Physics and Geometry: For Hydrologists

Solar Radiation
Physics and Geometry

for hydrologists
Il Sole, F. Lelong, 2008, Val di Sella
Riccardo Rigon
Monday, December 10, 12

When you see the Sun rise,
do you not see a round disc of fire
somewhat like a guinea?
Oh no, no! I see an innumerable
company of heavenly host
crying
“Glory, glory, glory is the Lord God
Almighty.”
W. Blake
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Introduction
Educational Goals
• To recognise that the water cycle is powered by solar energy
• To gain knowledge of the spatial and temporal variation of the

radiation distribution on the Earth
• To present the ways in which radiation is produced, received by the

Earth, transmitted by the atmosphere, reflected, absorbed, and reemitted
by the Earth’s surface
• To introduce the concepts necessary to better understand the elements

of the energy balance needed in remote-sensing applications, the snow
balance, and evapotranspiration
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The Sun
The Sun is the origin of the water

cycle
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The Sun
Composition of the Sun
The Sun is mainly composed of hydrogen. The rest is prevalently He4.

Hydrogen is the fuel for the nuclear fusion that takes place inside the Sun and
produces helium. However, the He4 contained in the Sun for the most part
originates from previous stellar lives. 5
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The Sun
Sun Fact Sheet
The Sun is a G2 type star, one of the hundred billion stars of this type in our
galaxy (one of the hundred billion galaxies in the known universe).
Diameter: 1,390,000 km (the Earth: 12,742 km or 100 times smaller)

Mass: 1.1989 x 1030 kg (333,000 times the mass of the Earth)
Temperature: 5800 K (at the surface) 15,600,000 K (at the core)
The Sun contains 99.8% of the total mass of the Solar System (Jupiter
contains nearly all the rest).
Chemical composition:
Hydrogen 92.1%
Helium 7.8%
6
Other elements: 0.1%
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The Sun
The Sun and the planets to scale
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The Sun
The internal structure of the Sun
The Sun’s energy is created in the core by fusing hydrogen into helium. This
energy is irradiated through the radiative layer, then transmitted by convection
through the convective layer, and, finally, radiated through the photosphere,
which is the part of the Sun that we see. 8
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The Sun
Provide a relatively constant rate of radiation energy that in few minutes

from the cromosphere arrives to the Earth.
Detail of a Pellizza da Volpedo Painting
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The Sun
Solar Spots
Radiation flux is regular up to a point. In reality it manifests variations.

Solar spots appear as dark spots on the surface of the Sun and they have a
temperature of 3,700 K (to be compared to the 5,800 K of the surrounding
photosphere). A solar spot can last for may days, the most persistent lasting for
many weeks.
10
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The Sun
Variability of the Emissions
An image of the sun in X-ray

band, taken by the Yohkoh solar
observatory satellite, which
shows changes in emissions of
the solar corona from a
maximum in 1991 (left) to a
minimum in 1995 (right).
11
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The Sun
Solar radiation is subject to

fluctuations, some of which are
localised in restricted areas, while
others are more global and follow
an 11-year cycle.
Every 11 years the sun goes from
a limited number of solar spots
and flares to a maximum, and
vice versa. During this cycle the
Sun’s magnetic poles switch
orientation. The last solar
minimum was in 2006.
12
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The Sun
The graph shows the solar spot cycle over the last 400 years. It should be
noted that before 1700 there was a period in which very few solar spots were
observed. This period coincides with the Little Ice Age, which is why there are
suggestions that there is a connection between solar spot activity and the
climate on Earth. The most evident cycle has a period of 11 years. But there
is a second cycle which seems to have a period of 55-57 years.
13
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The Sun
The Stefan-Boltzmann law
Every body with a temperature different than T=0 K emits radiation as a function
of its temperature according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law
R=✏ T4
14
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The Sun
R=✏ T4
Radiation
emitted
14
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The Sun
R=✏ T4
emissivity
Radiation
emitted
14
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The Sun
R=✏ T4
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
emissivity
Radiation
emitted
14
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The Sun
R=✏ T4 absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
emissivity
Radiation
emitted
14
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The Sun
The physics of Radiation
On the basis of the temperature of the Sun photosphere (~6000 K), and the
Stephan-Boltzmann law, the total energy emitted by the Sun is
RSun = ✏ T 4 = 1 ⇤ 5.67 ⇤ 10 8
⇤ 60004 ⇡ 25.12 ⇤ 109 J m 2
s 1
15
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The Sun
The Sun is nearly a “blackbody”!
The Sun is practically a blackbody. The difference between a true blackbody

and the Sun is due to the fact that the corona and the chromosphere
selectively absorb certain wavelengths. 16
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The Sun
The Sun is nearly a “blackbody”!
The area below the curves is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law. The curves
themselves are given by Planck’s law.
17
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The Sun
The complete electromagnetic spectrum
Figure 2.9
C.B. Agee
The spectrum of solar radiation stretches far beyond the visible band where,
however, nearly half the available energy is concentrated
18
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The Sun
Planck’s Law
•Planck’s law is the general law for electromagnetic emission from the
surface of a blackbody*:
2⇡c2 h 5
W = ch [W m 2
µm 1
]
e KT 1
* Stefan-Boltzmann law is just the integration of Plank’s law over wavelengths 19
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From Sun To Earth
From Sun to Earth
The energy irradiated by the Sun passes through an imaginary disc with diameter
the same as the Earth’s. The energy flow is maximum at that point on the Earth
where the radiation is perpendicular.
20
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From Sun To Earth
Solar radiation
The Sun irradiates

approximately at the solar
constant rate, which is, on
the average, on the top of
the atmosphere,
Frolich, 1985
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_constant
21
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Copying with Earth surface
Astronomical variability of radiation
In its orbit around the Sun, the Earth keeps its north-south rotational axis
unvaried, causing a different angle between the Sun’s rays and the surface of the
Earth. 22
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From Sun To Earth
Seasons
Figure 3.1
The Earth is 5 million kilometers closer to the Sun during the northern
winter: a clear indication that temperature is controlled more by orientation
than by distance.
23
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From Sun To Earth
Corrections to the solar constant
The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. The shape of the ellipse is
determined by its eccentricity, which varies in time, changing the distances of
the aphelion and perihelion
24
http://www.ascensionrecta.com/
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From Sun To Earth
Precession of the polar axis
The axis of rotation moves with a slow period, executing

a complete precession every 26,000 years.
Polar stars behave like this for only a very short period
25
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From Sun To Earth
Astronomical influences
Orbit shape
Orbit change
Orbit angle
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From Sun To Earth
Solar radiation in
hydrological models
Therefore the solar contant must be corrected

S (e.g. Corripio, 2002):
27
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From Sun To Earth
Solar radiation in
hydrological models
Therefore the solar contant must be corrected

S (e.g. Corripio, 2002):
where:
N is the day of the year (in 1, ..., 365)

28
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Radiation intensity
Solar intensity governs seasonal climatic changes and the local climatic niches
which are linked to the apparent height of the Sun.
29
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Insolation and latitude
Figure 3.7
Incoming solar radiation is not evenly distributed across all lines of latitude,
creating a heating imbalance.
30
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Radiative imbalance
31
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Radiation received from the Sun
decreases towards the poles and it is reduced in areas where clouds

form frequently
For example, the complete energy balance is greater at the equator but the
greatest amount of insolation is in the subtropical deserts
Average annual radiation is
< 80 W/m2 in the cloudy parts of the arctic and the antarctic
>280 W/m2 in the subtropical deserts
50
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The geometry of radiation
From a subjective point of view, the Sun varies its height in the sky seasonally.
This is the subject of interest in the study of the geometry of radiation.
33
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To sum up
Calculations of the incident radiation onto the surface of the Earth need to
take account of the geometry of the interaction between the Sun’s rays and
the surface of the Earth, which is curved and therefore variably
exposed with respect to the direction of the Sun in function of latitude,
time of day (longitude) and, naturally, day of the year. Moreover the
Earth rotation is inclined with respect to its orbit around the Sun , and
this causes seasons to happen.
34
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To calculate the aforementioned

quantities it is usual to use a
topocentric coordinate system,
Nautic Almanac Office, 1974
that is, with the origin in the

geographic position of the
observer, which is right-handed
and positioned on the plane
tangent to the Earth’s surface in
the considered point.
N.B. - A coordinate system located at the

centre of the Earth id called geocentric.
35
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The X-axis is, therefore, tangent

to the earth and positive in a
West-East direction. The Y-axis
Nautic Almanac Office, 1974
is tangent in the North-South

direction and is directed towards
the South. The Z-axis lies on the
segment joining the centre of the
Earth with the point being
considered on the surface.
It is assumed that the Sun lies in

the ZY plane at the solar noon.
36
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Solar Vector
The solar vector can be expressed as a

function of the angles that have been
defined. The resulting trigonometric
expression is:
Z ⇥
sin ⇥ cos
⌥s = ⇤ sin ⇤ cos ⇥ cos cos ⇤ cos ⌅
cos⇤ cos ⇥ cos + sin ⇤ sin
X Therefore, to determine the position of

the Sun one needs to know the latitude,
the hour angle, and the solar
declination. 37
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Hour angle
The hour angle can be easily

calculated as:
⇥
t
⇥= 1
12
if t is the solar hour
38
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Solar declination
Is the angular height of Sun from the horizon at equator at noon*
The solar declination is a function of the day of the year (and the era). It
requires complex calculations that take account of the precession movements
of the Earth. There are, however, various approximations. The one that is
presented here is due to Bourges, 1985:
where is the day of the year
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declination
39
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Projection on a plane at a certain

latitude
If is the vertical unit row-vector

corresponding to the Z axis:
and
⇥
sin ⇥ cos
Y ⌥s = ⇤ sin ⇤ cos ⇥ cos cos ⇤ cos ⌅
X
is the solar vector
40
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Projection on a plane at a certain

latitude
Then the projection of the solar

irradiation on the plane YX is reduced by
the factor where:
or:
X
with the symbols explained above
41
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To sum up:
The solar constant can be modified as follows.
Was:
Is now:
42
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Absorption and transmission of short wave radiation
Atmosphere is a gray body
• The blackbody is an ideal object that absorb all the radiative energy it receives
• Real objects (bodies, “gray bodies”) are not capable of absorbing all radiation.
• To understand the difference between a blackbody and a gray body we need to
analyse the interactions between a surface and the electromagnetic radiation
incident onto it.
43
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Atmospheric absorption
Radiation passes quite freely through the Earth’s atmosphere and it warms
the surfaces of seas and oceans. A portion of between 45% and 50% of the
incident radiation onto the Earth reaches the ground
44
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Shortwave Radiation budget
The solar radiation penetrates the

atmosphere, and it is transferred
towards the ground, after being
reflected and scattered.
45
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Radiation reflected

45
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Radiation reflected

Radiation
transmitted 45
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S It should not be forgot that

the radiation budget is an
energy budget, for which
the incoming radiation equals

the reflected one plus
the absorbed plus
the transmitted
46
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S It should not be forgot that

the radiation budget is an
energy budget, for which
the incoming radiation equals

the reflected one plus
the absorbed plus
Radiation
the transmitted
absorbed
46
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This budget can be apply to any slice of the atmosphere
47
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Corrected Solar
constant
47
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Solar radiation
reflected back to space
Corrected Solar
constant
47
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Transmitted
radiation
Solar radiation
reflected back to space
Corrected Solar
constant
47
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Transmitted
radiation
Solar radiation
reflected back to space Energy
absorbed by
atmosphere
Corrected Solar
constant
47
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Coefficients
The following coefficients can also be defined
• is the transmission coefficient, said atmospheric

transmissivity
• is the reflection coefficient, said atmospheric

reflectivity (albedo)
• is the absorption coefficient, said atmospheric

absorptivity
48
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Energy conservation:
implies that reflectivity, transmissivity and absorptivity sum to one:
Which is, indeed, valid for reflectivity, transmissivity and absorptivity of any other body
49
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50
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We just forget for a

moment this. It will be
splitted into two parts:
one depending on
diffuse radiation and
another on cloud cover
50
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51
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Atmosphere is pretty transparent: which

means that we can, as a first approximation,
neglect it (atmosphere is heated from below)
51
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In any case let’s concentrate on

the transmitted radiation
This can be decomposed into two parts:

direct and diffuse solar radiation
52
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Evidently, for simmetry
is also composed by reflected and

diffuse solar radiation
53
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Diffuse radiation comes from scattering
Incident solar radiation strikes gas molecules, dust particles, and

pollutants, ice, cloud drops and the radiation is scattered. Scattering
causes diffused radiation.
Two types of light diffusion can be distinguished:
Mie scattering
Rayleigh scattering
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Rayleigh Scattering
•The impact of radiation with air molecules smaller than λ/π causes
scattering (Rayleigh scattering) the entity of which depends on the
frequency of the incident wave according to a λ-4 type relation.
•In the atmosphere, the wavelengths corresponding to blue are scattered

more readily than others.
incident radiation
diffuse radiation
transmitted radiation
55
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Mie Scattering
•When in the atmosphere there are particles with dimensions greater than 2 λ/π
(gases, smoke particles, aerosols, etc.) there is a scattering phenomenon that
does not depend on the wavelength, λ, of the incident wave (Mie scattering).
incident radiation
diffuse radiation
transmitted radiation
•This phenomenon can be observed, for example, in the presence of clouds.
56
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Diffused Light
Scattering selectively eliminates the shorter visible wavelengths, leaving the

longer wavelengths to pass. When the Sun is on the horizon, the distance
travelled by a ray within the atmosphere is five or six times greater than
when the Sun is at the Zenith and the blue light has practically been
completely eliminated.
57
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Tilt of the Earth’s axis

and atmospheric effects
The tilt of the earth’s axis and atmospheric effects together affect the amount of
radiation that reaches the ground.
58
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One way to take into account of absorption
Would be to run a full model of atmospheric transmission (e.g. Liou, 2002).

However hydrologists prefer to use parameterizations, and the
concept of atmospheric transmissivity.
59
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Solar radiation transmitted to the ground under

clear sky conditions
S
Finally:
Corripio, 2002
60
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S
Finally:
Corripio, 2002
Fraction of direct solar radiation
included between the considered
60
wavelengths
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S
Finally:
Corripio, 2002
Transmittance of the
atmosphere

60
wavelengths
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Correction due to
S elevation of the site
Finally:
Corripio, 2002
Transmittance of the
atmosphere

60
wavelengths
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Solar radiation transmitted to the

ground under clear sky conditions
S
We do not enter in the details of how
and
are determined. Please look, for

instance, at Formetta et al., 2012
61
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Considering Clouds
Hydrologists (and not only them) treat the

influence of clouds separately
It is assumed that the effects of

clouds is an attenuation of the
transmitted solar radiation
Transmitted direct
radiation at the surface
after clouds correction
62
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Considering Clouds

It is assumed that the effects of

clouds is an attenuation of the
transmitted solar radiation
Transmitted direct
Transmitted direct radiation at the surface
radiation at the surface before clouds correction
after clouds correction
62
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Considering Clouds

An analogous formulation holds for

diffuse radiation:
63
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Considering Clouds

An analogous formulation holds for

diffuse radiation:
Correction coefficient for

diffuse radiation
63
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Considering Clouds
Estimation of the reduction coefficients

(decomposition model)
These reduction coefficients can be

determined when we have ground
measurements of total radiation,
diffuse plus direct:
64
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Considering Clouds

These reduction coefficients can be

determined when we have ground
measurements of total radiation,
diffuse plus direct:
Measured total radiation

at the ground station i
64
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Considering Clouds

These assumption that is often

made is that, the diffuse solar
radiation measured at the station is
proportional to the total radiation:
65
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Considering Clouds

These assumption that is often

made is that, the diffuse solar
radiation measured at the station is
proportional to the total radiation:
reduction coefficient for

diffuse radiation
65
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Considering Clouds

Therefore when substituting this

diffuse radiation expression in the
total radiation equation of previous
slides, it results at stations:
66
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Considering Clouds

And, for the direct radiation, at

stations:
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Considering Clouds
The key factor is the to determine the above coefficient, on which the
procedure followed so far has moved all the unknown.
Its estimation pass through various parameterizations:
Among the most known:
•Erbs et al., 1982

•Reindl et al. 1990
•Boland et al. 2001
please find the details in Formetta et al., 2012
68
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Considering Clouds
One more issue
With the help of the parameterizations above, the correction facotrs are
determined for the stations. Which are a few points in a rugged terrain.
How do you solve the problem to transport it everywhere ?
69
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Considering Clouds
We need to use
some interpolation
technique
Like Kriging* or the Inverse distance weighting method** which is not
the matter of the present slides.
* Goovaerts, 1997
**Shepard, 1968
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Hitting the terrain
Finally the residual radiation hits the terrain
The terrain is not a plane

but it is inclined. Therefore,
besides correcting radiation
for latitude, longitude and
hour, it is necessary to
account for slope and
aspect
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Hitting the terrain
In the presence of topographic surfaces
In the northern hemisphere, slopes that face South receive a greater insolation
and, therefore, the water in the soil evaporates more quickly or the snow melts
faster. Slopes with differing aspects are often characterized by different species
and densities of plants and trees.
72
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Hitting the terrain
Projection of radiation onto an

inclined surface
After Corripio, 2003
First we calculate the normal to the surface 73
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Hitting the terrain

inclined surface
Unit normal vector:
⇥
1/2 (z(i,j) z(i+1,j) + z(i,j+1) z(i+1,j+1) )

⇧ ⌃
1 ⇧ ⇧ 1/2 (z(i,j) + z(i+1,j)
⌃
⇧nu = ⇧ z(i,j+1) z(i+1,j+1) ) ⌃
⌃
|⇧nu | ⇤ ⌅
l2
where z are the elevations of the four points used and l2 is the are of the
cell - of side l.
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Hitting the terrain
Representation of the vector normal to the surface of Mount Bianco

75
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Hitting the terrain

inclined surface
And we compare with the solar vector, indicating the direction of the Sun 76
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Hitting the terrain

inclined surface
⇥
sin ⇥ cos
Where all the quantities were already defined previously
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Hitting the terrain

inclined surface
s
Then we calculate the angle between the sun vector and the normal 78
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Hitting the terrain

inclined surface
We can define then the angle

s of solar incidence

79
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Hitting the terrain

inclined surface
Angle of solar incidence
cos s = ⌅s · ⌅nu
⇥
1/2 (z(i,j) z(i+1,j) + z(i,j+1) z(i+1,j+1) )
⇧ ⌃
1 ⇧ ⇧ 1/2 (z(i,j) + z(i+1,j)
⌃
⇧nu = z(i,j+1) z(i+1,j+1) ) ⌃
|⇧nu | ⇧
⇤
⌃
⌅
l2
⇥
sin ⇥ cos
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Hitting the terrain

inclined surface
The above angles needs to be compared with those of the terrain:
Slope
s = cos 1
nu.z
Aspect (from the North anti-clockwise)
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Hitting the terrain

inclined surface
Remarkably the form of formula for the incident radiation is the same that
for a flat surface when the projection angle is accounted:
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Hitting the terrain

S
Therefore, for the direct
shortwave radiation:
Corripio, 2002
as, it was before
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Hitting the terrain
However, it is not just matter of light but also of

shadows
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Hitting the terrain
Incident radiation
Topographic effects: shading
More schematically
light
shadow
85
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Hitting the terrain
Incident radiation
More schematically
86
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Hitting the terrain
Incident radiation
More schematically
shadow
86
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Hitting the terrain
Incident radiation
More schematically
light
shadow
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Hitting the terrain
Incident radiation
Therefore the direct solar radiation must be corrected to include shading

Details in Corripio, 2003
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Hitting the terrain
What about diffuse radiation ?

Topographic effects: angle of view
88
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Hitting the terrain

sky view factor
88
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Hitting the terrain

sky view factor
diffuse
radiation due to
Rayleigh
scattering
88
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Hitting the terrain

sky view factor
diffuse
radiation due to diffuse
Rayleigh radiation due to
scattering aerosols
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Hitting the terrain

sky view factor
diffuse
diffuse radiation due
radiation due to diffuse
multiple
Rayleigh radiation due to
scattering
scattering aerosols
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Hitting the terrain
Incident radiation
Any point in a rugged landscape see just a part of the sky sphere. Its fraction
says which portion of the sky contribute to diffuse shortwave radiation.
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Hitting the terrain
Incident radiation
Different points view a different sky

90
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Hitting the terrain
The sum
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Hitting the terrain
Now it really hits the terrain

and, in part, it is reflected away
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Hitting the terrain
Finally a map
Insolation received by Mont Blanc at Spring Equinox 93
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Albedo
Typical albedo values

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo
94
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Albedo
Typical albedo values

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo
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Spectral response
Spectral Signature (or Response)
The percentage of radiation that is reflected (reflectance) depends on

wavelength of the radiation, and on the geometry, nature, and structure
of the surface under investigation.
51
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Spectral response
•In the case of solar radiation, the spectral signature is defined

as the reflectance of the surface in function of the wavelength.
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Spectral response
•Every type of surface can be statistically characterised by a spectral signature.
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Spectral response
Factors
•The spectral signature of a specific element of a territory will

vary due to the variability of local environmental factors.
•Given a certain type of ground cover, static elements, such as

slope and exposition, and dynamic elements, such as surface
ground humidity, the phenological state of the vegetation, the
atmospheric transparence, etc., will cause variations in the
spectral signature curve.
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Spectral response
Radiation that hits the terrain, heats it.

Or causes changes of phase
water to vapor
ice to water
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Spectral response
Or is used for photosynthesis
or other chemical reactions

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Long wave radiation
Earth “is” a gray body
Having a temperature emits radiation

A. Adams - Part of the snake river picture
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Long wave radiation
Gray Bodies
• Plank’s Law for gray bodies:
2⇡c h 2 5
W =✏ ch [W cm 2
µm 1
]
e KT 1
• The Stefan-Boltzmann equation for gray bodies:
W = ✏ T [W cm
4 2
]
where ε is the average emissivity calculated over the entire electromagnetic

spectrum.
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Long wave radiation
Gray Bodies
The behavior of a real (gray) body is related to that of a black body by

means of the quantity ελ, known as the emission coefficient or
emissivity, which is defined as:
W (real body)
✏ =
W (black body)
Kirchhoff (1860) demonstrated that a good “radiator” is also a good

“absorber”, that is to say:
↵=✏ ⇢+⌧ +✏=1
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Long wave radiation
Comparison of blackbody and gray body
In reality emissivity depends, at least, on wavelength. Earth should be

probably defined a selective radiator
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Long wave radiation
See the Earth as gray body
and given that the

temperature of the Earth’s
surface is, on average,
about 288 K, it obviously
emits a spectrum of
radiation in the infrared
band.
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Long wave radiation
Radiation emitted by the Sun and the Earth
Yochanan Kushnir
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Long wave radiation
See the Earth as gray body
and given that the

temperature of the Earth’s
surface is, on average,
about 288 K, it obviously
emits a spectrum of
radiation in the infrared
band.
Atmosphere is not
anymore transparent to at
these wavelengths.
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Long wave radiation
The atmosphere is
warmed from below
Therefore the temperature is

higher at ground level than it
is at higher altitudes.
109
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
Greenhouse Effect
In the absence of atmospheric absorption the average temperature of the Earth’s

surface would be about -170C.
110
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
Greenhouse Effect
Instead the average temperature is about 15 0C
111
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
Radiative heating
is completed by convective heat transfer, and by water vapor fluxes (latent and
sensible heat).
But this you can see better on the energy budget slides. 112
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
But now concentrate on the surroundings of a point

After Helbig, 2009
Any point being at a certain temperature emits long wave radiation

which must be accounted for
113
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
The atmosphere emits infrared itself
bacause of its temperature

114
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
All the contributions
Long-wave radiation is given by the

balance of incident radiation from
the atmosphere and the radiation
emitted by the ground. Both values
are calculated with the Stefan-
Boltzmann law.
115
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
Longwave (infrared) raditation

116
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation

Longwave radiation
coming from sky
116
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation

Longwave radiation Longwave radiation

coming from sky coming from
surrounding
116
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation

Longwave radiation Longwave radiation Radiation losses

coming from sky coming from by the area under
surrounding exam
116
R. Rigon
Long-wave radiation
The first component should be

calculated by integrating the formula
over the entire atmosphere, but,
given how complex this process is,
typically an empirical formula is
used that uses the value of air
temperature as measured near
ground level (2m) and a value of the
atmospheric emissivity based on
specific humidity, temperature, and
cloudiness. The second component,
on the other hand, is function of the
surface temperature and its
emissivity.
117
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
Long-wave radiation
The real process:
The hydrological parameterisation:
118
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
Long-wave radiation
The real process:
Global emissivity of the

atmosphere
118
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
Long-wave radiation
The real process:
Temperature at 2 m
from ground
Global emissivity of the
atmosphere
118
R. Rigon
Long wave radiation
Parameterisation of Long-wave radiation
6 4
εatm = εBrutsaert (1− N ) + 0.979N Brutsaert (1975) + Pirazzini et al. (2000)
εatm = εBrutsaert (1+ 0.26N) Brutsaert (1975) + Jacobs (1978)
6 4
εatm = εIdso (1− N ) + 0.979N Idso (1981) + Pirazzini et al. (2000)
6 4
εatm = εIdso,corr (1− N ) + 0.979N Hodges et al. (1983) + Pirazzini et al.
(2000)
where N is the fraction of sky covered by clouds

119
R. Rigon
Net Radiation
The sum of longwave and shortwave ratio

is called net radiation
120
R. Rigon
1Thank you for your attention !
G.Ulrici - 2000 ?
121
R. Rigon
Table of symbols
122
R. Rigon
Table of symbols
123
R. Rigon
Table of symbols
124
R. Rigon
inclined surface
125
R. Rigon
126
R. Rigon

Physics and Geometry: For Hydrologists

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Physics and Geometry: For Hydrologists

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Solar Radiation

Physics and Geometry

Il Sole, F. Lelong, 2008, Val di Sella

Monday, December 10, 12

somewhat like a guinea?

Oh no, no! I see an innumerable

company of heavenly host

“Glory, glory, glory is the Lord God

Monday, December 10, 12

• To recognise that the water cycle is powered by solar energy

• To gain knowledge of the spatial and temporal variation of the

• To present the ways in which radiation is produced, received by the

• To introduce the concepts necessary to better understand the elements

The Sun is the origin of the water

Composition of the Sun

The Sun is mainly composed of hydrogen. The rest is prevalently He4.

Sun Fact Sheet

Diameter: 1,390,000 km (the Earth: 12,742 km or 100 times smaller)

Temperature: 5800 K (at the surface) 15,600,000 K (at the core)

The Sun and the planets to scale

The internal structure of the Sun

Provide a relatively constant rate of radiation energy that in few minutes

Radiation flux is regular up to a point. In reality it manifests variations.

Variability of the Emissions

An image of the sun in X-ray

Variability of the Emissions

Solar radiation is subject to

Variability of the Emissions

The Stefan-Boltzmann law

The Stefan-Boltzmann law

The Stefan-Boltzmann law

The Stefan-Boltzmann law

The Stefan-Boltzmann law

R=✏ T4 absolute temperature

The physics of Radiation

The Sun is nearly a “blackbody”!

The Sun is practically a blackbody. The difference between a true blackbody

The Sun is nearly a “blackbody”!

The complete electromagnetic spectrum

* Stefan-Boltzmann law is just the integration of Plank’s law over wavelengths 19

From Sun to Earth

The Sun irradiates

Astronomical variability of radiation

Corrections to the solar constant

Precession of the polar axis

The axis of rotation moves with a slow period, executing

Therefore the solar contant must be corrected

Therefore the solar contant must be corrected

N is the day of the year (in 1, ..., 365)

Insolation and latitude

Radiation received from the Sun

decreases towards the poles and it is reduced in areas where clouds

Average annual radiation is

The geometry of radiation

The geometry of radiation

To calculate the aforementioned

that is, with the origin in the

N.B. - A coordinate system located at the

The geometry of radiation

The X-axis is, therefore, tangent

is tangent in the North-South

It is assumed that the Sun lies in