11145 Journal of Physiology (2001), 530.1, pp.

161–166 161

The influence of menstrual cycle phase on skeletal muscle

contractile characteristics in humans
X. A. K. Janse de Jonge, C. R. L. Boot*, J. M. Thom, P. A. Ruell
and M. W. Thompson
School of Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of
Sydney, East Street, Lidcombe, Australia and *Department of Physiology, University of
Nijmegen, The Netherlands
(Received 22 May 2000; accepted after revision 22 September 2000)
1. The influence of the different phases of the menstrual cycle on skeletal muscle contractile
characteristics was studied in 19 regularly menstruating women. Muscle function was
measured when (i) oestrogen and progesterone concentrations were low (menstruation),
(ii) oestrogen was elevated and progesterone was low (late follicular phase), and (iii) oestrogen
and progesterone were both elevated (luteal phase).
2. Maximal isometric quadriceps strength, fatiguability and electrically stimulated contractile
properties were measured. Isokinetic knee flexion and extension strength and fatiguability
were also assessed as well as handgrip strength. Menstrual cycle phases were confirmed through
measurement of oestrogen, progesterone, follicle stimulating hormone and luteinising
hormone.
3. No significant changes were found in any of the muscle function parameters throughout the
menstrual cycle (n = 15). The muscle function measurements showed no significant correlations
with any of the female reproductive hormone concentrations.
4. These results suggest that the fluctuations in female reproductive hormone concentrations
throughout the menstrual cycle do not affect muscle contractile characteristics.

During their reproductive years the hormone levels in
women fluctuate due to the menstrual cycle. The four
hormonal markers of the menstrual cycle (oestrogen,
progesterone, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinising hormone (LH)) change continuously throughout
the cycle. These fluctuations in female steroid hormones
affect the autonomic nervous system and metabolic
functions (Florini, 1987). Therefore certain physiological
parameters and athletic performance could change along
with the menstrual cycle phases (Becker et al. 1982).
However, the influence of the menstrual cycle phase on
exercise performance, particularly muscle strength, is
unclear.
Sarwar et al. (1996) tested skeletal muscle strength,
relaxation rate and fatiguability of the quadriceps during
the menstrual cycle. They found no changes in these
parameters for women taking oral contraceptives. For
women not taking oral contraceptives, however, the
quadriceps were stronger, more fatiguable and had a
longer relaxation time at mid-cycle (day 12–18). Phillips
et al. (1996) reported a higher adductor pollicis strength
during the follicular phase than during the luteal phase,
with a rapid decrease in strength around ovulation. They
suggested that oestrogen has a strengthening action on
skeletal muscle, although the underlying mechanism is
not clear. Greeves et al. (1999), however, reported the
highest quadriceps strength during the mid-luteal phase
and found a positive relationship between strength and
progesterone concentration. Several other studies have
found no changes in skeletal muscle strength over the
menstrual cycle (DiBrezzo et al. 1991; Quadango et al.
1991; Lebrun et al. 1995; Gür, 1997).
The main problem in the measurement of maximum
voluntary strength is ensuring that the contraction truly
reflects the maximum force-generating capacity of the
muscle. Even well-motivated subjects may not always
reach full neural activation of their muscles (Rutherford
et al. 1986). The extent of neural activation can be
evaluated by applying a superimposed electrical stimulus
to the muscle during the performance of a maximal
voluntary contraction (MVC). When comparing strength
over a period of time, such as in menstrual cycle research,
it is especially important to ensure maximal neural
activation during each test.
A further problem encountered in research on the
influence of the menstrual cycle on physical performance
is the timing of the testing. It is difficult to predict the
exact phases of the menstrual cycle and the concurrent
reproductive hormone concentrations. Counting days
162 X. A. K. Janse de Jonge and others
from the onset of bleeding and basal body temperature
(BBT) charting can be used to estimate the different
phases of the menstrual cycle. These methods, however,
only provide predictions, and serum hormone level
measurements of at least oestrogen and progesterone are
necessary to confirm the menstrual cycle phase.
Most of the studies on muscle strength during the
menstrual cycle have either not measured hormone levels
or relied upon the assumption that voluntary strength
measurements were maximal. These problems have been
addressed in this investigation of the influence of the
menstrual cycle phase on skeletal muscle strength,
fatigue and contractile properties.
METHODS
Subjects
Nineteen healthy women with regular menstrual cycles volunteered
to take part in this study. All subjects provided written informed
consent and all procedures were approved by The University of
Sydney Human Ethics Committee and conformed to the Declaration
of Helsinki. Subjects were medically screened and were healthy and
not taking any medication. They had not been taking oral
contraceptives or hormone supplements for at least the preceding
6 months. Subjects with an irregular menstrual cycle history were
excluded from this study. Seven subjects volunteered to continue the
testing for a consecutive cycle.
Protocol
The muscle strength, fatiguability and contractile properties of the
subjects were measured during different phases of the menstrual
cycle. This study aimed to include the three distinctly different
combinations of oestrogen and progesterone concentrations that
occur during the menstrual cycle: firstly menstruation (day 1–3),
during which both oestrogen and progesterone concentrations are
relatively low; secondly the late follicular phase, when oestrogen is
elevated and progesterone remains low; and finally the luteal phase,
during which both oestrogen and progesterone are elevated. BBT
patterns were used to estimate the different phases of the menstrual
cycle (Vollman, 1977). The timing of the testing during the late
follicular phase is difficult because the oestrogen peak only lasts
approximately 3 days (Landgren et al. 1980). To increase the
likelihood of testing during the late follicular oestrogen peak, two
tests were conducted during this phase. The muscle function test
coinciding with the highest oestrogen concentration and a low
progesterone concentration was analysed as the late follicular phase
test. During each test session isometric strength and fatiguability of
the quadriceps were assessed first. After a 5 min rest period
isokinetic knee flexion and extension strength and fatiguability were
measured. This was followed by the handgrip strength assessment.
Basal body temperature
During the familiarization period the subjects were informed on how
to measure their own BBT. Mercurial ovulation thermometers with
scale steps of 0.05°C were used and BBT was measured orally for
5 min, before rising in the morning. The subjects continued to
measure and record their BBT throughout the study. The pattern of
the BBT was used to estimate the duration of the different phases of
the cycle (Vollman, 1977) and determine the testing schedule. The
subjects also completed a daily questionnaire about symptoms such as
breast tenderness and fluid retention. Changes in these symptoms in
the 2 weeks preceding the menstrual flow indicate an ovulatory cycle
(Lebrun et al. 1995).
J. Physiol. 530.1
Hormone analysis
Before each muscle function testing session, blood samples were
taken from an antecubital vein. The serum collection was
standardized by taking a fasting blood sample at 08.00 h after the
subjects had rested for 20 min. The serum concentrations of
oestrogen, progesterone, FSH and LH were later measured using
ELISA kits (DSL, TX, USA and Bioclone, Australia). A serum
progesterone concentration greater than 16 nmol l_1 was required for
confirmation of an ovulatory cycle (Landgren et al. 1980).
Isometric strength, fatigue and contractile properties
Prior to the strength testing all subjects performed a 10 min warm-
up on a cycle ergometer at 50 W with a cadence of 60 r.p.m. To
measure isometric quadriceps strength and contractile properties the
subjects were seated in a steel-framed adjustable, straight-backed
chair. The pelvis and trunk were tightly secured by adjustable
webbing straps and the knee joint angle was set at 60 deg from full
leg extension. The ankle was secured to a fixed force transducer from
which the analog signal was amplified, digitized and collected using
the data acquisition program ASYST. A high voltage stimulator
(DS7, Digitimer Ltd, UK) programmed by a digital timer (D4030,
Digitimer Ltd) was used to deliver percutaneous electrical pulses to
the quadriceps via two electrodes placed proximally and distally on
the anterolateral thigh. Prior to the maximal voluntary strength
measurement a series of electrical stimuli was applied during which
the current was increased in 50 mA steps. When the involuntary
force created by the electrical stimuli reached a plateau, the current
of the third stimulus in the plateau was defined as the supra-
maximal response. Two types of electrical stimuli were used: (i) a
twitch at 400 V and (ii) an 80 ms tetanus at 50 Hz (5 impulses) with
50 µs pulsed square waves at 400 V. The supra-maximal stimuli
responses were analysed for time to peak tension (TPT), peak tension
(PT), half-relaxation time (1/2RT), normalized peak rate of force
development (normPRFD) and normalized peak rate of relaxation
(normPRR). To monitor full neural activation during the strength
measurements, a supra-maximal twitch was superimposed on each
MVC. The central activation ratio (CAR) was used to quantify the
extent of neural activation (Kent-Braun & Le Blanc, 1996). CAR =
MVC/total force, in which total force = voluntary force +
superimposed force. CAR = 1.0 indicates full voluntary activation of
the muscle (Kent-Braun & Le Blanc, 1996). Contractions during
which CAR was smaller than 1.0 were excluded from analysis.
During each test session the subjects performed five MVCs of the
quadriceps of their dominant leg. Each MVC was preceded by a 2 min
rest period. The subjects were well motivated and received verbal
encouragement during the performance of the MVC. The peak force
recorded in each session was taken as the MVC. The electrically
stimulated fatigue test consisted of 300 ms stimuli every second for
2 min at 20 Hz at a current that elicited at least 50% of the MVC
force (modified from Burke et al. 1973).
Isokinetic strength and fatigue
An isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex Multi-Joint System II, Biodex
Medical Systems Inc., USA) was used to record torques about the
knee joint at constant angular velocities during MVCs of the knee
flexors and extensors. The subjects performed five knee flexions and
five knee extensions at a velocity of 60 deg s_1 and repeated this
protocol at a velocity of 240 deg s_1 with a 2 min rest interval
between each set of five contractions. The final isokinetic test was a
voluntary fatigue test, which consisted of 60 knee flexions and
extensions at a velocity of 240 deg s_1.
Handgrip strength
Dominant handgrip strength was measured using a force transducer
set within an adjustable frame. The subjects stood with their arms
J. Physiol. 530.1 Muscle function during the menstrual cycle 163

Table 1. Serum hormone concentrations of oestrogen, progesterone, follicle stimulating

hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH) throughout the menstrual cycle
Hormone concentration Menstruation Late follicular Luteal
_1
Oestrogen (pmol l ) 170.1 ± 116.8 533.5 ± 289.6* 369.7 ± 126.9*†
Progesterone (nmol l_1) 6.53 ± 12.12 2.45 ± 1.30 40.63 ± 19.17*†
FSH (i.u. l_1) 5.18 ± 2.31 7.56 ± 3.85* 3.29 ± 3.38†
LH (i.u. l_1) 6.01 ± 3.87 24.87 ± 21.12* 4.76 ± 2.96†
Data are shown as means ± S.D., n = 15. *Significantly different from Menstruation (P < 0.05).
†Significantly different from Late follicular (P < 0.05).

Table 2. Muscle strength and fatigue parameters throughout the menstrual cycle
Muscle function Menstruation Late follicular Luteal
Isometric quadriceps (N) 571 ± 114 551 ± 114 570 ± 109
Isokinetic ext 60 deg s_1 (Nm) 153.6 ± 33.0 148.9 ± 27.7 152.8 ± 27.8
Isokinetic flex 60 deg s_1 (Nm) 76.6 ± 13.7 71.1 ± 13.3 73.0 ± 12.0
Isokinetic ext 240 deg s_1 (Nm) 92.0 ± 17.9 88.8 ± 18.9 90.9 ± 20.6
Isokinetic flex 240 deg s_1 (Nm) 54.4 ± 9.0 51.9 ± 8.2 52.3 ± 8.0
Fatigue index – ext 0.470 ± 0.12 0.479 ± 0.09 0.471 ± 0.15
Fatigue index – flex 0.553 ± 0.19 0.476 ± 0.13 0.517 ± 0.17
Handgrip (N) 348 ± 43 341 ± 39 340 ± 44
Data are shown as means ± S.D., n = 15. Ext, knee extension; flex, knee flexion. There were no
significant differences between menstrual cycle phases for any of the variables.

beside their body and the elbow extended. As with the quadriceps,
MVCs were performed with a 2 min rest interval between each
contraction. The MVC was the highest score recorded over five
consecutive trials.
RESULTS
Hormone analysis
The blood sample analysis for progesterone showed that
four of the 19 subjects did not exceed the 16 nmol l_1 limit
that confirms ovulation had occurred (Landgren et al.
1980). These four subjects were therefore excluded from
the results. The mean ± S.D for age, height and weight
for the remaining 15 subjects was 29.9 ± 8.0 years,
167 ± 7 cm and 61.4 ± 8.4 kg, respectively. The results
for the serum hormone concentrations of oestrogen,
progesterone, FSH and LH are shown in Table 1.
As expected, repeated measures ANOVA showed
significant changes for the hormone concentrations
throughout the menstrual cycle. Tests of within-subject
contrasts showed that the oestrogen level during
menstruation was lower than that during both the late
follicular and the luteal phase (both P < 0.01). The
oestrogen concentration during the late follicular phase
was also higher than during the luteal phase (P < 0.05).
For progesterone, the concentration during the luteal
phase was significantly higher than during the rest of the
menstrual cycle (P < 0.01 for both menstruation and
follicular phase). The FSH and LH concentrations were
significantly higher during the late follicular phase than
during menstruation (P < 0.05 for FSH and P < 0.01 for
LH) and the luteal phase (P < 0.01 for FSH and LH). All
these findings agree well with the hormone concentration
pattern of a regular ovulatory menstrual cycle. As can be
seen in Table 1, there was a very large variation in serum
hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle, but also
within each menstrual cycle phase.
Strength, fatiguability and contractile properties
Repeated measures ANOVA showed no significant
changes over the phases of the menstrual cycle for
isometric quadriceps strength with superimposed
electrical stimulation (see Table 2). All subjects reached a
CAR equal to or greater than 1.0 during the quadriceps
contractions with superimposed electrical stimulation. No
significant changes in the extent of neural activation
were found throughout the menstrual cycle. The twitch and
tetanus characteristics (TPT, PT, 1/2RT, normPRFD,
normPRR) and the electrically stimulated fatigue test
also did not show any change over the menstrual cycle
(see Table 3). No significant changes over the menstrual
cycle were found for isokinetic strength and fatiguability
of the knee flexors and extensors. The repeated measures
ANOVA for handgrip strength also showed no significant
changes throughout the menstrual cycle (see Table 2).
Figure 1 shows the maximal isometric quadriceps strength
with superimposed electrical stimulation throughout the
menstrual cycle and the corresponding oestrogen
concentrations. No correlations were found between any
of the strength and fatigue parameters and the serum
concentrations of oestrogen, progesterone, LH and FSH
(see Table 4).
Repeatability
The test–retest repeatability of the strength parameters
was demonstrated with an intra-class correlation
164 X. A. K. Janse de Jonge and others J. Physiol. 530.1

Table 3. Electrically evoked contractile characteristics of the quadriceps throughout the

menstrual cycle
Contractile characteristics Menstruation Late follicular Luteal
Fatigue index quadriceps 0.877 ± 0.21 0.819 ± 0.15 0.870 ± 0.24
Twitch PT (N) 77.93 ± 26.65 79.86 ± 24.11 78.21 ± 27.20
Twitch TPT (ms) 85.55 ± 6.86 87.02 ± 11.74 85.04 ± 7.05
Twitch 1/2RT (ms) 74.64 ± 13.96 76.60 ± 18.9 73.64 ± 16.50
Twitch normPRFD (% ms_1) 2.41 ± 0.19 2.36 ± 0.25 2.38 ± 0.20
Twitch normPRR (% ms_1) _1.15 ± 0.24 _1.15 ± 0.26 _1.14 ± 0.32
Tetanus PT (N) 281.63 ± 54.67 269.33 ± 55.35 274.89 ± 56.37
Tetanus TPT (ms) 154.51 ± 12.76 155.12 ± 14.00 153.88 ± 9.60
Tetanus 1/2RT (ms) 63.86 ± 7.12 65.00 ± 10.87 64.12 ± 12.37
Tetanus normPRFD (% ms_1) 1.74 ± 0.23 1.76 ± 0.14 1.80 ± 0.17
Tetanus normPRR (% ms_1) _1.24 ± 0.15 _1.21 ± 0.14 _1.25 ± 0.17
Data are shown as means ± S.D., n = 15 for twitch and tetanus characteristics and n = 12 for Fatigue
index. PT, peak tension; TPT, time to peak tension; 1/2RT, half-relaxation time; normPRFD,
normalized peak rate of force development; normPRR, normalized peak rate of relaxation. There were
no significant differences between menstrual cycle phases for any of the variables.

coefficient (ICC) ranging from 0.88 to 0.96. Only handgrip
strength showed a lower ICC of 0.73.
DISCUSSION
Muscle function was measured during three phases of
the menstrual cycle with significantly different
concentrations of circulating female reproductive
hormones. The results showed no change over the
menstrual cycle for any of the strength parameters,
including maximal isometric quadriceps strength with
superimposed electrical stimulation, isokinetic knee
flexion and extension strength at 60 and 240 deg s_1
and handgrip strength. The quadriceps contractile
properties, the electrically stimulated quadriceps
fatigue and the isokinetic knee flexor and extensor
fatigue also did not change throughout the menstrual
cycle.
The present findings for the isometric quadriceps
strength do not agree with the results reported by Sarwar
et al. (1996). These authors also used superimposed
electrical stimulation and found the highest quadriceps
strength at mid-cycle, which was defined as day 12 to day
18. For most women ovulation would occur during these
6 days, so the female reproductive hormone concentrations
would be expected to fluctuate significantly. Sarwar et al.
(1996) did not measure hormone concentrations, but
assumed that oestrogen levels would be high during mid-
cycle and suggested that oestrogen increases muscle
strength. To explain why strength did not increase during
the luteal phase they suggested that progesterone might
inhibit the proposed strength-enhancing effect of
oestrogen.
Phillips et al. (1996) also suggested that oestrogen has a
strengthening effect on skeletal muscle. They reported an
increase in maximal voluntary adductor pollicis strength
during the follicular phase and a drop in strength at
ovulation. Hormone concentrations in a sub-group of
subjects (n = 9) were assessed but did not show a
correlation between strength and oestrogen concentration.
Phillips et al. (1996) explain this lack of correlation by
suggesting that the strengthening effect of oestrogen
could have a delayed onset.

Figure 1. Maximal isometric quadriceps strength

with superimposed stimulation and serum oestrogen
concentration throughout the three phases of the
menstrual cycle
The columns represent the means of the quadriceps
strength (+S.D.) and show no significant differences
between menstrual cycle phases. The dotted line
represents the means of the oestrogen concentration
(_S.D.). *Significantly different from Menstruation
(P < 0.01). **Significantly different from Menstruation
(P < 0.01) and significantly different from Late
follicular phase (P < 0.05).
J. Physiol. 530.1 Muscle function during the menstrual cycle 165

Table 4. Correlation coefficients between the muscle strength and fatigue parameters and the
serum hormone concentrations of oestrogen, progesterone, FSH and LH
Muscle function Oestrogen Progesterone FSH LH
Isometric quadriceps 0.025 0.005 _0.074 0.039
(0.872) (0.975) (0.631) (0.798)
Fatigue index _0.288 0.096 0.153 _0.146
quadriceps (0.088) (0.579) (0.374) (0.396)
Isokinetic ext 0.120 0.004 0.032 0.045
60 deg s_1 (0.438) (0.980) (0.836) (0.770)
Isokinetic flex 0.004 0.070 0.159 0.022
60 deg s_1 (0.979) (0.654) (0.307) (0.890)
Isokinetic ext 0.122 0.016 0.069 0.119
240 deg s_1 (0.429) (0.916) (0.654) (0.442)
Isokinetic flex 0.046 _0.069 0.130 0.048
240 deg s_1 (0.765) (0.658) (0.400) (0.758)
Fatigue index – ext 0.089 0.073 _0.273 0.142
(0.577) (0.648) (0.080) (0.371)
Fatigue index – flex _0.289 0.119 _0.170 _0.114
(0.063) (0.452) (0.283) (0.473)
Handgrip _0.015 _0.089 _0.046 _0.214
(0.922) (0.559) (0.766) 0.158
Data are shown as Pearson correlation coefficients with P values below. n = 45 (15 subjects over 3
phases), except for the Fatigue index quadriceps (n = 36) and the Fatigue index – extension and flexion
(n = 42). Ext, knee extension; flex, knee flexion. There were no significant correlations between the
strength and fatigue parameters and the serum hormone concentrations.

Contrary to the work by Phillips et al. (1996) and Sarwar
et al. (1996), Greeves et al. (1997) showed in patients
undergoing in vitro fertilization that supra-physiological
levels of oestrogen did not cause any changes in strength
of the first dorsal interosseus muscle. The present study
found no changes in strength over the menstrual cycle
and did not show a correlation between oestrogen
concentration and strength. Based on these findings the
suggested effect of oestrogen on strength (Phillips et al.
1996; Sarwar et al. 1996) is questionable.
The isokinetic findings from this study agree well with
studies by Gür (1997) and Lebrun et al. (1995), who also
did not find any changes over the menstrual cycle for
maximal isokinetic knee flexion and extension strength.
Both these studies suggested that menstrual cycle phase
does not affect isokinetic strength, which is confirmed by
the present results.
This study showed that fatiguability and electrically
stimulated contractile properties of the quadriceps did
not change over the menstrual cycle. This supports the
findings of White & Weekes (1998) who found no changes
in fatiguability and maximal electrically evoked
contractile character of the triceps surae during the
menstrual cycle. Sarwar et al. (1996) reported an increase
in fatiguability and a slowing of the half-time of
relaxation at mid-cycle (day 12–18), but did not measure
hormone concentrations. Greeves et al. (1997), however,
showed no changes with extreme oestrogen fluctuations,
which supports the present findings and confirms the
suggestion that oestrogen concentration does not affect
skeletal muscle fatiguability and contractile properties.
In the present study a large variation in hormone
concentrations was found throughout the menstrual
cycle, but also within each menstrual cycle phase.
Especially during the late follicular phase the variation in
hormone levels was very large, with a range from 157 to
1038 pmol l_1 for oestrogen concentration. This large
variation in hormone levels within each phase is partly
due to the secretory pulses of these hormones (ultradian
rhythm). Serum collection for the hormone analysis was
standardized, but it should be noted that rapid
fluctuations in the reproductive and pituitary hormones
could occur at any time during the day throughout the
menstrual cycle.
Besides the sudden daily fluctuations, the large variation
in hormone concentrations reported was also likely to be
caused by timing problems within each menstrual cycle
phase. The days of testing for each subject were estimated
based on the BBT pattern of their previous cycle.
However, the length of the menstrual cycle can vary
from cycle to cycle. The BBT charting does give an
indication of whether or not ovulation took place, but is
not accurate enough to predict the exact menstrual cycle
phase. To increase the chance of testing during the
oestrogen peak, two tests were conducted during the late
follicular phase. The variation in hormone concentrations
within each menstrual cycle phase was decreased by
analysing only the test with the highest oestrogen
concentration as the late follicular phase. This way a more
accurate representation of the three phases of a regular
menstrual cycle was given. Thus the chances of showing a
relationship between hormone concentrations and muscle
166 X. A. K. Janse de Jonge and others
function were increased. The fact that even with this
method no correlations between hormone concentrations
and muscle function were found supports the suggestion
that the fluctuations in female reproductive hormones
throughout the menstrual cycle do not affect muscle
strength, fatiguability and contractile properties.
It is important in menstrual cycle studies to measure the
hormone concentrations on the days of testing. Four of
the 19 volunteers in this study did not ovulate according
to the hormone measurements, but these 4 subjects did
appear to have a normal control cycle based on BBT
pattern. De Souza et al. (1998) showed a high frequency of
luteal phase deficiency and anovulation in recreational
runners and a high inconsistency from one menstrual
cycle to the next. The subjects in the present study were
recreationally active, which might explain the high
percentage of anovulation found. Given the present
anovulation findings and those by De Souza et al. (1998)
one cannot assume a consistent menstrual cycle with
regular hormone concentrations for recreationally active
women. To avoid inclusion of non-ovulatory menstrual
cycles in research and to be able to draw valid conclusions
about the effects of menstrual cycle phase on muscle
strength and fatigue it is necessary to measure the actual
hormone levels at the day of testing, as in this study.
In conclusion, no changes over the menstrual cycle were
found for strength, fatigue and the twitch and tetanus
characteristics (TPT, PT, 1/2RT, normPRFD, normPRR).
Care was taken that the three tests represented the three
different phases of the menstrual cycle with concurrent
significantly different hormone (oestrogen, progesterone,
FSH and LH) concentrations. The muscle function
measures showed no correlations with any of the
measured hormone concentrations. The results suggest
that the fluctuations in female reproductive hormones
throughout the menstrual cycle do not affect muscle
strength, fatiguability and contractile properties.
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Corresponding author
X. A. K. Janse de Jonge: School of Exercise and Sport Science,
Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, PO Box 170,
Lidcombe 1825, Australia.
Email: xanne@student.usyd.edu.au