Basics of Metal Cutting

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 Basic of Metal Cutting

Factors involved in material

removal Independent variables
Dependent variables
Machining Processes
Turning
Milling
Other
Machining Economics
Machines

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 Why is Material Removal Important
Significant proportion of all goods involve machined surfaces
The only way to achieve high precision
The only way to create sharp corners, flat surfaces and internal
and external profiles.
The only way to shape hardened or brittle material
Economics for small part volumes (e.g. prototypes)
Can achieve special surface finishes
Indispensable for creating complex shapes with good dimensional
accuracy and surface finish

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Limitations of Material Removal

Generate lots of scrap.

Takes longer to remove material than to form it

Can mess up the properties and surface finish if not done properly

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 Basic Processes

Rotating part - turning

Stationary part- milling, drilling, boring, etc

Cutting process the same in both

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 Factors Affecting Machining/Cutting Processes
Work piece
Material, condition, temperature, (Machinability)
Temperature rise
Tool (The cutting edge)
Material, condition/sharpness, coatings, shape, surface finish
Cutting parameters (How much material removed)
feed, speed, depth of cut
Tool angles
Type of chip created
Tool wear
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Factors Affecting Machining/Cutting Processes

Presence or absence of cutting fluid (How process is cooled

and lubricated)
Machine tool parameters (To achieve tolerances)
Machine design
Force and power availability
Stiffness, damping, backlash)
Fixture design (How the work piece is held while shaped)
Also dependent on other variables
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 Some are independent and some are dependent variables

Independent variables in cutting

Workpiece material - "machinebility"

Cutting tools

Cutting parameters

Presence or absence of fluid

Characteristics of the machine tool

Fixture design
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Machinability
Machinability depends on the strength, toughness and
hardness of the work piece material
Machinability can be improved by the addition of certain
elements
Lead and sulfur added to steels gives free machining steels
Good Machinability indicates
Good surface finish and part integrity
no tearing
Long tool life
Low power and force requirements
Good chips
No long thin chips
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 Cutting Tool
Tool Selection and Design:
Tool selection is a very complex process involving many
parameters:
Work piece Machinability
Type of cut - continuous, interrupted
Tool material type
Process parameters
Feed
Speed
Depth of cut
Shape
Cost
Tool life critical to economics
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 Tool Design Parameters
Material Properties
Hardness
Toughness to resist impact forces
Wear Resistance
Chemical Stability
Solid vs inserts
Shape
Edge strength
Circles are stronger than
triangles
Edge design
Sharp vs rounded
Coating material
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 Properties of various cutting tool materials

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 Tool Design

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Impact of tool material on cutting time

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 Cutting Process Parameters

Depend on the process (turning, milling, drilling, etc.)

Determines tool life for a specific tool material and

design

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 Cutting tool
A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder
than the work material. The cutting edge serves to separate chip from the parent work
material. Connected to the cutting edge are the two surfaces of the tool:
The rake face; and
The flank.
The rake face which directs the flow of newly formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle is
called the rake angle "α". It is measured relative to the plane perpendicular to the work
surface. The rake angle can be positive or negative. The flank of the tool provides a
clearance between the tool and the newly formed work surface, thus protecting the surface
from abrasion, which would degrade the finish. This angle between the work surface and
the flank surface is called the relief angle. There are two basic types of cutting tools:
Single point tool; and
Multiple-cutting-edge tool
A single point tool has one cutting edge and is used for turning, boring and planing. During
machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the work
part. The point is sometimes rounded to a certain radius, called the nose radius.
Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their
motion relative to the work part by rotating. Drilling and milling uses rotating multiple-
cutting-edge tools. Although the shapes of these tools are different from a single-point tool,
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many elements of tool geometry are similar.
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 Presence or absence of fluid
Functions of Cutting Fluids
Reduce friction and wear
Reduce forces and energy consumption
30% of total energy can go into friction and heat generated
Cooling the cutting zone Wash
away chips
Protect new surfaces from corrosion

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Types of cutting fluids

 Oils

 Emulsions

 Semi synthetic

 Synthetics

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 Dry machining scenario turn off fluid
Friction increases
Shear angle decreases
Shear strain increases
Chip is thicker
Can form built up edge
Friction increases further
Total energy increases
Temperature increases
Dimensions change
machining inaccurate
Surface finish likely to deteriorate
Tool wear increases

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 Good cooling practice

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 Characteristics of the machine
The machine provides the power and ensures that
the tool is maintained in the chosen location relative
to the work piece
Stiffness
Deflection under load - inaccurate cuts
Dynamic response
Vibrations - chatter - rough surfaces
Horse power available
Determines the maximum material removal rate
Determines the speeds and feeds available

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 Fixture design

Fixtures hold the work piece fixed while the cutting tool
acts on it
Movement under the cutting force not desirable
Deflection of the work piece under cutting force not desirable
Vibration of the work piece undesirable

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 Dependent Variables

Forces and energy dissipated

Temperature rise
Tolerances of work piece after machining

Surface finish of work piece after machining

Wear and failure of tool

Type of chip produced

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 Relationships among the variables

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 Force and energy consumption

Important to know Force to

Avoid excessive distortion in workpiece, tools
Distortion gives rise to inaccuracies - tolerances
Allow adequate fixturing to be designed
Determine the work done by force which ends up as
heat

Important to know Power to

Choose a machine with adequate power capabilities
Estimate how long it will take to machine a part
Estimate the rate at which heat isRockman
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 Cutting force calculation

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 Tolerances
> Tolerances on a machine part depend on
> Forces generated
> Distort the part and its fixturing
> Softness of Tools
> Distort the tool and its holder
> Depends on machine and tool design
> Distort the machine itself
> Depends on the machine design
> Temperature generated
> Thermal induced expansion of all components in the system results in machining errors

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 Surface finish and integrity

Surface finish describes the geometry

Surface Integrity pertains to the mechanical properties
Fatigue life, corrosion resistance
Factors affecting surface integrity include
Workpiece temperature during processing
Residual stresses induced by the shearing
Metallurgical effects (phase transformations)
Plastic deformation
Tearing
Built up edge on chip
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 Tool life
Very important economic factor
Cost of tools
Cost of damaged work piece
Cost of rework due to inaccurate machining
Machinability of part has direct influence
Abrasion and high temperature cause wear on
The face
mostly craters
The flank
High forces and shocks (interrupted cutting)cause chipping
Fracture of the tool
Produces holes and gouges in part
Poorly machinable materials can give a built up edge
Material adheres to edge of tool and causes inaccuracies and extra
friction
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 Type of chip produced

Discontinuous chips, continuous strands, continuous

serrated strands, built up edge (on tool)
Depends on the:

machinebility of the work piece

the design of the cutting tool
the design of the tool holder

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Basic turning
Part of cylindrical cross section clamped in a "chuck" so that it can
rotate about its axis

Part is rotated at fixed speed

A cutting tool is brought to bear on the moving surface of the part
cutting of material
The "chuck" is a kind of vice which has rotational symmetry

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 Turning parameters tools geometry
 Rake angles

 Side rake angle - more important than

 Back rake angle

 Cutting edge angles

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 Material removal rates

= p Davg d f N
Where Davg is the average diameter, d is the depth of cut, f is the feed
rate and N the rotational speed
Forces
Tool Materials
Feeds and speeds
Cutting fluids

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 Basic parameters

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 Machining process for round shapes

Turning
Facing
Boring
Produces circular internal profiles In hollow workpieces
Drilling
Produces round holes
Reaming
Parting
Threading
Knurling
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 Non round machining process

Clamp the work piece into a stationary bed or one that

can move in multiple directions slowly
Bring a rotating tool to bear on the surface to be shaped

Move the rotating tool over the part or move the part
past the rotating tool to shape it

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 Non round machining –slab milling
Milling
Drilling Straddle
Slab/Peripheral
milling Planing
Cutter rotation axis parallel to Broaching Sawing
workpiece surface
Generally used for cutting off pieces to be worked on by oth
Conventional/up processes
Filing and finishing
Maximum chip thickness at end of cut
Gear machining
Climb/down

Maximum chip thickness at beginning of

cut
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 Non round machining –other operation

Drilling
Straddle milling
Planing
Broaching
Sawing
Generally used for cutting off pieces to be worked on by other
processes
Filing and finishing
Gear machining
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 Milling type

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 Parameters for non round cutting

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 Parameters for non round cutting

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 Parameters for non round cutting

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 Parameters for non round cutting

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 Machining economics

Cost per piece decreases with cutting speed

Tool cost increases with cutting speed

Tool change time increases with cutting speed

Total cost goes through a minimum

Time spent removing material usually small fraction

(ɝ%) of total time on machine

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 Type of Machines

Manual/Semi Auto Machines Computerised Machines

1 Lathe Machine 1 CNC Turning Machine

2 Drill Machine 2 Vertical Milling Machine
3 Milling Machine 3 Horizontal Milling Machine
4 Grinding Machine 4 Universal Milling Machine
5 Gear Hoobing Machine 5 EDM Electrical Discharge Machine
6 Broching Machine 6 Wire Cut
7 Boring Machine 7 Ultrasonic Machining Machine
8 Slotting Machining
9 Metal Cutting Saw

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 Type of Machines

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