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Options for the Recycling of Drill Cuttings

Article · March 2003

DOI: 10.2118/80583-MS

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SPE 80583
Options for the Recycling of Drill Cuttings
Paul W. Page, SPE, Chris Greaves, SPE, BP Exploration Co, Ltd; Rosey Lawson, Shell Expro; Sean Hayes, BMT Cordah
Ltd.; Fergus Boyle, Mott MacDonald.
Copyright 2003, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE/EPA/DOE Exploration and Production
Environmental Conference held in San Antonio, Texas, U.S.A., 10–12 March 2003.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
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Abstract
It is estimated that the UKCS produces between 50,000 to
80,000 tonnes wet weight of oily drill cuttings annually. With
the implementation of OSPAR Decision 92, and given current
offshore technology, it is no longer possible to discharge
cleaned oily cuttings to sea. Increasingly stringent legislation
also makes it likely that cuttings derived using water-based
muds will not be discharged to sea in the future.
Although several commercially available treatment processes
can remove oil from oil based mud (OBM) cuttings, there are
few satisfactory outlets for the residual solid material most of
which currently goes to landfill. In light of the legislative
changes, increased focus on duty of care, and commercial
considerations, viable alternatives are being sought for the
recycling and reuse of large volumes of material from future
drilling programs.
This paper examines possible options for converting drill
cuttings into reusable secondary products and discusses the
advantages and disadvantages of each option when considered
against the criteria of environmental impact, technical risk,
logistics, liability and cost. Examples of the research and
pilot trials currently being undertaken to assess the feasibility
of these options is discussed, as well as work being carried out
to establish the variation in chemical composition of cuttings
in the UKCS, since tolerance to the variation in the chemical
characteristics of drill cuttings is a major issue for most of the
end uses.
Introduction
Under present OSPAR legislation, oil based mud (OBM)
cuttings bearing more than 1% oil-on-cuttings by weight
cannot be discharged to sea. To date, technology cannot
provide cost-effective, large volume cleaning offshore to these
levels. Contaminated cuttings are therefore returned to shore
uncleaned, for treatment and/or disposal.
Operators, and their waste management contractors, are
therefore faced with a considerable waste handling and
disposal issue. Current estimates suggest of the order of
50,000 tonnes of OBM cuttings are produced in the UKCS
annually. OBMs are essential in present practices for drilling
certain sections of wells and in certain rock formations, and
there is little prospect that they can be phased out entirely.
Re-injection appears practical in some 25% of well
developments however larger volumes of WBM may be
returned to shore as environmental aspirations increase.
There are several onshore operations providing a facility for
reducing the oil content of OBM cuttings. The most common
treatment technique used in the UK at present is indirect
thermal desorption. This process removes oil and water from
cuttings and has two objectives: 1) to bring the oil content
under the Special Waste classification threshold, and 2) to
produce a more easily handled dry product.
There appears to be no developed, large-scale outlet for the
recycling of the treated material. Consequently, the bulk of
treated cuttings are disposed of in landfill sites.
This paper addresses the management of cuttings from future
drilling operations in the UKCS from the perspective of
sustainable development, identifying options that are
commercially and technically feasible for recycling and/or
disposal. The approach taken was holistic in that the life cycle
of the “product” was considered, taking account of secondary
products and emissions.
Options were identified to either recycle drill cuttings either as
an addition to, or replacement for, a raw material that was
required for the manufacture of a product or material; or as a
supplement to an existing feedstock of waste material, that
was already being processed into a useful product. The term
“recycling” has been adopted, as the aim was to recycle drill
cuttings into the chain of utility rather than re-use the cuttings
as drill cuttings. Although the study looked at geographically
widespread solutions, there was a locational emphasis on the
Aberdeen area, where the majority of cuttings are brought
onshore.
2 P.W.PAGE, C. GREAVES, R. LAWSON, S. HAYES, F. BOYLE
Waste Legislative Issues Relevant to the UKCS
Changes in legislation are resulting in drivers for waste
minimisation and recycling. Legislation also presents one of
the most significant barriers, that of moving drill cuttings from
being classified as a waste to being classified as a product.
The key aspects, summarized in Table 1, are discussed in more
detail below as they assist in forming a view about the
feasibility of recycling options.
Landfill Directive. The European Council Directive on the
Landfill Directive (1999/31/EEC) was introduced to reduce
the levels of biodegradable material being sent to landfill. The
Directive has introduced a requirement upon Member States to
reduce the amount of biodegradable municipal waste entering
landfill. The Directive aims to harmonise controls across the
European Union, focusing mainly on the design, operation and
remediation of landfill sites.
The Directive is to be implemented in the UK through the
development of national policies relating to sustainable waste
management (National Waste Strategy) and in the first
instance is mainly applicable to biodegradable municipal
waste. The Directive has set targets for reduction of
biodegradable materials in landfill as a whole, however, and as
such has implications for all UK businesses producing
biodegradable waste.
The key focus of the Directive is to regulate waste being
disposed to landfill, including:
• In comparison with 1995 levels, the amount of
biodegradable waste disposed of to landfill must be
reduced by 25% by the year 2006, by 50% by 2009 and
by 65% by 2016. There is potential to extend these
targets by up to four years where member states disposed
of more than 80% of their municipal waste to landfill in
1995. The targets are to be achieved in Scotland mainly
through the National Waste Strategy, although it is
anticipated that some form of corresponding national
legislation will accompany this;
• The Directive also imposes a ban on co-disposal of
hazardous, non-hazardous and inert waste in the same
landfill. In addition, certain hazardous wastes, liquid
wastes and tyres are banned from disposal completely;
and
• All waste must undergo some form of pre-treatment prior
to disposal in order to reduce potential harm to the
environment.
Under Article 3 of the Directive, a number of activities are
exempted, including land spreading of sludges for soil
improvement.
National Waste Strategies.The National Waste Strategy
(NWS) for Scotland was published in 1999 and provides a
framework for the reduction of waste being sent to landfill and
an increase in recovery and recycling. The Waste Strategy
for England and Wales published in 2000 has similar
objectives of reducing the amount of waste sent to landfill.
Both Waste Strategies are intended to move the UK towards
more sustainable waste management practices, by reducing the
SPE 80583
quantity and hazardous state of the waste and increasing the
amount of value recovered.
A key means of implementing the NWS (Scotland) is the
production of eleven Area Waste Plans (AWPs) across
Scotland. Local geographical, economic and social variations
are to be taken into consideration within each of the eleven
AWPs to produce a sustainable and integrated waste
management approach for Scotland as a whole. The NWS
(Scotland) sets a waste hierarchy for the management of
waste, which is illustrated below:
In association with development of the NWS (Scotland),
increased investment is being made into research and
development of alternatives to disposal, including increased
promotion of waste minimisation, identification of Best
Practical Environmental Options (BPEO) for waste
management and investment into recycling and composting. In
addition, SEPA has recently commissioned research into
certain priority waste streams including packaging waste and
agricultural waste.
Landfill Tax. Through provisions made within the Finance
Act 1996, the UK became more focused towards
environmentally friendly taxation, with the introduction of
Landfill Tax Regulations 1996. The Regulations allow HM
Customs & Excise to levy a tax (Landfill Tax) on the disposal
of waste to licensed landfill (unless exempt). Landfill Tax is
applied to the license holder for the landfill site, who then
applies the rate of tax to those depositing waste as part of
landfill charges.
Landfill Tax is charged per tonne and is currently set at
two levels:
• Inactive (inert) wastes: £2 / tonne (includes rocks, soils,
ceramics, concrete, minerals, furnace slags, and ash).
• Standard rate (01/04/02 – 31/03/03): £13 / tonne (all other
waste unless exempt - includes dredgings from inland
waterways and harbours, mining and quarrying waste, pet
cemeteries, contaminated land remediation waste, landfill
site restoration materials and quarry filling).
In the 1999 Budget, the Government announced that it
intends to raise the standard rate by £1 / tonne each year to
2004 subject to Parliamentary approval. The aim of the
Landfill Tax is to reduce the volumes of waste being disposed
of to landfill, and to utilise waste higher up the waste
hierarchy. Most untreated drill cuttings are classified as
special waste as described in Section 4.6.2, which attracts a
higher disposal fee to reflect the higher level of landfill
engineering required for hazardous wastes.
Landfill costs are set to continue to rise with both increases
in Landfill Tax and costs associated with the requirements of
the Landfill Directive. As a result more onus is placed on
waste producers to source alternative methods of waste
disposal, including recovery and recycling and incorporation
of waste minimisation as part of business thinking in order to
improve resource use.
Aggregate Tax. The March 2000 Budget announced that an
Aggregates Levy would be introduced in April 2002. The
SPE 80583 OPTIONS FOR THE RECYCLING OF DRILL CUTTINGS
levy was legislated for in the Finance Act 2001, and received
Royal Assent on 11 May 2001. The ‘Aggregates Tax’ came
into effect on 1 April 2002.
The tax applies to primary aggregates, e.g. sand, gravel
and rock, subjected to commercial exploitation in the UK.
This includes aggregate dredged from the seabed within UK
territorial waters (12-mile limit). The tax will be charged at
£1.60 per tonne. Offshore cuttings are exempt from the tax, so
construction materials derived from untreated or treated
offshore cuttings will not be subject to this tax.
Criteria for evaluating whether a waste is being recycled.
In developing options for re-use and recycling of wastes
materials, the extent to which the solution is considered by the
regulators to be ‘sham recovery’ needs to be considered.
“Sham recovery” refers to a waste management practice in
which the producer seeks to avoid the disposal costs by
‘recycling’ the waste inappropriately.
The European Court of Justice has stated that a by-product
or residual product does not constitute waste if it is destined
for direct re-use in a further process in its existing form and if
the use of a residue as substitute or ingredient is as
environmentally sound as the material it is replacing. This re-
use often occurs as an integral part of production processes. In
cases where the material cannot be directly used in the
production process (i.e. needs to be further processed), it
should be considered waste.
Similarly, the United Kingdom considers that production
residues, secondary raw materials and by-products used in
industrial processes, do not constitute waste if they are not
subjected to an operation associated with the recovery of
waste. The UK Department of the Environment, for example,
does not consider recyclable material as ‘waste’ if it is:
• Material which is within the ‘commercial cycle or chain
of utility’;
• Material which can be put into immediate use without
going through a specialised waste recovery operation; or
• Waste that has been processed to such a state that it can
be used as a raw material.
• information that is available has been collected from grab and
Waste policy and interpretation. A key legal issue regarding
the storage and re-use of cuttings is its classification as a
waste, and this has been addressed by SEPA in some detail.
Currently, the operators consign cuttings as waste when they
are shipped to shore, and it is SEPA’s view that cuttings are
waste at the point of landing. Moreover, for waste-containing
products to be classified as non-waste, waste materials must be
directly comparable to the raw materials that they are
replacing.
This could be a major issue for any recycling or
reclamation project as recycled waste will often be of a
different quality, and have different properties to, a raw
material, even though the product may be of equivalent
performance.
Linked with this issue is SEPA’s determination that if the
material is consigned as waste, it cannot be unilaterally re-
entered into the chain of utility as a product; it must be
subjected to 'complete' recovery.
3
Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Drill
Cuttings
Drill cuttings are an inherently variable substance and there is
a lack of data on their characterisation. Although end uses
have been selected in order to be tolerant of variations in
character, characterisation is still an important issue for most
of the end uses that have been identified in this study.
Although UKOOA has published information about the
nature of extant (historic) piles on the bed of the North Sea1,
however there is far less information about the characteristics
and condition of cuttings that are received onshore for
treatment and/or disposal.
Amount of cuttings generated. The total amount of cuttings,
which has been discharged to the UKCS up to 2000, is
estimated to be approximately 2,000,000 tonnes2. This figure
represents those cuttings, which were discharged from multi-
well sites only, and approximately a further 5,000 to 6,000
single wells have also been drilled during that period. A
figure of 2 mega-tonnes gives an annual mean of 57,000
tonnes cuttings generated (based on over 35 years since UKCS
drilling began in 1969). Whilst this mass included water
based mud (WBM) cuttings and is certainly in excess of that
produced to date, it does, however, provide a historically
based likely maximum figure which is unlikely to be
exceeded.
Current estimates indicate that the quantity of cuttings
currently landed annually is approximately 50,000 tonnes
(exclusive of WBM cuttings) 3.
Oil contaminated cuttings that are brought to shore from
installations are either landed in skips, or in a bulk or slurrified
form. The majority of cuttings (70% to 80% of the total mass
landed from the UKCS) are currently brought ashore in
Aberdeen and Peterhead, with the remainder landed at
Lerwick and Lowestoft.
Physical Properties. Data describing the physical nature of
cuttings are rather limited, either in respect of those returned
to shore, or from those comprising extant piles. Much of the
core samples that have been collected from the surface, or the
shallow sub-surface, of cuttings piles. The data has been
collected as small-scale exercises designed to test the
composition of individual piles, either for decommissioning
programmes or for projected engineering work. During Phase
I of the UKOOA JIP, data describing the physical and
chemical composition of cuttings piles was collated2.
Particle size. Drill cuttings from the North Sea typically
comprise sandstone and shale, and have a particle diameter
range of 10 µm to 10 – 20mm4. This range compares with
samples collected from the cuttings pile at N W Hutton, which
had a particle size range of 13µm to over 500µm5.
Density. An industry2 accepted figure for the specific
gravity of cuttings on the seabed is 2.1 t/m3. Density
measurements taken from samples collected from cuttings
piles ranged from 1.3-2.0 t/m3 to 2.3-2.7 t/m3
The density of untreated OBM cuttings is typically around
1.65 t/m3. The density of treated cuttings varies from between
4 P.W.PAGE, C. GREAVES, R. LAWSON, S. HAYES, F. BOYLE
2.2 to 2.7 t/m3 depending on the ratio of mud to rock in the
cuttings, and it is typically 2.4 t/m3.
Shear strength. Shear strength measurements were
collected from the cuttings piles at four installations. Values
ranged from less than 10kPa to 40kPa, similar to soft
sediment2.
There appears to be no data that describes the shear
strength of cuttings that have been retained for transport to
shore. Shear strength will vary depending on the amount of
water added to slurrify the drill cuttings.
Water content. Several types of WBM will be used during
the drilling as depth drilled increases. WBM types vary, from
the most simple spud mud composed of seawater and
bentonite, to more complex formulations that include barite,
fluid loss additives, viscosifiers etc. The proportion of water
present will decrease as the amount of other additives
increases. Water is also present in OBM formulations. With
OBMs, the organic phase is emulsified in water, which can
account for over 10% by volume, and brines can account for
10% to 50%. Any chemicals that are added to the mud are
firstly dissolved in water before the being mixed with the oil
fraction, and this may represent a further source of water in
OBM.
Within five cuttings piles in the UKCS the water content
ranged from 14% to 70%, with most being in the range 14% to
35%2.
Handling. Untreated drill cuttings are thixotropic in
nature, have abrasive properties, have a tendency to settle
during transport, and are cohesive during pumping. This
makes untreated drill cuttings difficult to handle. Drill
cuttings are often handled in skips, each holding around 4
tonnes of cuttings. Untreated cuttings are sometimes
slurrified, by the addition of water, to improve pumping
performance and slurrified cuttings may be shipped to shore in
bulk.
Treated drill cuttings are more easily transported as a dry
powder although cuttings generated onshore are generally
‘damped’ with water at a rate of between 5 and 10% by
volume to reduce dust nuisance.
Chemical properties of drill cuttings
Salts. Inorganic salts are added to mud formulations to
prevent the migration of salt from exposed rock formations in
the well, and to inhibit shale swelling and hydration. Salts
used include calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, potassium
chloride and sodium chloride.
Brines added to OBMs can account for 10% to 50% of an
OBM by volume. They are emulsified in the oil phase and are
used to reduce reactions between the drilling fluid and clays
and salts in the formation. Brines also increase the density of
the OBM and the emulsion will have a higher viscosity than
oil or water. The most commonly used salt in brines is CaCl2,
which can account for over 30% of the weight of the brine.
Halides. Halides contained in drill cuttings are most likely
to have originated in the drilling mud, which coats the rock.
Salts used in the formulation of drilling mud include
potassium chloride and calcium chloride. Water based drilling
muds can also contain seawater, which contains additional
halides. Halides may represent as much as 5% of a mud
formulation.
SPE 80583
Metals. A wide range of metals can be present in cuttings
and generally originates as impurities in barites (barium
sulphate). Barite is used for mud density control, to maintain
hydrostatic pressure and to help to prevent borehole collapse.
Metals which have been commonly found within cuttings piles
(and so are likely to be present in non-discharged cuttings)
include: arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron,
manganese, mercury, nickel, lead, selenium, tin, vanadium and
zinc2.
Iron could be present in circumstances where haematite
has been used as the weighting agent.
Metals will also be present from the rock matrix that has
been drilled.
Drill Cuttings Sulphates. Barite, as barium sulphate, is a
major constituent of drill cuttings, because of its use as a
weighting agent in drilling muds. This is not expected to
create a significant concern, as it has been assessed as being a
very stable mineral, i.e. the sulphate is not free to react or
leach out2. Given the importance of this issue in re-use
options, and uncertainty about the behaviour of barium
sulphate in treatment and end use environments, it may be
necessary to improve the level of knowledge regarding the
availability of sulphates.
Sulphates may also be present in drill cuttings through the
use of seawater for mud formulation, or through their presence
in other mud additives.
Mineralogy. The rock portion of drill cuttings is composed
mainly of claystone, sandstone, siltstone, limestone mudstone
and shale, depending on the lithology being drilled. The most
common of these is claystone.
Fifteen minerals were detected in cuttings from Beryl A
and from Ekofisk 2/4 A6. Of these quartz and barite accounted
for the greatest proportion.
BP has recently initiated a sampling program to establish
the variation of cuttings composition as a function of well
depth and geographic location in the North Sea. Table 2
compares the bulk oxide analyses of samples from the Beryl
and Ecofisk cuttings piles with that of a bulk composite
sample of drill cuttings recently generated and collected from
a BP well drilled in the central North Sea.
Oil content and types. Oil constitutes up to 50% of the
volume of an (un-discharged) OBM (or up to approximately
40% by weight) and the amount present will be a factor of the
amount of mud adhering to the cuttings.
Where OBM has been used, there will be present varying
amounts of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs). Whilst
low-tox OBM contain reduced quantities of the low molecular
weight aromatic compounds naphthalene, phenanthrene and
dibenzothiophene compared with the earlier diesel muds, these
are still present in relatively high concentrations. In addition
to these components, a number of other PAHs will also be
present, as will various longer chained compounds.
Total PAH compounds in the pile at Beryl A and Ekofisk
2/4 A were present in concentrations up to 20,000 and 3,000
ng.g-1, respectively. It is likely that similar concentrations
would be present in cuttings that were transported to shore for
treatment.
Most OBMs used today are low-tox OBMs, and it is
unlikely that SBMs, which composed of non-mineral oils such
SPE 80583 OPTIONS FOR THE RECYCLING OF DRILL CUTTINGS
as esters and olefins, would be present on cuttings that have
been contained and taken to shore.
The oil content of raw untreated cuttings will vary depending
upon the proposed transportation method. Current estimates
are that cuttings transported by the bulk transfer will have oil
on cuttings (OCC) content of up to 20%. Other methods of
transfer such as ship and skip, return cuttings with an OCC
generally between 10 and 15%.
Identification of Options for the Recycling or
Disposal of Cuttings Onshore
The initial review generated a list of 95 possible recycling and
disposal options. Examination showed that these could be
grouped into the following ten categories:
- Materials/waste improvers
- Fuel
- Additives/blends
- Agriculture/landscaping
- Asphalt/bitumen products
- Concrete/cement products
- Hydraulic engineering
- Aggregates
- Grouts
- Consumer products
Evaluation Criteria. The advantages and disadvantages of
each option were then considered against the general
evaluation criteria of environmental impact, technical
considerations, commercial feasibility, logistics, and product
liability (see Table 3).
Screening for Feasible Options. In order to establish the
most environmentally sustainable and commercially feasible
options, each was screened against the tests shown in Figure 1.
This screening stage reduced the option list from ninety-five to
sixteen, some of which can be considered as grouped options.
The following options were considered most feasible:
• Estuarine Restoration;
• Cement;
• Land Reclamation and Landscaping;
• Road Pavements, Bitumen and Asphalt;
• Fuel and PFA;
• Pipeline Bedding and Bulk fill;
• Roof Tiles;
• Pipeline Coating;
• Concrete Block and Ready-mix concrete; and
• Path Construction.
It should be noted that some of the options discarded in the
screening process might prove viable depending on the level
of investment and effort taken to overcome environmental
concerns and to stimulate commercial demand.
Energy Analysis
Basis of Analysis. Energy calculations were undertaken on
the short-listed options. The aim was to gain an understanding
of the relative energy requirements of different options and to
5
understand the main influences, rather than to arrive at
accurate absolute figures for a particular option. The key
assumptions are as follows:
• The boundary for this analysis has been taken as
beginning at the point of landing of the drill cuttings on
the quay and ending at the point where the drill cuttings
replace a primary material;
• Where oil is removed, it is assumed that this is done by
thermal desorption, and it is assumed that the recovered
oil is sent for combustion to a power station with a
recovered fuel oil (RFO) consent;
• Where the oil content is used for energy, this is taken as a
gain of energy, with the degree of gain dependent on the
efficiency of the energy recovery process. This is a
simplified approach compared with trying to calculate the
use of resources that would otherwise be required to
generate the same amount of energy at point of
consumption;
• Where the solid fraction of the cuttings is used as a
material, the proper protocol would be to subtract the
energy that would otherwise be used to extract and
process the replaced raw material. This has not been done
due to a lack of data and a perception that the embodied
energy in simple aggregates is low, reflected in their low
price;
• The calculations include the energy used in treatment
processes at point of consumption and the embodied
energy of the principal materials used in treatment; and
• To arrive at distances for transport, the geographical
assumption is that drill cuttings are landed at Aberdeen.
The assumptions are summarised in Table 4.
It should be noted that the analysis does not include ship
transportation from the point of drilling to the point of landing,
or ship transportation from the point of landing to the point of
treatment (which in practice are not always at the same port).
The energy consumption of marine vessels can have a
significant effect on overall energy consumption.
Results of Analysis. The results are summarised in Figure
2.
Conclusions for OBM Drill Cuttings
• Energy recovery from the oil fraction is a major factor. In
general, waste oils in the UK (including recovered drilling
oils) are burnt at power stations, cement kilns, road-stone
heaters and small garage heaters7.
• The efficiency assumptions make a significant difference
to the energy calculations; i.e. a relatively high efficiency
will show a marked advantage. This favours options with
the most efficient re-use of the oil. This is a slightly
simplified, but similar, approach compared with
estimating the amount of primary energy offset by the oil.
• Use as a local fuel, utilising heat, has the best energy
performance, followed by use in a cement kiln and co-
incineration with coal and recycling of the resulting PFA.
Long distances to power stations that hold the relevant
consents erode the benefits of co-incineration. Local
power stations would perform better; alternatively landing
the drill cuttings nearer to the power station would
improve the net energy for road transportation, although
6 P.W.PAGE, C. GREAVES, R. LAWSON, S. HAYES, F. BOYLE
this may require longer ship transportation.
• Use in a coal-fired power station and re-use of PFA has
the potential to offset the use of cement elsewhere as PFA
is often used as a cement substitute. Given the difficulty
of estimating the links in this chain, this offset was not
calculated. It would however improve the performance of
the coal-fired power station option. Conversely, it is
believed that not all PFA is re-used, although it has not
been possible to confirm this. Use in a coal-fired power
station with PFA production may therefore incur a waste
disposal penalty and therefore each power station would
have to be looked at on a case-by-case basis.
• Options involving stabilisation with cement or PFA are
disadvantaged by the embodied energy of cement,
transportation of the additives and increased bulk for
disposal.
• Onshore transportation becomes influential when
distances reach hundreds of miles. Centralised facilities
may therefore be justified.
• If energy is not recovered from the oil, concrete blocks
and ready-mix perform the best by a small margin over
pipeline bedding/sub-base and road pavement uses.
Conclusions for WBM Cuttings
• For WBM, transport is a significant factor and local
solutions should be found.
• Concrete blocks and ready-mix perform the best by a
small margin over road pavement uses.
• The embodied energy of cement, transportation of the
additives and increased bulk for disposal disadvantage
options involving stabilisation with cement or PFA.
• These conclusions would be similar for cuttings that had
received oil removal by offshore treatment.
Preferred Options. Four options were identified as strong
candidates for application in the UKCS
Use in Cement Manufacture
The process of cement manufacture consists of grinding
the raw materials (clay, limestone and marl), mixing them
intimately in certain proportions and burning in a large rotary
kiln at temperatures up to approximately 1450°C when the
material sinters and partially fuses into balls known as clinker.
The clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder, with some
gypsum added, and the resulting product is commercial
Portland cement.
The co-combustion of drill cuttings in cement kilns is at
concept stage for the UKCS although it has been used
elsewhere including Austria and Baku.
This option is suitable for untreated oily cuttings, taking
advantage of the oil content of OBMs as a fuel.
Cement is a highly specified material and the variable
nature of drill cuttings is likely to limit the throughput before
affecting cement quality.
With the closure of a number of special waste incinerators
coupled with the implementation of the Landfill Directive, the
cement industry has recognised the value of its assets in the
provision of a waste disposal service and drill cuttings will be
in competition with other wastes for kiln capacity. As an
SPE 80583
indication the future anticipated gate fee for recovered fuel oil
is £20 per tonne paid to the kiln operator7.
Implementation of the Waste Incineration Directive at the
end of 2005 may increase competition for kiln space with a
consequential increase in gate fee charged.
There is a reasonable spread of kilns throughout the UK
mainland however there are none in the North East of Scotland
therefore cuttings would either have to be diverted by sea or
by road to existing kilns. Dunbar, operated by Lafarge, is the
nearest kiln to Aberdeen and has a maximum cement capacity
of 485,000 tonnes per annum..
Discussion with kiln operators, on completion of
characterisation studies, is required to move forward with this
option. A series of trial burns with emissions monitoring and
concrete testing would be required to satisfy the regulator
(SEPA or EA) and to assess the impact on cement quality.
Use in Road Pavements, Bitumen and Asphalt
The production of bituminous pavements incorporating
drill cuttings is at concept stage.
This recycling option may require oil and/or salt removal.
A programme of testing is required to determine leachability
of salts and pavement performance properties.
Treated cuttings, in particular PFA/lime treated material,
have potential for use in several highway applications. For
road structures the quality, in terms of durability and bearing
capacity, of each of the pavement layers increases from the
bottom upwards i.e. the specification requirements for any
given layer are always higher than those of the layer
immediately beneath it. The scope for using drill cuttings as
replacements for naturally occurring materials decreases as the
specification requirements for the respective layers increases.
The main barrier is the potential for leaching of sulphates
and/or chlorides from the drill cuttings. Treatment techniques
that reduce this risk may be used to produce treated material
suitable for use.
There is also the possibility that untreated material could
be used as a landfill capping or in landfill construction
materials such as bottom liners, side liners, structural walls
and bases and roads. Within landfill sites, where leachates are
contained and quality standards are more focussed, it is likely
to be easier for cuttings to meet the performance requirements.
In addition, provided the material is retained with the landfill
and with sufficient leachate management in place, the
regulator (SEPA or EA) may be less concerned about these
recycling options.
Foundry sand has been used in trials in asphalt, and it was
noted that the clay content reduces bitumen bleed from the
mix8. Bentonite clay forms a significant component of drill
cuttings and may display similar beneficial characteristics.
Use as Fuel and PFA
Oily drill cuttings have a thermal value similar to low-
grade coal.
Two fuel options have been selected:
• Co-combustion in a coal fired power station with
recycling of ash as PFA;
• Combustion or co-combustion at a local level with heat
recovery and beneficial recycling of residue.
SPE 80583 OPTIONS FOR THE RECYCLING OF DRILL CUTTINGS
Co-Combustion in a Coal Fired Power Station
In England and Wales there are 16 coal-fired power
stations six of which are already authorised to burn recovered
fuel oil 7.
BP recently initiated a successful trial burn of oily drill
cuttings at a coal-fired power station in Nottinghamshire,
which was successful.
An advantage to use of coal fuel power stations is that the
secondary “waste” has an established recycling route in the
form of PFA.
Potential problems include contamination of the PFA and
the loss of the route as emission standards are tightened with
the implementation in 2006 of the Waste Incineration
Directive.
There are two major coal fired power stations in Scotland,
Longannet and Cockenzie. Longannet has already been
partially converted to accept waste derived fuel in the form of
dried sewage sludge.
Cockenzie is used as a peak lopping generating provider
only, therefore storage may be an issue. Both power stations
are reasonably accessible by sea.
Combustion in Local Energy Recovery Scheme
The use of municipal and industrial waste to provide
energy for power or district heating is an established practice
in Norway and in Shetland. The recovery of heat provides
efficient energy recovery.
Industrial combined heat and power (CHP) is often
regarded as the Best Available Technique (BAT) for disposal
of wastes for PPC installations, for example paper mill waste.
The residual waste produced is similar to vitrified glass
cullet for which there are established recycling markets.
There may be local opposition to establishment of these
facilities if they are associated with incineration of hazardous
materials.
Use in Concrete Blocks and Ready-mix
Potential corrosion of reinforcement arising from high
concentrations of chlorides limits the use of unwashed drill
cuttings in reinforced concrete, but it may still be used in mass
(un-reinforced) concrete. The categories of concrete viewed
as most promising were use in pre-cast concrete blocks and in
ready-mix mass concrete. The main properties required for
structural concrete are covered in several standards including
BS 5328, BS EN 8500 and BS EN 206. The option is at
laboratory and pilot trial stage.
BP commissioned University College London to carry out
some preliminary tests to assess the fresh and hardened
properties of mortar and concrete mixes containing oil based
mud and oil based mud cuttings.
In the experimental work, the mud alone was found to
cause significant reduction of workability and strength of both
mortar and concrete, but not prohibitively so. The reductions
in workability could be restored using a superplasticizer, and
the strength reduction was up to 50% in a mortar containing
10% mud by weight of fine aggregate, but only about 20 % in
the equivalent concrete.
More severe, and potentially prohibitive, effects on
workability of both mortar and concrete were obtained with
7
incorporation of OBM cuttings samples. These broke down
into finer particles during and after mixing, and, in mortar,
levels of about 5% by volume lead to a complete loss of
workability within 10 to 20 minutes of the start of mixing. In
concrete, levels of 1.25 – 2.5 % by weight of OBM cuttings
just maintained acceptable levels of workability for 30-40
minutes after mixing, when assisted by a superplasticizer.
These addition levels were therefore the limits for acceptable
behaviour.
Cuttings at the above concentrations lead to a strength
reduction in the mortar of 20-30% at 28 days, and in the
concrete of 10-20%.
At the above concentrations, no component of the mud or
cuttings is likely to have any long term the deleterious effects
on the concrete or steel embedded in it, but no data is yet
available on the likely leaching rates from the concrete to the
surrounding environment.
Research into the recycling of drill cuttings in concrete is
also ongoing at the University of Dundee and Cordah
Research.
Granulation may be required as a pretreatment so that
encapsulation in concrete may sit downstream of a local
energy recovery project if it can produce vitrified material of a
suitable size and strength.
Cement manufacturer Lafarge is already in discussion with
the oil and gas industry regarding use of its Accelerated
Carbonation Technology system, which uses cement as a
binding agent. The resulting material is reported to be suitable
as an aggregate replacement.
There is a large market for concrete with a variety of end uses
and differing levels of specification. Concrete production is
found locally in most areas of the UK.
Conclusions
From an initial list of almost 100 potential recycling
options, the preferred solutions identified in this study are:
• Use in Cement Manufacture
• Use in Road Pavements, Bitumen and Asphalt
• Use as Fuel and PFA
• Use in Concrete Blocks and Ready-mix
Outlets that involve disposal to land are strongly
discouraged due to real or perceived issues regarding food
chain contamination and exposure. Fuel and civil engineering
outlets appear to be the most promising and easiest to deliver,
because of a mixture of bulk, throughput, consistent market
and standardised products allowing access to a wide market.
For OBM cuttings, the energy balance is dominated by the
potential for heat recovery from the oil, regardless of the fate
of the solids. For WBM cuttings, there is a slight energy
preference for use in concrete, although uses in asphalt and
aggregate uses are similar. It is likely that balancing of the raw
or treated material will be necessary to overcome extremes in
quality and quantity.
Washing is a requirement for many civil engineering
applications, in particular to remove sulphates, chlorides and
(for aggregate) soluble metals. Treatment and disposal of salt-
containing wash-water should be investigated further, for
example it may be possible to discharge to sea.
8 P.W.PAGE, C. GREAVES, R. LAWSON, S. HAYES, F. BOYLE SPE 80583

Oil removal is a requirement for several civil engineering

applications. The most appropriate direct recycle option of
OBM drill cuttings is therefore as fuel or in certain concrete
products. The energy balance, however, indicates that oil
removal is justified if energy is recovered from the oil,
consequently options for the recycling of treated cuttings are
still viable.
Fuel use is most beneficial either at a coal-fired power
station, because ash is recycled as PFA, or in a combined heat
and power plant, because it is more efficient, although ash
may go to landfill.
Uses in landfill sites, where leachates are contained and
quality standards are more focussed, are more quality-tolerant
than public infrastructure or product uses.
Granulation may be necessary to improve the range of civil
engineering uses.
Stabilisation solutions, such as with PFA or cement, have
significant advantages in terms of commercial backing,
research momentum and potential market size, but have a poor
energy balance and increase bulk.
References
1. UKOOA, Joint Industry Project relating to the Disposal of
Extant Cuttings Piles on the Seabed, 2002.
2. Cordah Research, Options for the Reuse of Drill Cuttings, 1999.
3. Cordah Research, The use of oily wastes in civil engineering
applications – Report on Work Package 2 Characterisation of
North Sea oil and gas exploration and production wastes,
forthcoming, 2002.
4. McFarlene, K. and Nguyen, V.T., “The deposition of drill
cuttings on the seabed”, paper SPE 23372, 1991.
5. AURIS Ltd “An assessment of the environmental impacts of
decommissioning options for oil and gas installations in the
UK North Sea” for UKOOA”. OPF 94/06, 1995.
6. Cripps, S.J., Picken, G., Aabel, J.P., Andersen, O.K, Heyworth,
C., Jakobbsen, M., Kristiansen, R., Marken, C., Paulsen, J.E.,
Shaw, D., Annand, A., Jacobsen, T.G., and Henriksen, I.B.,
“Disposal of Oil-Based Cuttings”, AKA Rogaland Report,
1997/1998.
7. DETR, Waste Oils Market Study, Oakdene and Hollins, 2001
8. DETR, Research Contract MP0623, Digest nr 0627, 1999

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the management of BP
Exploration and Shell Expro for permission to publish this
paper.

Table 1. Key legislation and issues informing options for re-use and/or disposal of cuttings onshore in the UK.

Legislation or Issue Key Issue

Landfill Directive Ban on liquid waste July 2002; Stricter standards resulting in higher costs.
National Waste Strategies Introduces concept of “Waste Hierarchy- Reduce, re-use, recycle, recover,
dispose. Increases producer responsibility for waste.
Landfill Tax Increasing disposal cost acts to incentivise waste reduction.
Aggregate Tax Promotes recycling of waste as aggregate.
“Sham Recovery” Regulator (EA, SEPA) consideration of “time” of recycling.
Waste Policy & Interpretation Special Wastes : 0.1% hazardous material.
Controlled Waste: Drill cuttings classified as controlled waste.
Re-Use on Land: Specific criteria apply.
SPE 80583 OPTIONS FOR THE RECYCLING OF DRILL CUTTINGS 9

Table 2 Bulk oxide analyses of drill cuttings samples

Central North Sea Beryl field cuttings pile6 Ekofisk field cuttings pile6
well (composite
Component Technique Unit
Sample 1,220m -
4,346m)

Average Low High Average Low High

Al2O3 RFA - XRF % DS 12.54 3.79 1.38 7.04 6.95 2.99 14.15
CaO RFA - XRF % DS 2.53 6.98 1.55 33.05 4.33 0.64 16.92
Fe2O3 RFA - XRF % DS 6.53 4.38 0.88 6.81 4.02 0.01 6.37
SiO2 RFA - XRF % DS 44.43 35.34 86.97 18.29 54.98 25.26 89.46

K2O RFA - XRF % DS 2.01 0.89 0.19 1.44 1.38 0.43 2.29
MgO RFA - XRF % DS 1.59 1.16 0.33 2.56 2.15 0.29 11.94
MnO RFA - XRF % DS 0.22 0.11 0.01 0.20 0.15 0.01 0.39
Na2O RFA - XRF % DS 1.12 0.80 0.38 1.41 1.07 0.65 1.57
SrO RFA - XRF % DS 0.14
TiO2 RFA - XRF % DS 0.61 0.16 0.10 0.24 0.34 0.13 1.57
P2O5 RFA - XRF % DS 0.16 0.10 0.02 0.18 0.07 0.01 0.12
BaO XRF % 6.49 20.96 0.05 33.22
BaSO4 XRF % 9.59 0.03 37.25
Cl XRF % 0.67 0.88 0.5 1.36 0.92 0.43 2.35

Table 3. Criteria used to evaluate “long list” of potential recycling options

Criterion Test
Environmental impact Human exposure
Net energy consumption
Process emissions
End use emissions
End of life fate
Technical considerations Development stage
Specifications
Oil removal required
Salts removal required
Granulation required
Commercial feasibility
Demand
Competing supply
Market acceptability
Oil and Gas industry influence
Cost to market
Product value
Logistics Handling difficulty
Distance to recycle
Steps in supply chain
Storage requirement
Product liability (and licensing) Licensing complexity
Product liability
10 P.W.PAGE, C. GREAVES, R. LAWSON, S. HAYES, F. BOYLE SPE 80583

Table 4. : Assumptions used in Energy Calculations

Aspect Quantity Units Reference

General Data
Mass of OBM cuttings per skip 4.6 Tonnes
Mass of skip itself 2 Tonnes
Density of untreated cuttings 1.65 t/m3 Review of PON15s1
Density of treated cuttings 2.65 t/m3 Review of PON15s
Ratio of solids in cuttings 43% Calculated from review of PON15s
Average oil content (by mass) 30% Review of PON15s
Recovery rate by desorption 99% Estimate
Number of OBM cuttings skips per lorry 3 skips per lorry Based on 44t gross vehicle weight
Capacity of recovered oil road tanker 18.6 tonnes per trip 22m3 @ 0.8461t/m3
Energy Recovery from oil
Energy content of recovered oil 44 GJ/tonne Cripps et al (1998)6
Efficiency from power generation 30% Dependent on plant1
Efficiency from combined heat and power 40% Estimated
Thermal Desorption
Diesel required to heat process 1.20 GJ/tonne cuttings UKOOA (2002)1
Ratio mass cuttings treated/untreated 43% Estimate based on relative density change
Washing process 0.018 GJ/tonne Based on data from TSI pilot plant
Mechanical mixing with PFA 0.0068 GJ/tonne 20% dose, 20 m3/hr backhoe
Transportation and Handling
Fuel consumption of road vehicles 7 Mpg Cripps et al (1998)6
Energy consumption in moving waste 0.024 GJ per mile Cripps et al (1998)6
Loading/unloading 0.037 GJ per tonne UKOOA, 20021
Loading/unloading 0.5 GJ/tonne
Fuel consumption backhoe 2 gal/hr
Energy consumption backhoe 0.34 GJ per hr
Stabilisation
Mechanical mixing 0.0068 GJ/tonne Equivalent to 20 m3/hr backhoe
Rate of addition of PFA 50% of mass cuttings Estimate as 1:2 mix ratio
Embodied energy PFA 0 GJ/tonne Assume zero as PFA is a by-product
Rate of addition of cement 25% of mass cuttings Estimate as 1:4 mix ratio
Embodied energy cement 6 GJ/tonne Range 4.3-7.8 GL/t
Distances Travelled
WBM cuttings to aggregates reuse centre 20 Miles E.g. Peterhead - Aberdeen
WBM cuttings to a highways reuse centre 20 Miles ditto
WBM cuttings to concrete products centre 20 Miles ditto
OBM cuttings to aggregates reuse centre 50 Miles Assumed higher due to treatment required
OBM cuttings to a highways reuse centre 50 Miles ditto
OBM cuttings to concrete products centre 50 Miles ditto
To an embankment application 150 Miles Estimate; opportunistic
To a power station with a RFO consent 400 Miles E.g. Aberdeen to Nottinghamshire
Recovered oil to a power station with a RFO 400 Miles E.g. Aberdeen to Nottinghamshire
consent
PFA transport for embankment 100 Miles E.g. Longannet to Grampian
Figures

High
Human Exposure Reject

Low
Medium

Net Energy and High, High

Environmental Reject
Process Emissions

Low, Medium
Low, Medium

Waste
End of Life Destination Reject

Re-Use or
Recycle

Commercial Low
Demand Reject

Medium, High

Options for More Detailed

Consideration

Figure 1. Screening for Feasible Options

12 P.W.PAGE, C. GREAVES, R. LAWSON, S. HAYES, F. BOYLE SPE 80583

2000.0

OBM
Net Energy Consumption GJ/1000 tonnes

1000.0

0.0

removal+PFA stabilisation)

Pipeline coating

Concrete Blocks and

Pipeline Bedding and sub-
Road Pavements

Roof Tiles
Cement

Landscaping (cement

Local fuel and cullet

Coal-fired Fuel and PFA
stabilisation)

Readymix
Landscaping (oil

-1000.0

base
-2000.0

-3000.0

-4000.0

Cement kiln Cement has high Transport Thermally

recovers energy embodied energy relatively high. desorbed oil is Relatively high
and end product and increases Efficiency slightly reused for energy transport to
is created mass. Transport lower than local gain. Salts are specialist factory
immediately relatively high. heat or cement washed out.

Thermally desorbed oil Thermally desorbed Incineration or pyrolysis Thermally desorbed oil
Relatively high
is reused for energy oil is reused for assumed with efficient is reused for energy
transport to
gain. PFA increases energy gain. Salts combined heat & gain. Salts are bound
specialist factory
bulk & transport. are bound in bitumen power, low transport in concrete matrix

2000.0
Net Energy Consumption GJ/1000 tonnes

WBM
(equivalent to offshore-treated cuttings)
1500.0

1000.0

500.0

0.0
stabilisation)

Bedding and

Pipeline coating

Blocks and
Pavements

Roof Tiles
removal+PFA

Readymix
Landscaping
Landscaping

Concrete
sub-base
stabilised)

Pipeline
(cement

Road
(salt

Cement has high Thermally desorbed Little treatment

Little treatment Relatively high
PFA increases embodied energy oil reused for required,
required, Washing transport to
bulk & and increases energy gain. Salts contaminants
contaminants required specialist
transport. mass. Transport are bound in bound in
bound in bitumen factory
relatively high. concrete matrix concrete

Figure 2. Summary of Energy Balance Analysis for OBM cuttings (upper fig.) and WBM cuttings (lower fig.)

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