DEVELOPMENT OF MYSTIC THOUGHT AND INDIAN SUFIS

by
Dr. Abroo Aman Andrabi
Assistant Professor
Department of Islamic Studies
Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi-62

The Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon
him) don’t actually mention the word Sufism. However, the main idea behind Sufism
was in the Holy Quran and the Sunnah. In other words, Allah urged the Muslims to
purify themselves from diseases and from evil in general, and in my opinion, this is the
main purpose behind Sufism. But, this word ‘Sufism’ is not found at all in the Quran or
the Sunnah. This call actually came into being some 200 years later.

When we look at the history of Sufism we find that Sufism was born in the eighth
century when Muslims had gained power over a large part of the globe. People were
engaged in political and material things on a large scale. At that time Muslim Sufis, by
remaining away from politics, made a concerted effort to bring about spiritual
awakening among the Muslims and spread human values. Materialism infected the
hearts of many Muslims, and then those scholars (Sufis) came forward with the call to
“go back to your God, purify yourself, go back to the reality of Islam.” They told the
people not to be influenced by materialism, that they had to be closer to Allah, that
they had to practice their religion, and remember the approaching hereafter. This is
the reason why Sufism was established at the time - because of the civilization which
took place in the Western society at that time. Dar al-Majnoon was established during
the reign of Khalifah Ma'moon, where he invited the scholars of the Romans and
Greeks to meet with the Muslims and 'discuss' their respective positions. This provided
the perfect breeding ground for the synthesis between Islam and Pagan theology, to
produce the Sufism of the like of Ibn Arabi. (1)
Sufis don’t have their own separate set of hadith or traditions, supporting their beliefs;
neither have they interpreted parts of the Quran differently than other Muslims.
Sufism considers the two main sources, the Quran and the Sunnah. However, on
occasion they explained some of the sayings of the Quran and the Sunnah in different
ways. That is, some but not all of these. The verses which relate to the purpose of
Sufism - purifying the soul – the Sufis talk about these verses deeply, and maybe
sometimes they added some meaning which other scholars don’t agree with. But all of
them, the Sufis, agreed on one thing - that there were two sources for authority, the
Quran and the Sunnah.

Sufism gives special attention for the spiritual issues, because they believe that when a
Muslim has good faith and good spiritual life then he will be a good Muslim. He will
practice Islam perfectly, and he will follow the Shariah - the Islamic law at the same
time. So they insisted on this point of rituals. I mentioned at the beginning the reason
behind that is materialism which established shortly before Sufism, and then this
movement we consider it as a reaction in our Islamic history. Even now some Muslims
are following Sufism, for the same reasons.

Sufism developed in the 8th and 9th centuries in three major centers: 1. The cities of
Basra, Kufa and Baghdad in Iraq. 2. The city of Balkh in the Khorasan district of Persia.
3. Egypt. Perhaps Muslims in India became closer to Sufism because of their
environment.

In its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the
internalization of Islam. According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an,
constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin
and its development. Others have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of
Prophet Muhammad (peace & blessings be upon him), through which the heart's
connection to the Divine is strengthened. More prosaically, the Muslim Conquests had
brought large numbers of Christian monks and hermits, especially in Syria and Egypt,
under the rule of Muslims. They retained a vigorous spiritual life for centuries after the
conquests, and many of the especially pious Muslims who founded Sufism were
influenced by their techniques and methods.

From the traditional Sufi point of view, the esoteric teachings of Sufism were
transmitted from Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) to those
who had the capacity to acquire the direct experiential gnosis of God, which was
passed on from teacher to student through the centuries. Some of this transmission is
summarized in texts, but most is not. Important contributions in writing are attributed
to Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib, who are
regarded as the first Sufis in the earliest generations of Islam. Harith al-Muhasibi was
the first one to write about moral psychology. Rabia Basri was a Sufi known for her
love and passion for God, expressed through her poetry. Bayazid Bastami was among
the first theorists of Sufism; he concerned himself with fanā and baqā, the state of
annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning
worldly phenomena derived from that perspective.

Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi
teachings into devotional orders (tariqat) in the early Middle Ages. Almost all extant
Sufi orders trace their chains of transmission (silsila) (2) back to Prophet Muhammad
(peace and blessings be upon him) Hazrat Ali (May Allah be pleased with him). The
Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces the origin of its
teachings from Prophet Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr (May Allah be
pleased with him).

Actually, Sufism depends on shaikhs (religious leaders), special scholars who lead their
students, teaching them and watching them. Prophet Muhammad (peace and
blessings be upon him) is regarded as the first Sufi master who passed his esoteric
teachings orally to his successors who also received his special grace. An unbroken
chain of transmission of divine authority is supposed to exist from Muhammad (peace
and blessings be upon him) to his successor 'Ali (May Allah be pleased with him) and
from him down to generations of Sufi masters (Sheikhs, Peers). Each order has its own
Silsilah (chain) that links it with Prophet Muhammad (Peace and blessings be upon
him) and 'Ali (May Allah be pleased with him).

Sufism or Islamic Mysticism came to India with Sufi Saints with the spread of Islam
from the Middle Eastern countries during the 11th and 12th Centuries A.D. It was by
the overpowering spell and charm of their magnetic personality, spiritual powers and
excellent conduct that they won the hearts of millions of people of India and thus laid
the foundation of Islamic Mysticism in this country. (3) During this time the social
situation was very pathetic in India (Indian Subcontinent). The society was divided on
the basis of caste, creed, religion and region. It was a period of oppression and
dominion. The Sufis moved around putting on the grab of faith in God. By the time the
Muslim Empire was established at Delhi, Sufi fraternities had come into being and the
Sufi influence was far more powerful than it was in earlier days under the Arabs in
Sindh. Sufi Saints preached love among all classes of people. The lives of these humble
and peaceful Sufi saints, who brought nothing with them except the name of Almighty
Allah and the message of universal love, were exclusively dedicated to the cause of
religious and spiritual enlightenment of the suffering humanity. As such they were
naturally loved and respected by all classes and ranks of people from a peasant to a
prince. They made India their home, lived here and gloriously passed away in the
service of mankind. The Sufis never feared men not even the powerful tyrant kings and
rulers. They never people to accept the faith but the people themselves felt the need
for it. People were attracted to the Sufis, all that they said, did and approved mad a
deep impact on the people. As a result of which there was tolerance, peace, mutual co
existence and harmony among the people.

The numerous Sufi religious establishments in India were the major means of
spreading Islam and adapting it to original cultural tradition. The Sufis converted a
civilization into a better one, which is beyond the imagination of ordinary people. Four
branches of Sufism, namely Qadriya, Chishtiya, Suharawardya and Naqshahbandya
were introduced in India by Syed Bandqi Mohammad Ghosh, Khwaja Moinuddin
Chishti, Shaikh Bahawaldin Zakariya and Khwaja Mohammad Baqi Billah respectively. (4)

Suharawardy Sufis were the first to arrive in India and made their headquarters in
Sindh. The Suhrawardiyah order was founded by Sheikh Ab-al-Najib Suhrawardi (1097 -
1162) and was introduced into India by Sheikh Baha-ud-din Zakariya (1182 - 1268) of
Multan. This order achieved much success under the leadership of Hazrat Baha-ud-Din
Zakriya in Multan. The Suhrawardiyya order became popular in Bengal with the arrival
of Sufis to Maner Sharif. Noted Sufis of the order in Bihar and Bengal include
Makhdoom Kamaaluddin Ahmed Yahya Maneri, Makhdoom Shahabuddin Pir Jagjot,
Makhdoom Salah Darwesh Maneri and others. Maner Sharif is still considered a center
of the Suhrawardiyya order.

Four Islamic mystics from Afghanistan namely Moinuddin Chisti (d. 1233 in Ajmer),
Qutbuddin Kaki (d. 1236 in Delhi), Nizamuddin Awliya (d.1335 in Delhi) and Fariduddin
Gungbaksh (d.1265 in Pattan now in Pakistan) accompanied the Islamic invaders in
India. All of them were from the Chistiyya order of Islamic mysticism. The impact of
Chisti order is still visible even in small villages of India. Kwaja Moin-ud-Din Chisti, was
a disciple of Khwaja Abu Abdal Chisti, who came to India with the army of Shihab-ud-
Din Ghuri in 1192 AD and selected Ajmer as his permanent abode since 1195. Because
he established the first Sufi Silsilah in the Indian sub-continent, he is often referred to
as Hind-al-Wali. Khawaja Muin-ud-din Ajmeri's chief disciple, Khawaja Qutb-ud-din
Bakhtiyar Kaki, who lived at Delhi, was held in high esteem by Al-Tutmush. The
influence of Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki on Sufism in India was immense. As he
continued and developed the traditional ideas of universal brotherhood and charity
within the Chisti order, a new dimension of Islam started opening up in India which
had hitherto not been present. He forms an important part of the Sufi movement
which attracted many people to Islam in India in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. Baba Farid who was the disciple of Khawaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki,
decided to settle in Punjab. The Chishtiyah order remained the most popular order
during the Sultanate period.

The Chishti saints had two hallmarks which differentiate them from other Sufi saints.
The first was their ethical relations to the institutional powers. This meant voluntarily
keeping a distance from the ruler or the government mechanism. It did not matter if
the ruler was a patron or a disciple: he was always kept at bay since it was felt that
mixing with the ruler will corrupt the soul by indulging it in worldly matters. In his last
discourse to disciples, Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti said:

“Never seek any help, charity, or favors from anybody except God. Never go the court
of kings, but never refuse to bless and help the needy and the poor, the widow, and
the orphan, if they come to your door.” (5)

The second distinctive dimension was related to the religious practice of the Chishtis. It
was proactive rather than passive; a ceaseless searches for the divine other. In this
respect the Chishtis followed a particular ritual more zealously than any other
brotherhood. “This was the practice of sama, evoking the divine presence through
song or listening to music”. (6) The genius of the Chishti saints was that they
accommodated the practice of sama with the full range of Muslim obligations.

Sufi’s world is a world of Peace and Harmony, Their Mission is always service to
mankind and worship only for Almighty Allah, they believe in Peace, Tolerance and
Compassion. Khawaja Nizamuddin Aulia was one of the most renowned and revered
Sufi saints of India, also known by his title of Mehboobe Elahi (Beloved of God). His
shrine at Delhi is a world-renowned spiritual center, has a magnetic power to attract
the people in large number irrespective of faith and religion. The Shrine reflects the
true Sufi traditions. It is well known that Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia used to make his
holy devotions, meditation and religious practices in its seclusion. And at his Langar
Khana (Kitchen) thousands of people, especially the needy and poor were fed daily. He
had propagated the teachings of Islam and the teachings of real Sufism (Islamic
Mysticism) to the people of the India. He spread the message of peace, love and
tolerance to the mankind. He lived a life of strict austerity in the tradition of the Sufi
saints.

Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia did not like to meet any King or Sultan of his time, he has
said,

“A Sufi must never go to the courts of Kings and must refuse to accept any kind of
reward or gratification for his maintenance” (7)

But after the death of the Saint all kinds of  People including kings started visiting the
Shrine in a very large number from different parts of India and other countries of the
world, they pay their respectful tributes to the great saint. This center of spiritualism
promotes world peace, universal brotherhood, communal harmony and tolerance. The
marvelous teachings of Indian Sufi saints for peace and harmony have great relevance
today. 

The Chishti Order in India split into two branches.

Nizamuddin Auliya - This branch became the Chishti Nizami branch. Nizamuddin Auliya
was the master of Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlavi who in turn was the master of Khwaja
Bande Nawaz. All these are important saints of the order.

Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari - This branch became the Chishti-Sabiri branch.

Over time (principally after the 17th century) many further branches emerged which
routinely united or diverged towards other popular Sufi orders in India. Prominent
people of later times who trace their spiritual lineage through the Chishti order
include:

1. Ashraf Jahangir Semnani - He further extended the litanies the Chishtiya Nizami
branch. His followers became the members of the Chishti Nizami Ashrafiya
branch.
 2. Haji Imdadullah Muhaajir Makki - He extended the litanies of the Chishtiya
Sabaria branch. His followers became the members of the Chishtiya Sabaria
Imdadiya branch.

3. Shah Niyaz Ahmad- He united the Chishti Nizami order with the Qadriya order
to form the Chishtiya Qadriya Nizamia Niyazia branch.

4. Habibi Silsila - In century 13th Hegira - Silsila Chishtiya Nizamia Habibia

emerged at Hyderabad, India - Khaja Habib Ali Shah.

As a result of this metamorphosis of the Chishti order with other branches, most Sufi
masters now initiate their disciples in all the four major orders of India: Chishti,
Suhrawadi, Qadri and Naqshbandi. They do however; prescribe prayers and litanies,
only of the order with which they are primarily associated.

The famous Qadriya order entered India through Sindh in AD1482. Syed Bandagi
Mohammad Ghouse, one of the descendants of the founder (Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani,
1078-1116) took up residence in Sindh at Uch (now in Bahawalpur) and died in
AD1517. Qadiri leadership is not centralized. Each centre of Qadiri thought is free to
adopt its own interpretations and practices. Teachings emphasize the struggle against
the desires of the ego. Gilani described it as "the greater struggle". This has two stages;
first against deeds forbidden by religious law and second against fundamental vices
such as greed, vanity, and fear. Names of God are prescribed as wazifas (mantras) for
repetition by initiates (dhikr). Formerly several hundred thousand repetitions were
required and obligatory for those who hold the office of sheikh.

The origin of Naqshbandi order can be traced back to Khwaja Ya‘qub Yusuf al-
Hamadani (b. AD 1140), who lived in Central Asia, and was later organised by
Baha’uddin Naqshband (1318–1389) of Turkestan, who is widely referred to as the
founder of the Naqshbandi order. Khwaja Muhammad al-Baqi Billah Berang,
introduced the Naqshbandi order to India. The essence of this order was insistence on
strict adherence to the shari‘ah and nurturance of love for the Prophet Muhammad
(peace and blessings be upon him).(8)

All over the India these Sufis spread the message of love and compassion between
both Muslims and Hindus. Their attempt to balance the religious harmony was
immemorial. Their preaching of Islam was in very systematic style and manner which
inclined the love to the objective. Considering the existing life style and religious and
cultural differences, These Muslim saints behaved in a pluralistic way.

By their social interaction the Hindu society welcomed them and accommodated with
great respect. From the royal family to common people gave them whatever they
wanted and the kings ordered the people to give these saints the lands and helped to
build up the mosques.

The Sufis made untiring, selfless and incessant struggle for the spread of Islam. They
devoted their lives and gave up their homes to champion the cause of Islam in a
miraculous way. Neither did they resort to arms nor to swords for this. It was their
affection, sympathy, fraternity and unlimited humanitarian actions that won the hearts
of people.

Sufism had an important part in the formation of Muslim societies as it educated the
masses and met their felt needs, giving spiritual meaning to their lives and channeling
their emotions. The impact of Sufism on Indian culture created an integration which no
political force could have done. Sufis brought about a synthesis which definitely
shaped the very outlook of the people thereby a rare quality of absorbing diverse
influences, which was the responsible for cohesion and harmony was brought in.

The Sufis were successful because of their noble deeds and the amazing examples they
set. They never imposed their beliefs on non-Muslims. The khanqas provided
protection to nomads, travelers, institutions for those who wanted to reduce their
thirst for knowledge, food to the needy and love to all. People rallied round the
ideology of Sufism which was simple to digest, practicable to exercise. Before they
started preaching, firstly they set noble and brilliant example through their behaviour
and conduct. Secondly, Islam was preached by them in a simple, pragmatic and flexible
way, contrary to the ulemas who laid much emphasis on the rigidity of rules. Thirdly,
they highlighted Allah’s positive and merciful attributes to ignite a love of God in
people’s hearts. The Sufis disliked formalities and ceremonial acts, preferring to lead
simple lives, and their lofty and admirable principles became guidelines for the people.
They were against suppressions and social evils, condemning the use of force to gain
power. Then their khanqahs were always open for everyone, and those with money
had to donate generously to the needy. People flocked from time to time to the Sufis
for solace and comfort.

There is no Sufism and Spirituality without Islam and Shariat. The real Sufism is based
on the strict Islamic faith and its teachings. It works within the framework of Shariat.
The “Tariqat” i.e. the Sufi way of life for spiritual upliftment, advancement and purity
of ideas, is not separate from Shariat or Islamic Laws. An eminent and earliest Sufi
Saint Hazrat Ali Hujweri (Data Ganj Baksh) says,

“As light cannot be separated from the sun, similarly ‘Shariat’ cannot be separated
from Tariqat.” (9)

The Sharia-guided mystic influence of Sufis produced the Muslim thinkers like Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi, Shah Wali Ullah, Sayied Ahmad Barelavi, Karamat Ali, Sir Sayed Ahmad
Khan, Allama Iqbal and Maulana Maududi. They used the mystic philosophy befitting to
the political exigencies of the time for revival of political supremacy of Islam. Of them
the Sufis like Sirhindi and Wali Ullah, who politicised the mystic ideology for political
domination of Islam. They were projected as Islamic reformists for purifying Islam from
any extraneous influences. They conveyed the political aspect of Islam to Muslim
masses so aggressively that it created a permanent imprint on their psyche. It is
therefore said that the Sufi Islamists saved the Islam in that period.
Sufis were also great missionaries. There cultural contribution was a rich poetry in
Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Urdu, Sind, and Pashto which spread its mystical ideas all over
the Muslim world and enriched local literature and identity.

Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a number of manuals began to be written
summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of
the most famous of these are now available in English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjub
of Hujwiri, and the Risala of Qushayri.

Notes and References:

1. Ibn Arabi a prolific writer, main works Futuhat al Makkiyah, Fusus al Hikmah,
Risalat al khalwah.
2. Silsila is a term, besides tariqa which is used to describe a Sufi order or a Sufi
lineage, the article “Tarika” in the Encyclopedia of Islam, by massignon, 2011

3. S. A. A. Rizvi, A History of Sufism in India, Vol. I, Delhi, 1978, P. 26

4. A.J.Arbery, Sufism: An Account of the Mystics in Islam, reprinted in Delhi, 2003,

p.84

5. Hakim Moinuddin Chisti, The Book of Sufi Healing. Rochester: Inner Traditions
International. (1991).

6. Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, The Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition Guidebook of

Daily Practices and Devotions, Islamic Supreme Council of America, 2004, p.83

7. Shaikh Hakim Chishti, The Eleven Hijabaat (Veils) of Sufism, Home Islam
Healing, Chisti.org

8. Carl W. Ernst, Bruce B. Lawrence, Sufi martyrs of love, 2002, P. 5

9. Ali Hujwiri, Kashaf al Mahjub, tr. R.N. Nicholoson, P.130

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