (equivalent to a petrol tanker).
Smoke Control
Built in Redundancy
May 2006
23-21
It should be assumed in ventilation design, With the use of deluge systems, flames may
that one fan set becomes non-operational in be carried down from gullies into the
a fire because of the high temperatures drainage sumps. The drainage system
reached in the vicinity of a fire. should therefore be flame proof.
Deluge / Drencher System Closed sumps should have forced
ventilation with duty and standby extraction
Deluge or drencher systems, when
fans. A gas detection system should be
activated, discharge at least twice the
provided to automatically trigger an inert
23
volumetric rate of water per minute than
gas foam extinguisher if hydrocarbons are
sprinkler systems for ordinary hazards
detected. Monitoring of pumping operations
(AS2118.1, 1999).
should be provided at a Control Centre.
Water sprinklers or deluge systems using
Foam
water are not always provided in tunnels
because (PIARC, 1983): The benefits of adding foam to deluge
systems are obvious, particularly when
• sprinklers (and the relevant codes) are
dangerous goods are allowed in a tunnel,
primarily for fires in buildings.
but it should be recognized that fire fighting
Sprinklers do not lend themselves to
foam is not effective against all dangerous
extinguishing vehicle fires as the
goods (including alcohol), and other
vehicles are designed to shed water and
contingencies should be planned.
keep the interior dry;
Fire Hydrants
• contact with water can produce
dangerous reactions with some Tunnels should have a Fire Hydrant System
materials; in accordance with AS 2419.
• the steam produced can reduce The hydrants should be placed at each
visibility; and portal and at evenly spaced locations not
more than 90 metres apart within the length
• metal does not cool quickly even when
of the tunnel. This distance is consistent
the flames are extinguished. This means
with standard hose lengths available.
that spilt petrol continues to vapourise
and may produce an explosive mixture Fire hydrants should be single head
even after the fire has been complying with AS 2419.1 - 1994, Fire
extinguished. The danger is even Hydrant Systems - Design Installation and
greater if the fuel is LPG. Commissioning or double headed
complying with NFPA 502 (NFPA, 1999a).
Sprinklers, if fitted, should include an
aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) to Portable fire extinguishers, preferably of the
further prevent potential for ignition. dry chemical type, should be placed in the
Combined foam and water in accordance Central (Fire) Control Room and other
with NFPA 16 (NFPA, 1999) may also be selected locations. The spacing to be
appropriate. A range of systems is available adopted depends on the length of the tunnel
and details should be sought from the and at least one extinguisher per direction
references. of travel should be placed in short tunnels
(100m maximum spacing). The location of
Flame Proof Pits
May 2006
23-22
extinguishers should be coincident with tunnel under all weather conditions at both
pull-off bays where these are provided. the entrance and exit. The tunnel lighting is
therefore zoned to allow sufficient time for
Dual Drainage System
the eye to adjust.
The use of deluge sprinklers indicates the
For a driver entering from sunlight, the
need for a dual drainage system to carry the
illumination at the portals should be of a
water excess to normal operations away
relatively high level reducing progressively
from the tunnel carriageway.
to the tunnel lighting level. At night,
A flame-proof drainage system is required.
Fire Fighting Access
illumination at the portal equal to that in the
tunnel would be appropriate. 23
The route for fire brigade vehicles and Luminance of 3 - 10 candelas/m2 for
access for fire fighting equipment must be daytime lighting and 2 - 2.5 candelas/m2
identified and written into operating for nightime levels is adequate (PIARC
manuals for use in emergencies. Committee on Road Tunnels, 1995c).
Fire Engineering Design Brief At the exit, the same level of illumination
as at the entrance is appropriate. However,
Before detailed design of a tunnel is
at the exit, it is preferable that a driver is
undertaken, a Fire Engineering Design
not looking directly into the sun. Section
Brief should be prepared and approved.
10.2.5 (Chapter 10) gives a method for
This brief should specify the design determining the sun’s position and altitude
considerations relevant to a fire or (in degrees above the horizontal plane) for
emergency situation (see other parts of this South and North Queensland (those for
section). This would include aspects of other locations may be interpolated).
ventilation, drainage, emergency lighting,
Adjustment to the lighting levels may be
communications, structures and all
required in short tunnels where the driver
considerations in this section.
can see the exit from the entrance and this
In addition, the Brief should require the appears as a bright light at the end of a dark
designer to provide: tube. The tunnel lighting would have to be
brighter to mask this effect.
• a detailed Manual for operational
procedures in an emergency; Appropriate reflectivity (60%) of the walls
of a tunnel enhances the lighting within the
• a hazard analysis for the tunnel; and
tunnel. It is important to keep the walls
• a quantitative risk assessment. clean to retain this enhancement.
Lighting Emergency lighting will be required to

provide adequate illumination for
Lighting at the portals of tunnels must
evacuation in the event that the primary
allow drivers to readily adapt their eyesight
source is made inoperable in an accident.
to see the road carriageway and its limits,
signs and road markings when entering or Zone Lighting
leaving a tunnel. Design of lighting in tunnels should be in
Tunnel lighting must make allowance for accordance with:
the differing light conditions external to the • CIE 88-1990;
May 2006
23-23
• CIE 61-1984 for tunnel entrance resistant to flame spread and easy to clean.
lighting; and In addition to their other properties, they
should be coloured to provide an attractive
• CIE 31-1976 (TC-46) for glare and
internal environment and to highlight safety
uniformity in road lighting installations.
facilities.
In a one way tunnel, five zones are
Emergency Lighting
considered for illumination design. Moving
progressively into and along the tunnel, At least 15% of lighting should be
23
they are: maintained during emergencies (provided
by Uninterruptible Power System - UPS).
• the access (just outside the tunnel
entrance); Strip lighting no higher than door height
along the tunnel walls may serve as
• the threshold;
emergency lights.
• the transition;
Communications
• the interior; and
It is essential that communications be
• the exit.
functional at all times in a tunnel, not only
In practice at least four daytime switching in a fire or emergency situation, but also for
levels and one night time switching level on monitoring and maintenance operations.
the light control panel are required to
The following functions are desirable:
accommodate the potential variations in
lighting conditions. • Control centre linked to existing
communications providers;
Counter Beam
• Closed circuit TV (CCTV);
A lighting system which produces high
road surface luminance and low vertical • Radio rebroadcast;
illuminance gives relatively high contrast
• P.A. system with radio interruption;
values for most objects on the road. Such a
system will only be obtained when the • Emergency telephones;
lighting distribution is longitudinally • Mobile telephones rebroadcast;
asymmetrical and preferentially directed
• Staffing and traffic control centre;
towards the driver (CIE88 - 1990).
• Speed cameras; and
Wall Panels
• Bus radio rebroadcast.
Wall panels with height 3.5m above the
road carriageway and with 60% reflectivity The system should be designed to provide
are suitable internal fittings for tunnels. automatic incident detection as an integral
They are required to enhance the lighting in part of the control systems. The elements of
the tunnel, thereby reducing the light the system are included in the individual
emission required from the luminaires, and components described in this section and
producing a satisfactory result at optimum the sections on Fire, Electrical, Ventilation
cost. and Lighting. These must be designed as an
integrated system to provide the level of
They should be non-corrodible, resistant to
incident detection required.
impact and abrasion, non-combustible,
May 2006
23-24
Control Centre Location would be justified in the longer tunnels but

considered desirable rather than essential in
It is essential that a 24 hour manned control
shorter tunnels. Spacing of these phones at
centre be established or maintained to
60 - 100m centres should be considered.
receive all monitoring and emergency
electronic messages from a tunnel where Mobile Telephones Rebroadcast
these facilities are installed. It is not
It is possible to make mobile cellular
essential that this control centre be at the
telephones work in a tunnel and have a
tunnel itself, although this would be
23
message from the Tunnel Control Centre
desirable.
override other use.
Any signal denoting a fire should be
It is illegal for drivers to use mobile
automatically sent to a nearby Fire Brigade
telephones without a “hands free” facility in
Station as well as the tunnel control centre.
moving vehicles. However, such telephones
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) are available to drivers with hands free
facilities and to passengers in buses and
CCTV allows continuous monitoring of the
cars. In addition, tunnel operational and
tunnel. The system should allow the
emergency services staff can make use of
operator to zoom in to all sections of the
these telephones.
facility. Cameras should be located to
facilitate this operation Monitoring
The design should provide for:
Radio Rebroadcast • smoke and fire detectors;
A radio rebroadcast where a message from • carbon monoxide monitors;
the Tunnel Control Centre can override all
• manemometers for air velocity
local radio AM and FM stations is a most
measurement;
effective way of conveying a clear message
for vehicles both inside and outside the • transmissometers for visibility
tunnel (once radios are turned on). measurement; and
Instructions to turn the radio on can be • traffic sensors for ventilation needs.
achieved by using P.A. systems or variable
All of these units are required in automatic
signs. The design should allow for these
monitoring systems in tunnels to provide
systems.
essential data for the management and
P.A. System with Radio Interruption operation of the tunnel.
Public address systems are not always clear To stop over height vehicles from entering
or readily understood. However, they are a tunnel, there should be a steel height
much more effective once traffic is barrier and appropriate surveillance at a
stationary. A simple message to turn radios suitable distance before the entrance to the
on for more detailed messages would give a tunnel. The devices should be located at a
good combination of P.A. system and radio. place where the offending vehicle can be
Help Telephones removed from the traffic stream without
preventing other traffic entering the tunnel.
Help telephones on the side of tunnels for
use in vehicle breakdowns or accidents
May 2006
23-25
Structural Design Waterproof membranes and geotextile

drainage layers may be used on roof slabs
Structural considerations include:
in tunnels.
• Fire rating;
The waterproof membrane should be
• Concrete and other cladding; seamless over the full length of the roof
• Waterproof membrane; slab extending down to cover the joint
between the roof slab and the walls. In
• Structure design life;
addition, for cut and cover sections of the
23 •
•
Pavement design life;
Pavement wearing surface; and
tunnel, a protective layer over the
membrane is required to prevent rupture in
the event of excavation over the tunnel, and
• Loading on roof. during backfilling.
Fire Rating In driven tunnels, the full lining is drained
The tunnel structure, structural lining and by a geotextile extending to the tunnel
communication services should have a fire invert.
resistance level of 4 hours. Structure Design Life
A fire load of 30 MW (approximately equal The tunnel design life is usually 100 years.
to one bus or truck burning) should be
Pavement Design Life
adopted for tunnels less than 300m long
where dangerous goods are prohibited. For Pavement design life required can range
tunnels longer than 300m, or where from 25 to 40 years. An economic analysis
dangerous goods may be carried, a 50 MW should be carried out to determine the most
fire load should be adopted. cost effective solution. Issues to consider
include:
Concrete and Other Cladding
• Frequency of rehabilitation;
Concrete roofs and other structural
components may be made thicker than • Cost of disruption to traffic during
required for structural design to make them rehabilitation operations;
fire resistant. Alternatively, vermiculite,
• Capacity to overlay within the vertical
perlite or proprietary products may be used
clearance provided;
for the same result.
• Volume and type of traffic (if a heavy
As an example, the cost of an extra 100mm
duty pavement is required, a life of 40
thickness of concrete cladding on one roof
years is required).
was judged to be equivalent to 40 mm thick
cladding of a proprietary product. Each case Pavement Wearing Surface
would have to be assessed on its merits. The wearing surface required will depend
Testing of all materials should be in on:
accordance with AS 1530.4 “Methods of • Life required (see above);
Fire Tests on Building Materials,
• Aquaplaning potential;
Components and Structures - Fire Resistant
Test Elements of Building Construction”. • Friction resistance required;
Waterproof Membranes • Noise generation;
May 2006
23-26
• Susceptibility to damage by oil generators should provide power for

droppings and spills. essential loads for 30 minutes at least, and
15% illumination level for 120 minutes.
Surfaces used have varied from concrete to
asphalt, depending on the circumstances. Essential loads are:
Loading on Roof • communications and monitoring
equipment;
Tunnel roofs should obviously be designed
for existing loads such as buildings and • ventilation;
earth pressures.
They should also be designed for any future
•
•
computer and safety facilities;
signage;
23
development above the tunnel when
constructed, including roads etc. Particular • emergency power outlets; and
attention should be paid to these locations • 15% of lighting evenly distributed
so that the tunnel roof is not weakened along the tunnel.
during a fire.
UPS for pumping equipment may be
Electrical necessary depending on the circumstances
and upon the design adopted. UPS for
Considerations include:
smoke removal ventilation should be in
• Dual supply (separate substations); accordance with the requirements of the
Queensland Fire Service.
• UPS (Uninterruptible Power System);
The UPS system must include automatic
• Manual override; and
static transfer switching of essential loads in
• Fire resistance of wiring. case of system fault, or mains supply
Dual Power Supply failure.
It is essential that electrical power to Manual Override

tunnels be uninterrupted for ventilation and A manual override of control systems may
other safety reasons. be provided at the portals for use by
Two sources of supply from a power authorized Emergency Services Authorities.
company are required; each rated to supply Fire Resistance of Wiring
the full load of the tunnel electrical system
A fire rating of 2 hours at 2500°C is
with an automatic transfer system to enable
required for the design fire load.
selection of the available supply. During
operation, both could be running at fifty
References
percent capacity, and on the failure of one,
the other would automatically be boosted to Amundsen, F.I.I., Sovik, O.L. (1995):
one hundred percent power output. Classification of Tunnels, Existing
Guidelines and Experiences,
UPS (Uninterruptible Power System)
Recommendations, PIARC Committee on
In the event that both services of supply Road Tunnels.
from the power company are not available,
a UPS (Uninterruptable Power System)
comprising batteries or backup diesel
May 2006
23-27
Antill, J.M., Paul W.S. and Easton, G.R.: FHWA (1999): Prevention and Control of
Civil Engineering Construction (6th Highway Tunnel Fires, Publication No
Edition). FHWA-RD-83-032.
AS2419 - 1994: Fire Hydrant Systems - Fire Code Reform Centre Ltd. (1996): Fire
Design, Installation and Commissioning. Engineering Guidelines.
AS2118.3 - 1997: Automatic Fire Sprinkler Gold Coast City Council and Department of
Requirements, Part 3 - Deluge. Main Roads (1990): Queensland,
23
Preliminary Investigation for Road Tunnel -
AS2118.1 - 1999: Automatic Fire Sprinkler
Surfers Paradise Esplanade, Stage 1 Report.
Requirements, Part 1 - General
Requirements. Kelly, D.L. (1999): Tunnel Design -
Performance and Safety Design Issues -
Austroads (1992): Bridge Design Code.
Transport Technology Forum, Department
Bechtel/Parsons Brinckerhoff (1995): of Main Roads, Queensland.
Memorial Tunnel Fire Ventilation Test
National Fire Protection Association
Program Report, Massachusetts Highway
(1997): NFPA 130 Standard for Fixed
Department.
Guideway Transit Systems.
Brisbane City Council (1999): Fire
Engineering Study, Inner City Bypass
(1999): NFPA 16, Standard for the
Project.
Installation of Foam - Water Sprinklers and
British Standards Institution (1990): BS Foam - Water Spray Systems.
6164: Code of Practice for Safety in
Tunnelling.
(2001): NFPA 502, Standard for Road
Bustos-Ramirez, A., Miller, D.W.: Tunnels, Bridges, and Other Limited
Performance Based Design of the Fire Access Highways.
Safety Systems for the New Southern
Ove Arup & Partners (1998): Fire
Railway, Sydney.
Engineering Design Brief, South East
CIE31 - 1976: Glare and Uniformity in Transit Project - Busway Tunnels.
Road Lighting Installations, International
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23-29

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Department of Main Roads Chapter 23

Road Planning and Design Manual Tunnels

Figure 23.3(a) cont. Typical Tunnel Types 6

Figure 22.3(b) Canopy Tube 8

23 Figure 22.3(c) Canopy Tube

Figure 23.4 Typical Tunnel Section (6 Lanes)

Chapter 23 Amendments – June 2006

A short tunnel is also termed an underpass, 23.2 Justification for

23 • which can only be given a subjective

Planning and design costs include: Maintenance costs include:

• surveys and field investigations • road surface;

• changes to overall traffic patterns and Air pollution is concentrated at the

• displacement of people whose homes Cut-and-Cover Tunnel

Figure 23.3(a) Typical Tunnel Types

Driven Tunnel – Enlarge Section for Ventilation Fans

Figure 23.3(a) (continued) - Typical Tunnel Types

23 Figure 22.3(b) Pile Wall

Figure 22.3(c) Canopy Tube

In an urban environment, additional Temporary support is required before the

Tunnels through Rock applicable mandatory International

23.4 General Design

• an enclosed road with lateral and • Fire;

Vertical Refer to Chapter 7,

The 2.5m shoulder provides space for

Figure 23.4 Typical Tunnel Section (6 Lanes)

Alignment than 0.5%. Sumps must be provided with

• collection at portals and in the tunnel • Manuals; and

23 • sump and pump capacity designed to be

• closed sumps with forced ventilation - Pedestrian walkways in vehicular tunnels

However, fire combustion products can o Non-Flammable Non-Toxic Gases

Hypochlorite- Swimming Pool danger not covered by other classes e.g.

23 substances may give rise to

• placing vehicles carrying dangerous established and understood (appropriate

Ventilation The ventilation system in a tunnel should be

traffic lane, should be not greater than Traffic Monitoring

K = 0.007/metre - indicates a slight Fire, Life and Safety

Lighting Emergency lighting will be required to

Control Centre Location would be justified in the longer tunnels but

Structural Design Waterproof membranes and geotextile

• Susceptibility to damage by oil generators should provide power for

It is essential that electrical power to Manual Override

PIARC Committee on Road Tunnels Stork-Moore, I., Charters, D.: The

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