Title

Flow through a Convergent-Divergent Duct.

Objective

To demonstrate the application of the Bernoulli equation as applied to the flow in a

convergent-divergent duct.

Equipment and Materials

Bernoulli’s Theorem Apparatus LS-1801-5-BT and Hydraulic Bench LS-1801.

Introduction

The flow of a fluid has to follow with a number of scientific principles in particular the
conservation of mass and the conservation of energy. First of all, when applied to a liquid
flowing through a conduit, it requires that for steady flow the velocity will be inversely
proportional to the flow area. Secondly, if the velocity increases then the pressure must
decrease. Bernoulli's apparatus demonstrates both of these principles and can also be used
to examine the onset of turbulence in an accelerating fluid stream. Both Bernoulli's
equation and the continuity equation are essential analytical tools required for the analysis
of most problems in the subject of mechanics of fluids.

1. Bernoulli’s theorem

Bernoulli’s equation is applicable when the fluid is in steady flow and the fluid is
incompressible and inviscid fluid. Bernoulli’s equation is the sum of these three quantities:

P
=Pressure Head
ρg

v2
=Velocity Head
2g

Z=Elevation Head

are constant. Therefore, the relationship of this Bernoulli’s equation is

P 1 v 12 P v2
+ +Z 1= 2 + 2 + Z 2=H ………..(1)
ρ1 g 2 g ρ2 g 2 g

where ρ1 and ρ2 are the density of water

g is the gravitational acceleration

v1 is the velocity at cross section 1

v 2 is the velocity at cross section 2

 Z1 and Z2 are the elevation

H is the total pressure head

2. Loss of head due to friction

In reality, the fluid is not inviscid and incompressible due to the friction exist between the
fluid and the fluid and the passage walls, this cause a small loss of head. Therefore, the
Bernoulli’s equation can be modified by including the frictional head loss H f

P 1 v 12 P 2 v 22
+ +Z = + + Z 2+ H f …………(2)
ρ1 g 2 g 1 ρ2 g 2 g

When applying this equation between the upstream section 1 and downstream
section 2, the equation can be reduced to

P1 P
Hf = − 2
ρ1 g ρ2 g

This is because the passage is horizontal Z1 =Z 2 and the velocities will be equal at two
positions of equal area.

3. Volume flow rate

The cross sectional area and the volume flow rate Q can be applied to calculate the velocity
of flow v1 and v 2.

Q=v 1 A 1=v 2 A 2

where

π π
A1= d 12 and A 2 = d 22
4 4
Procedure

Figure 1: Set-up of Bernoulli’s Theorem Apparatus and Hydraulic Bench.

1. The water outlet tube was made sure to be directed to the sump to the apparatus.
2. The water pump was switched on.
3. The main input water flow valve was kept fully open; the bypass water valve was
adjusted to control the volume of flow rate.
4. The water flow rate was adjusted to maximum possible flow rate by closing the bypass
valve. The flow was allowed to stabilize and to remove all air bubbles in the system.
5. The air pump provided was fit to the right end of the manifold on top of the
manometers.
6. The pump was used to control the base line level of the manometer readings by
increasing or decreasing the pressure in the manifold. The base line need not fall
exactly at the zero line because the velocity calculations use only the pressure
difference.
7. The pressure in the manifold can be increased by pumping action of the air pump.
8. The pressure in the manifold can be decreased by pressing on to the needle valve on the
right hand side of the manifold to release the air in the manifold.
9. The volume flow rate reading and all the manometer readings were took. The readings
were entered into the spreadsheet in the computer provided for the purpose.
10. The bypass valve was adjusted to decrease the flow rate to obtain different sets of
manometer readings for flow rates of 6.5, 6.0, 5.0, 4.0, and 3.0 gallons /min.
Calculations

Constant:

π=3.14 16 ρ=1000 kg/ m 3

g=9.81 m/ s 2 1 gal/min = 0.00006308 m3/s

1. Flow rate, Q of 6.5 gallons/min¿ ( 6.5 ) ( 0.00006308 )=0.0004100 m 3 /s

2
d 2
Area ¿( ) × π=
2 2[
(26.0)
]
× ( 3.1416 ) =530.9 mm2

6
Q ( 0.0004100 )(10 )
Velocity, v= = =0.77 23 m/s
A (530.9)

2
v 2 (0.7723)
Velocity Head ¿ = × ( 1000 )=30.4 mm
2 g 2(9.81)

Actual Total Head = Experimental Pressure Head + Velocity Head + Elevation Head

= (264.0) + (30.4) + (30.0) = 324.4 mm

Head Loss = Ideal Total Head – Actual Total Head

= (324.4) – (324.4) = 0 mm

Ideal Pressure Head = Ideal Total Head – Velocity Head – Elevation Head

= (324.4) – (30.4) – (30.0) = 264.0 mm

2. Flow rate, Q of 6.0 gallons/min¿ ( 6.0 ) ( 0.00006308 )=0.0003785 m 3 /s

2
d 2
Area ¿( ) × π=
2 2[
(24.0)
]
× ( 3.1416 ) =452.4 mm2
 6
Q ( 0.0003785 )(10 )
Velocity, v= = =0.8366 m/s
A (452.4)

2
v 2 ( 0.8366)
Velocity Head ¿ = × ( 1000 )=35.7 mm
2 g 2(9.81)

Actual Total Head = Experimental Pressure Head + Velocity Head + Elevation Head

= (206.0) + (35.7) + (30.0) = 271.7 mm

Head Loss = Ideal Total Head – Actual Total Head

= (272.9) – (271.7) = 1.2 mm

Ideal Pressure Head = Ideal Total Head – Velocity Head – Elevation Head

= (272.9) – (35.7) – (30.0) = 207.2 mm

3. Flow rate, Q of 5.0 gallons/min¿ ( 5.0 ) ( 0.00006308 )=0.000 3154 m 3 /s

2
d 2
Area ¿( ) × π=
2 2[
(17.6)
]
× ( 3.1416 ) =243.29 mm2

6
Q ( 0.000 3154 ) (10 )
Velocity, v= = =1.2964 m/s
A (243.29)

2
v 2 (1.2964)
Velocity Head ¿ = × ( 1000 )=85.7 mm
2 g 2(9.81)

Actual Total Head = Experimental Pressure Head + Velocity Head + Elevation Head

= (111.0) + (85.7) + (30.0) = 226.7 mm

Head Loss = Ideal Total Head – Actual Total Head

= (223.0) – (226.7) = -3.7 mm

Ideal Pressure Head = Ideal Total Head – Velocity Head – Elevation Head

= (223.0) – (85.7) – (30.0) = 107.3 mm

4. Flow rate, Q of 4.0 gallons/min¿ ( 4.0 )( 0.00006308 ) =0.0002523 m 3 /s

2
d 2
Area ¿( ) × π=
2 2[
(16.0)
]
× ( 3.1416 ) =201.06 mm2

6
Q ( 0.0002523 )(10 )
Velocity, v= = =1.255 m/s
A (201.06)

2
v 2 (1.255)
Velocity Head ¿ = × ( 1000 )=80.3 mm
2 g 2(9.81)

Actual Total Head = Experimental Pressure Head + Velocity Head + Elevation Head

= (98.0) + (80.3) + (30.0) = 208.3 mm

Head Loss = Ideal Total Head – Actual Total Head = (219.5) – (208.3) = 11.2 mm

Ideal Pressure Head = Ideal Total Head – Velocity Head – Elevation Head

= (219.5) – (80.3) – (30.0) = 109.2 mm

5. Flow rate, Q of 3.0 gallons/min¿ ( 3 .0 ) ( 0.00006308 )=0.000 1893 m 3 /s

2
d 2 (18 .6)
Area ¿( ) × π=
2 2[ ]
× ( 3.1416 )=271.3 mm2

6
Q ( 0.000 1893 ) (10 )
Velocity, v= = =0.6978 m/s
A (271.3)

2
v 2 (0.6978)
Velocity Head ¿ = × ( 1000 )=24.8 mm
2 g 2(9.81)

Actual Total Head = Experimental Pressure Head + Velocity Head + Elevation Head
 = (169.0) + (24.8) + (30.0) = 223.8 mm

Head Loss = Ideal Total Head – Actual Total Head = (226.5) – (223.8) = 2.7 mm

Ideal Pressure Head = Ideal Total Head – Velocity Head – Elevation Head

= (226.5) – (24.8) – (30.0) = 171.7 mm

Discussions

Based on Table 1, the ideal total head for flow rate of 6.5 gallons/min is 324.4 mm. But
the actual total heads vary from 324.4 mm to 321.9 mm, 350.8 mm, 340.0 mm, 325.5 mm,
307.6 mm, 297.6 mm, and 297.4 mm when the fluid flows through different cross-sectional
area of convergent-divergent duct. It can be observed that the head loss decreases and
increases when the fluid flows through the duct with the value of 0 mm, 2.5 mm, -26.4
mm, -15.6 mm, -1.1 mm, 16.8 mm, 26.8 mm, and 27.0 mm. According to Table 2, Table
3, Table 4, and Table 5, its show the same trend which is the actual total head would not
be constant as the fluid flow through the convergent-divergent duct. Moreover, Graph 1,
Graph 2, Graph 3, Graph 4, and Graph 5 clearly prove that the actual total head is not
constant compared to ideal total head as the fluid flowing through the duct. Thus, in actual
case, actual total head will decreases when the fluid moving through the duct although the
ideal total head says that it should be constant.

To discuss the reason about the different between the actual measured pressure
head and the ideal pressure head calculated, the Bernoulli equation is applied. Based on
equation (1), which is in ideal case, the sum of pressure head, velocity head and elevation
head would be constant when the fluid flows through the convergent-divergent duct.
Although the cross-sectional area changes along the path which will affect the velocity
head, but the pressure head will change to balance the Bernoulli equation. If the velocity of
the fluid increases when flow through a smaller cross-sectional area duct, the pressure will
decreases so that the total head would be constant in ideal case. But in actual case,
frictional losses should be considered because it will decrease the velocity and the pressure
of the fluid flows. The frictional losses can come from the friction exert when the fluid
moving against the wall and friction of collision between the molecule of the fluid. Due to
these frictional losses, some head is loss. Therefore, the actual pressure head will decreases
due to the energy losses due to friction and different from the ideal pressure head. To apply
Bernoulli equation, head loss should be considered and thus equation (2) is used in actual
case to balance the Bernoulli equation.