Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116

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Chemie der Erde

journal homepage: www.elsevier.de/chemer

Geochemistry of the Eocene Jijuntun Formation oil shale

in the Fushun Basin, northeast China: Implications for source-area
weathering, provenance and tectonic setting
Rong Liu a,b,c,∗ , Zhaojun Liu a,b,c,∗ , Pingchang Sun a,∗ , Yinbo Xu a , Dongqing Liu a ,
Xiaohong Yang a , Chao Zhang a
a
College of Earth Sciences, Jilin University, 130061 Changchun, China
b
Key Laboratory of Evolution of Past Life and Environment in Northeast Asia, Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China,
130026 Changchun, China
c
Key Laboratory of Oil Shale and Coexistent Energy Minerals of Jilin Province, 130061 Changchun, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Within the fault-bound Fushun Basin of northeastern China, the Eocene Jijuntun Formation hosts exten-
Received 13 August 2013 sive deposits of thick lacustrine oil shale. Systematic sampling and geochemical analysis of these deposits
Accepted 25 August 2014 has revealed that the parent rocks of the oil shale underwent moderate chemical weathering; and that
Editorial handling - B. Horsfield
its mineralogy and trace and rare earth element geochemistry were mainly controlled by parent rock
composition, with no synsedimentary changes in the source terrain. Based on source rock and tectonic
Keywords:
setting discrimination diagrams, we concluded that the parent rocks of the oil shale were mostly basalts
Siliciclastic sources
of the Paleogene Laohutai Formation. These basalts originated in a continental back arc environment and
Tectonic setting
Elemental geochemistry
contain abundant nutrient elements such as Fe, P, Ni, Cu and Zn, all of which are essential for the growth
Fushun Basin of aquatic photoautotrophs in lakes. Continuous, high primary productivity in the Jinjuntun lacustrine
Oil shale depocentre, combined with a stable tectonic setting and underfilled sedimentary environment, were key
factors in the genesis of its oil shale.
© 2014 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction of lacustrine sediments affect the elemental content and composi-

The Tanlu fault zone that crosses the Bohai Sea and extends
northward consists of two branches, the Fushun–Mishan fault in
the east and Yilan–Yitong fault in the west (Wang, 1986; Wang
et al., 2004; Sun et al., 2008, 2010). Along the Dunmi fault of the
east branch, there are several well-known Paleogene rift basins that
contain coal and oil shale. These include the Fushun, Meihe, Hua-
dian, and Jiaohe Basins (Fig. 1). The extensive high quality deposits
of oil shale in the Eocene Jijuntun Formation of the Fushun Basin
have long been a focus of geological research. However, previous
work has largely focused on the sedimentary environment of these
oil shales (Wu et al., 1998; Hou et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2008, 2007,
2009a,b; Hu et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2012), and few studies have
reported on the sources of their siliciclastic components and their
tectonic setting. It is generally considered that the parent rocks
∗ Corresponding authors at: College of Earth Sciences, Jilin University, 130061
Changchun, China. Fax: +86 431 88502603.
E-mail addresses: jpuliurong@163.com (R. Liu), liuzj@jlu.edu.cn (Z. Liu),
sunpingchang711@126.com (P. Sun).
tion of the lake water body and that this in turn directly affects its
biological productivity (Bowen, 1979; Granina et al., 2004). In this
study, the thick oil shale bed in the Jijuntun Formation was sys-
tematically sampled, and geochemical methods were employed to
determine the types and tectonic setting of its source rocks in order
to improve our understanding of oil shale formation mechanism(s)
in the Fushun Basin.
2. Geological setting
The Fushun Basin is the most stratigraphically complete of the
Cenozoic basins in northeastern China (Fig. 1). Its sedimentary fill
comprises the Palaeocene Laohutai and Lizigou Formations, and the
Eocene Guchengzi, Jijuntun, Xilutian and Gengjiajie Formations.
Oligocene strata are absent. The basal 52 Eocene Guchengzi For-
mation consists of thick coal beds (the thickest layer of 195 m) (Liu
et al., 2009a,b) interbedded with carbonaceous shale and shale, and
decreases in thickness from west to east and from south to north.
The Jijuntun Formation comprises a sequence of carbonaceous hale,
mudstone (in part silty) and thick oil shale. Oil shale of the Jijuntun

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2014.08.004
0009-2819/© 2014 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
106 R. Liu et al. / Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116

Fig. 1. The geological structure of the Fushun Basin and location of sampling sites in the Fushun Basin, northeastern China (modified from (Meng et al., 2012): 1. Proterozoic
gneiss; 2. Cretaceous; 3. Paleocene Laohutai Formation; 4. PaleoceneLizigou Formation; 5. Eocene Guchengzi Formation; 6. Eocene Jijuntun Formation; 7. Eocene Xilutian
Formation; 8. Andesite; 9. Diabase; 10. Coal; 11. Oil shale; 12. Fault; 12. Synclinal axis.
 R. Liu et al. / Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116
Fig. 2. SEM photomicrographs of representative oil shale samples: a: quartz and feldspar (sample YYY59-1); b: illite and kaolinite (sample YYY-13); c: kaolinite and andreattite
(sample YYY50-2); d: siderite (sample YYY-13).
Formation in most areas is distributed in a single layer and is very
thick, the thickest layer being 88 m (Liu et al., 2009a,b). The oil yield
of the latter lithofacies is low in its lower part and increases upward.
The Xilutian Formation comprises green mudstone and muddy
limestone, with frequently alternating, varicolored beds. The over-
laying mudstones of the Gengjiajie Formation appear only locally
(Hong et al., 1980). Each of the aforementioned formations records
a different stage in the tectonic evolution of the Fushun Basin:
(1) initial rift stage (Laohutai Formation), when mafic magma was
triggered to erupt and synsedimentary faulting began; (2) accel-
erated rift stage (Lizigou Formation), when the eruption of mafic
magma stopped and faulting gradually increased; (3) stabilized
developmental stage (Guchengzi Formation), when movement on
the majority of the faults weakened; (4) relatively rapid rift stage
(low-grade oil shale of the Jijuntun Formation), when the major-
ity of the faults remained active; (5) steady rift stage (high-grade
oil shale of the Jijuntun Formation), when synsedimentary faul-
ting gradually weakened; and (6) rifting-to-depression conversion
stage (green shale and marl of the Xilutian Formation), during
which faulting eventually stopped (Li and Che, 1982; Hou et al.,
2006; Liu et al., 2009a,b).
3. Materials and methods
Fresh samples of oil shale (n = 49, Tables 1–5) were collected
from exposed sections of the Jijuntun Formation in the Being explo-
ration open pit (including the east and west open pit mines: Fig. 1)
over a period of several years. Samples XP1–XP7 and YYY12–YYY48
were collected in the west open pit mine in 2003. Samples XP21-
1–XP70-1 were collected in the west open pit mine in 2006, but
more systematically. Samples DLT-016–DLT-034 and XLT-5–XLT-
5, all from low grade oil shale in the lower part of the formation,
were collected in the east open pit mine and west open pit mine
107
respectively in 2012. Also, sample XP21-1–XP42-3 are from the
low-grade oil shale member, and XP50-1–XP70-1 from the high-
grade oil shale member.
Sub-samples were then analyzed for major element oxides and
trace elements using a Philips PW2404 X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
spectrometer and a high-resolution inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometer (HR-ICP-MS) (Thermo Scientific X-series) at the
Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology (China) (following
the criteria of GB/T 14506.28–93 and DZ/T 0223–2001, which are
National Standards in China). The analytical precision for all the
elements was estimated to be <5% based on duplicate analysis
of samples and standards. In addition, a further twelve samples
(Table 1) were analyzed for their mineral composition by X-ray
diffractometry (XRD) at the Center for Scientific Test of Jilin Univer-
sity (China). A Philips PW1830 diffractometer system with Cu-K␣
radiation was used for XRD measurements on pulverized samples
(≤200 mesh).
Six representative shale samples were selected for the scan-
ning electron microscopic analysis (SEM) at the Center for Scientific
Test of Jilin University (China). This study was undertaken on a
Hitachi X-650 scanning electron microscope (resolution = 6 nm),
equipped with an EDAX spectrometer (EDS) system, to determine
the morphology and chemical composition of individual mineral
components.
4. Results
4.1. Mineralogy
The results of XRD analysis (n = 10: Table 1) indicate that
the mineralogy of the Jijuntun oil shale on average comprises
quartz (48.5%), feldspar (5.1%), Plagioclase (2.5%), kaolinite (16.2%),
andreattite (9.7%), illite (6.1%), siderite (9.6%) and minor Siderite
108 R. Liu et al. / Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116

Table 1
Mineral abundances in oil shale from the Fushun Basin, northeastern China.

Sample Location of Jijuntun TOC Depth Relative content of mineral (%)

number Formation (m)
Clay mineral Detrital material of terrigenous origin Other mineral

K S I/S I Q Fs Pl Sid Py Cc

Kaolinite Smectite Andreattite Illite Quartz Feldspar Plagioclase Siderite Pyrite Calcite

XP64-1 Upper 5.96 452.51 9 17 5 43 4 1 3 2 16

XP60-1 part 10.29 455.46 9 11 5 59 6 3 7
XP59-1 17.03 455.77 11 11 6 65 5 1 1
XP51-2 2.45 478.62 20 11 7 19 6 3 32 2
XP50-2 14.47 481.27 19 14 6 43 7 3 7 1
XP45-1 8.14 506.18 22 8 5 51 5 2 7

XP42-1 Lower part 16.28 518.73 20 12 6 50 6 1 4 1

YYY-48 Upper part 18.45 – 20 2 5 46 5 5 17

YYY-12 Lower 10.17 – 13 8 8 55 7 6 3

YYY-13 part 8.25 – 19 3 8 54 16

TOC is the total organic carbon content.

Co, Ni, Zn, Ga, Sr, Mo enrichment observed 132 in several samples.
The trace elements showed consistent distribution patterns in all
samples, with certain variations in the distribution of Co and Sr.
These observations indicate that the sources of the oil shale’s detri-
tal mineral matrix barely changed during deposition of the Jijuntun
Formation.

4.4. Rare-earth elements

Fig. 3. PAAS-normalized spider diagram (after McLennan, 1989) showing trace ele-
ment distributions in oil shale from the Fushun Basin, northeastern China.
pyrite. The mineral type and morphology measured using qual-
itative SEM–EDS reveals that the clay minerals, kaolinite and
andreattite, are almost platy (Fig. 2). Quartz, feldspar and other
detrital grains can be more readily distinguished in poor quality
oil shale than in the rich oil shale.
4.2. Major elements
The results of major element analyses (n = 14) are shown
in Table 2. The SiO2 content of the Jijuntun oil shale is high
(46–65%, average 55%), while MgO + Fe2 O3 T ranges from 5 to 18%
(average 11%), revealing a high mafic input. The K2 O level is sig-
nificantly higher than that of Na2 O, reflecting the abundance of
potassium feldspar and other potassium-containing minerals. The
Al2 O3 /(CaO + Na2 O) ratio, indicative of the relative content of sta-
ble and unstable components (Gu et al., 2003), is between 9.1 and
26.4 (average 17.0), indicating that the oil shale in the Fushun Basin
contains higher levels of more stable components than less stable
components.
4.3. Trace elements
The HR-ICP-MS data on the Jijuntun oil shale samples (n = 40:
Table 3), when normalized to the post-Archean Australian shale
(PAAS: McLennan, 1989) and plotted on a spider diagram (Fig. 3),
show that it is variously depleted in the majority of trace elements.
Of these, B and Rb showed the greatest depletion, with slight Sc, Cr,
The REE contents of the oil shale samples (n = 33) are presented
in Tables 4 and 5. Their total REE abundances (REE) fall in the
range 118 to 412 ppm (average 233 ppm). Of these, the total light
(LREE) and heavy REE (HREE) levels are 98–365 ppm (aver-
age 200 ppm) and 20–47 ppm (average 32 ppm), respectively. The
LREE/HREE ratio ranges from 4.1 to 8.3 (average 6.2). In Table 5,
N represents the chondrite-normalized values, (La/Yb)N is the ratio
of LaN and YbN . ıEu and ıCe are the abnormal chondrite-normalized
values, ıEu = EuN /(SmN × GdN )1/2 , EuN , SmN and GdN are chondrite-
normalized values; ıCe = CeN /(LaN × PrN )1/2 , CeN , LaN and PrN are
chondrite-normalized values. The ıEu abnormal value ranges from
0.81 to 0.9 (average0.98), and ıCe abnormal value ranges from 0.90
to 1.12 (average 0.85) (Table 5).
In the chondrite-normalized diagram (Fig. 4A), the REE pro-
files of the oil shales are skewed to the left, showing that LREEs
are enriched relative to HREEs, with the latter being more evenly
distributed. Their high LaN /YbN values (12.3–18.7, average 13.9)
are a measure of the extent of the obvious fractionation between
LREEs and HREEs. ıEu values of between 0.81 and 0.90 (average
0.85) reveal a weak Eu anomaly. In the PAAS-normalized diagram
(Fig. 4B)), about half the samples show LREE enrichment, while all
of them are depleted in HREEs, relative to the PAAS.
5. Discussion
5.1. Parent rock type discrimination
Provenance is an important factor controlling the composition of
all clastic sedimentary rocks. In particular, processes such as chem-
ical weathering of the parent rock and transportation of its stable
and neoformed mineral components to their site of final deposi-
tion also influence the ultimate composition of a siliciclastic rock
like mudstone (Johnsson, 1993). Therefore, before the parent rock
type(s) of the Jijuntun oil shale can be identified, it is necessary
to investigate the processes of chemical weathering and sediment
transport in the hinterland of the Fushun Basin.
 R. Liu et al. / Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116 109

5.1.1. Chemical weathering of source rocks

85.18*
89.13*

87.69*

87.83*
91.16*

90.77*
90.30*
89.70*

90.80*

93.24
88.12
82.14
84.72
86.13
In general, the chemical composition of clastic sedimentary

CIA
rocks can provide information on weathering in their place of ori-
gin. During this process, cations such as Al3+ and Ti4+ are stored

Al2 O3 (CaO + Na2 O)

in stable weathering products, whereas cations such as Na+ , Ca2+
and K+ tend to be lost (Fedo and Nesbtit, 1995). Such elemental
enrichment and loss commonly depend on the intensity of chemical
weathering (Condie et al., 1992). In order to quantify the degree of
12.73

15.55
20.94
19.66
14.55
14.48

20.28

19.82
18.67

12.69
13.54
21.06

26.40

9.07
such weathering, Nesbitt and Young (1982) proposed the Chemical
 (CIA), defined as follows:
Index of Alteration 
MgO + Fe2 O3 T

Al2 O3
CIA = 100 × Al2 O3 +CaO∗+Na2 O+K2 O
where the major element
levels are presented as mol%, and CaO* refers only to the CaO
16.76
8.66

12.72
11.73
17.35
11.31
7.31
18.32
12.70

10.10
6.80
5.30
9.50
7.30
in siliceous minerals. In the present study, we determined 176
the content of CaO* in mudstone using the method of Bock et al.
(1998), i.e., when CaO > Na2 O, CaO* = Na2 O; and when CaO ≤ Na2 O,
Fe2 O3 T

15.67
7.84

11.79
11.84
10.81

10.44
16.30

6.50

8.70
5.80
4.30
8.30
6.30
17.00

CaO* = CaO. The resulting Al2 O3 –(Na2 O + CaO*)–K2 O ternary dia-

gram (Fig. 5A) shows that the CIA of oil shale in the Fushun Basin
15.20
18.20

19.40
28.00

26.00
is between 85 and 96 (average 92). This suggests that its source
LOI

–
–

–
–
–
–
–
–
–

rocks underwent a slightly above medium degree of weathering

(all samples plotting in the illite kaolinite transition zone).
P2 O5

0.60
0.20
0.30
0.20
0.20

The Th/U ratio is another parameter that is sensitive to the

–
–

–
–
–
–
–
–
–

degree of weathering, due to oxidation and loss of U (Taylor

TiO2

1.10
0.90
0.70
0.90

and McLennan, 1985; McLennan et al., 1993). Its increase can be

1.00
–
–

–
–
–
–
–
–
–

attributed to weathering when Th/U > 4 (McLennan et al., 1995). In

the present study, the Th/U ratio ranges from 4.0 to 6.2 (average
MnO

0.20
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10

4.9: Fig. 5B), likewise indicating parent-rock weathering of slightly

–
–

–
–
–
–
–
–
–

above medium intensity.

0.91

0.91
0.93

1.28
1.03

1.04
1.01
1.03

1.03

1.10

1.10
1.00

1.00

1.00
K2 O

5.1.2. Sedimentary differentiation and recycling

Na2 O

0.62
0.28

0.38
0.31

0.43
0.45
0.45
0.40

0.40

0.40
0.50
0.80
0.60
0.80

Sedimentary differentiation and recycling commonly cause the

enrichment of heavy minerals, further leading to the enrichment of
0.62
0.49

0.46
0.42
0.67
0.73
0.27
0.64
0.50

0.70
0.40
0.70
0.70
0.50
CaO

specific elements such as Zr, Th and Sc (McLennan et al., 1990). Zr is

present mainly in zircon, a highly stable heavy mineral, which can
TOC is the total organic carbon content; LOI is the loss on ignition; CIA is the Chemical Index of Alteration.

be concentrated by sedimentary recycling. Th commonly occurs in

MgO

0.82

0.91
0.88
0.92

0.87
0.81
1.32
1.09

1.05

1.40

1.20
1.00
1.00

1.00

acid rocks, whereas Sc occurs in mafic rocks. The Th/Sc ratio does
not change during sedimentary recycling, and thus may be used to
6.48
2.39

4.59
6.99
7.94

7.59
5.01
5.01

3.05

3.80
2.50
1.80
3.40
2.60
FeO

detect original differences in the chemical composition of source

materials (McLennan et al., 1993). The Zr/Sc ratio tends to increase
Fe2 O3

due to zircon enrichment during sedimentary recycling, and is not

9.19
5.45

6.78
6.83
6.22
9.31

3.45
9.41
2.50

4.90
3.40
2.50
4.90
3.70
Relative content (%)

influenced by late hydrothermal dilution (Lambeck et al., 2008).

Therefore, the Zr/Sc and Th/Sc ratios (Fig. 6) are important indica-
Al2 O3

15.79
16.22

13.68
16.12
16.12

17.09
19.01
21.09

21.80
16.80
13.60
16.50
17.60
16.00

tors of changes in sediment composition, sorting level, and heavy

mineral enrichment (McLennan et al., 1993). In the Fushun Basin,
Major element contents of oil shale in the Fushun Basin, northeastern China.

all the sampled sites plot close to the compositional evolution line
57.21
60.73

58.88
64.71
53.30
53.60

63.03

54.06

56.50

48.80
54.60
49.90
51.20
45.70
SiO2

(BFG) and adjacent to the PAAS and upper-continental crust (UCC).

This indicates that the trace element composition of oil shale is con-
trolled by source rock composition without significant sedimentary
recycling. Thus, the oil shale of the Fushun Basin is defined as a
TOC

7.56
7.76

12.56
10.21
9.58
5.68

6.82
2.77

proximal sedimentary deposit. In addition, the sample sites cluster

–

–
–
–
–
–

near the middle of the BFG line, showing that the source rocks are
slightly mafic (Fig. 6).
459.45
515.37

525.33
528.57
530.95
546.38

550.37
547.50

554.70
Depth
(m)

–
–
–
–
–

5.2. Source lithotypes

Location of Jijuntun

In general, trace elements such as Sc, Ni, Cr, and Co tend to be

enriched in mafic rocks, whereas La, Th, Hf, Zr and REE are richer
in acidic rocks (Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000). The present study
Formation

demonstrates that oil shale in the Fushun Basin is enriched in Ni,

Lower
Upper

lower

Cr, and Ni, with relatively low Th/Sc and Zr/Sc ratios and a weak Eu
part

part

part

anomaly. Together the high levels of MgO + Fe2 O3 T and low levels
of La, Th and REE in the oil shale samples are indicative of mafic
XP36-1-1
Sample

XP58-1
XP42-3

XP38-7
XP38-2
XP36-1

XP35-1
XP35-4
XP40-1

source rocks. Their abundances of SiO2 , Al2 O3 , TiO2 and their high
Table 2

XP5
XP4
XP3
XP2
XP1

K2 O/Na2 O ratios could be related to the long-term weathering of

no.

said source rocks.

110 R. Liu et al. / Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116

Table 3
Trace element contents of oil shale in the Fushun Basin, northeastern China.

Sample Location of Jijuntun Depth TOC Concentration (ppm)

no. Formation (m)
B Ba Cd Co Cr Cs Cu Ga Li Mn Mo Nb

XP70-1 Upper 445.58 2.48 96.97 420.13 128.75 18.37 122.78 4.9 47.82 23.64 31.44 687.18 1.35 19.56
XP58-1 part 459.45 7.56 42.29 404.52 125.01 18.59 100.24 4.17 38.11 18.56 39.75 1106.42 0.97 15.85
XP51-3 470.61 12.1 23.91 429.58 104.12 16.09 80.24 3.71 29.29 15.33 25.49 1968.82 1.04 13.86
XP50-1 484.49 9.54 16.33 308.84 90.67 15.33 69.72 3.41 25.12 11.91 18.63 2155.02 1.05 10.49
XP42-3 515.37 7.76 29.3 394.43 156.67 23.19 120.67 4.78 49.24 21.51 34.35 435.51 1.51 19.28

XP41-1 Lower 524.95 13.1 29.42 458.75 169.8 20.52 110.82 4.52 41.98 18.31 25.47 1306.34 1.3 15.21
XP40-1 part 525.33 12.56 26.08 444.2 127.39 18.96 95.28 4.07 38.11 17.03 24.24 921.49 1.12 14.56
XP38-7 528.57 10.21 21.18 457.59 138.04 23.73 129.78 4.19 46.55 21.15 32.82 843.68 1.37 19.55
XP38-2 530.95 9.58 23.2 510.71 143.64 21.98 119.29 4.35 40.66 20.89 29.64 749.9 1.16 18.8
XP36-1 546.38 5.68 21.91 529.63 133.85 20.54 119.84 4.54 38.47 21.2 29.33 1163.26 1.21 20.03
XP35-1 550.37 6.82 26.92 438.72 165.94 31.74 137.14 5.77 47.56 24.09 31.74 491.18 1.1 20.47
XP35-4 554.7 2.77 25.08 1150.84 147.23 32.56 136.12 4.59 48.5 26.81 38.98 1398.46 1.03 22.69
XP33-4 557.46 7.94 13.05 494.04 100.77 21.57 113.68 3.48 31.13 16.38 22.07 3248.7 0.84 16.55
XP30-1 567.53 9.15 17.54 368.37 113.84 20.71 90.86 3.31 27.23 15.96 23.46 2418.64 0.77 12.24
XP21-1 585.94 15.75 22.75 293.88 128.05 34.11 84.24 2.8 23.16 13.13 19.6 3602.48 0.97 8.47

DLT-034 Upper 1.2 15.21 38.06 1015.8 215.2 34.22 49.4 5.46 46.4 26.77 7.27 277 1.09 20.74
DLT-033 part 2.2 12.34 22.33 1286.6 175.2 25.05 112.1 4.29 38.28 21.49 29.29 1410 0.93 17.59
DLT-032 3.2 10.56 22.6 1207.4 172.7 29.55 104.6 4.79 41.35 24.12 25.97 1872 1.09 19.25
DLT-031 4.2 13.11 20.07 1449.4 231.9 31.14 49.1 4.43 39.89 23.42 26.32 467.5 1.02 18.21
DLT-030 5.2 6.21 25.83 561.2 177.1 30.98 124.1 5.22 46.44 23.94 27.72 1583 1.27 21.36
DLT-029 6.2 14.48 42.88 614.5 198.2 27.22 130.2 5.5 46.02 25.32 30.37 832.3 1.21 23.04
DLT-028 7.2 16.24 26.1 1296.5 166.5 21.77 112.7 4.36 34.83 21.83 26.21 924.1 0.96 19.37
DLT-020 8.2 14.56 28.72 618.4 86.4 44.16 105.6 4.54 47.53 22.93 21.19 1143.1 1.32 18.1
DLT-017-1 9.2 11.33 42.85 253.5 226.9 62.26 106.6 3.27 58.7 19.9 27.19 21.4 1.62 18.96
DLT-016 10.2 10.92 28.72 704.4 115.7 22.39 136.2 4.7 62.64 21.46 23.06 1101 1.27 17.57

XLT-10 Lower 41.5 7.32 5.44 200.2 277.9 13.86 80.8 1.59 16.3 9 11.7 3370 0.47 7.13
XLT-9 part 42.5 6.55 27.91 426.1 128.1 40.22 94.9 5.33 47.15 25.92 24.72 652 1.13 21.29
XLT-8 43.5 9.12 27.37 812.8 115.3 30.59 128.8 6.08 61.85 31.19 31.63 222 1.39 27.15
XLT-7 44.5 7.67 28.3 917 123.9 29.54 80.7 6 54 31.14 33.85 873 1.18 26.62
XLT-6 45.5 5.68 23.25 448 91.9 68.13 99.4 5.99 59.39 29.8 30.54 41.7 1.58 24.94
XLT-5 46.5 10.71 25.83 522.9 163.6 95.57 87.2 6.17 54.4 25.09 25.99 32.7 2.58 19.18

XP7 Lower – – 26.1 – – 19 95.3 4.1 38.1 17 24.2 – 1.1 14.6

XP6 part – – 21.2 – – 23.7 129.8 4.2 46.5 21.2 32.8 – 1.4 19.6
XP5 – – 23.2 – – 22 119.3 4.3 40.7 20.9 29.6 – 1.2 18.8
XP4 – – 25.1 – – 32.6 136.1 4.6 48.5 26.8 39.0 – 1.0 22.7
XP3 – – 26.9 – – 31.7 137.1 5.8 47.6 24.1 31.7 – 1.1 20.5
XP2 – – 13 – – 21.6 113.7 3.5 31.1 16.4 22.1 – 0.8 16.6
XP1 – – 17.5 – – 20.7 90.9 3.3 27.2 16 23.5 – 0.8 12.2

Sample Location of Jijuntun Concentration (ppm)

no. Formation
Ni P Pb Rb Sc Sr Ta Th Ti U V Zn Zr Hf

XP70-1 Upper 71.95 926.6 16.24 72.58 15.81 390.62 1.51 8.63 6461 2.18 131 85.23 157.5 3.76
XP58-1 part 56.92 715 14.27 51.57 15.23 141.96 1.13 8.29 4843.69 1.84 113.3 76.64 145.7 3.29
XP51-3 48.07 4524 14.61 41.28 15.46 140.32 0.99 6.74 3927.73 1.48 105.05 68.94 131 2.41
XP50-1 41.55 2199 8.48 42.68 13.91 102.96 0.76 6.23 2957.23 1.27 94.89 50.22 89.3 1.95
XP42-3 75.82 914 16.49 66.98 19.62 98.79 1.32 8.36 6548.86 2.07 132.21 89.65 153.1 3.21

XP41-1 Lower 61.62 1287 14.96 57.73 15.51 131.73 1.05 8.33 4850.14 1.77 130.47 85.13 144.4 2.89
XP40-1 part 52.16 1114 12.59 56.38 10.48 122.94 1 7.6 4637.44 1.68 109.51 69.59 112 2.56
XP38-7 70.25 1127 15.44 55.71 13.38 112.52 1.31 8.34 6536.85 1.95 129.59 90.13 167.1 3.49
XP38-2 60.78 1268 17.02 62.88 11.65 129.99 1.27 8.62 6037.8 1.89 118.53 90.5 176.3 3.95
XP36-1 57.71 1454 17.81 62.66 14.6 125.16 1.41 9.2 6718.0 2.03 130 86.24 185.2 3.98
XP35-1 75.86 956.5 15.55 80.15 15.08 121.78 1.39 9.99 6920.92 2.15 119.8 106.22 201.7 4.72
XP35-4 72.08 3340 15.95 57.66 16.29 296.12 1.54 10.66 7111.17 2.15 139.49 99.04 204.9 4.81
XP33-4 48.58 6903 15.94 43.33 14.95 87.3 1.13 7.66 4995.99 1.56 174.6 65.91 124.2 2.57
XP30-1 42.77 1447 15.24 33.35 13.41 77.46 0.86 6.32 3724.36 1.49 125.81 69.12 114.6 2.73
XP21-1 49.69 1273 8.22 35.45 9.81 44.92 0.67 6.23 2895 1.3 80.51 94.22 67.1 1.37

DLT-034 Upper 70.2 2418.4 21.85 66.72 16.85 109.8 1.37 10.93 5950 1.99 153.5 125.08 – –
DLT-033 part 51.14 5383.1 20.56 53.33 15.45 217.7 1.14 9.01 5151 1.69 120.5 102.45 – –
DLT-032 59.74 3316.6 18.76 57.23 15.87 244.4 1.23 9.98 5614 1.76 134.7 108.43 – –
DLT-031 58.06 3405.1 19.28 54 15.94 235.4 1.17 9.28 5288 1.71 43.5 127.7 – –
DLT-030 67.59 2117.1 18.89 62.17 17.49 134.3 1.34 10.13 5872 1.94 138.5 99.3 – –
DLT-029 63.19 1754.9 20.07 68.28 16.09 158.3 1.47 11.25 6812 2.28 129.2 111.52 – –
DLT-028 47.09 2779.5 20.78 51 14.91 175.5 1.24 10.03 5547 1.81 116 87.54 – –
DLT-020 72.05 1366.2 16.29 56.3 14.77 142.9 1.16 11.32 5740 1.84 105.8 92.24 – –
DLT-017-1 94.78 553.7 8.13 42.65 12.85 56.5 1.55 8.87 8348 1.9 65.4 38.83 – –
DLT-016 40.07 1363.9 19.38 54.47 17.15 182.4 1.11 10.71 5416 2.06 138.7 83.6 – –
 R. Liu et al. / Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116 111

Table 3 (Continued)

Sample Location of Jijuntun Depth TOC Concentration (ppm)

no. Formation (m)
B Ba Cd Co Cr Cs Cu Ga Li Mn Mo Nb

XLT-10 Lower 26.73 1787.1 8.21 20.65 8.47 27.9 0.45 3.91 1957 0.74 142.2 183.05 – –
XLT-9 part 71.83 1020.3 20.74 67.32 17.99 107.2 1.39 11.1 6305 2.06 117.2 78.56 – –
XLT-8 57.89 1445.5 20.78 74.98 21.54 175.7 1.76 13.42 7711 2.56 118.1 124.48 – –
XLT-7 57.77 1672.1 20.52 70.96 21.29 154.7 1.7 12.89 7533 2.49 85 113.89 – –
XLT-6 109.36 1259.2 21.07 75.71 21.65 113.6 1.88 12.82 7500 2.32 114.4 82.73 – –
XLT-5 122.9 962.8 17.28 77.58 20.22 121.8 1.45 12.73 6597 2.35 81.6 104.5 – –

XP7 Lower 52.2 – – 56.4 10.5 122.9 – 7.6 – 1.7 109.5 69.6 112 2.6
XP6 part 70.2 – – 55.7 13.4 112.5 – 8.3 – 1.9 129.6 90.1 167.1 3.5
XP5 60.8 – – 62.9 11.7 130 – 8.6 – 1.9 118.5 90.5 176.3 3.9
XP4 72.1 – – 57.7 16.3 296.1 – 10.7 – 2.2 139.5 99.0 204.9 4.8
XP3 75.9 – – 80.1 15.1 121.8 – 10.0 – 2.2 119.8 106.2 201.7 4.7
XP2 48.6 – – 43.3 14.9 87.3 – 7.7 – 1.6 174.6 65.9 124.2 2.6
XP1 42.8 – – 33.3 13.4 77.5 – 6.3 – 1.5 125.8 69.1 114.6 2.7

Rare earth and other high field strength elements, as well as
several transition metals (e.g., Co), are generally considered to be
the least reactive elements during weathering, transport and sed-
imentation. Therefore, these elements can be used to effectively
determine the provenance of siliciclastic sediments (Long et al.,
2008; Xu et al., 2007). Hence, for example, Floyd and Leveridge
(1987) employed a La/Th versus Hf cross-plot to discriminate the
sediment provenance in different tectonic environments. When
plotted on such a diagram (Fig. 7A) data from the Jijuntun Forma-
tion in the Fushun Basin indicate that its source rocks are mainly of
mixed felsic and mafic affinity, with only three 223 samples having
an andesite island-arc provenance.
Likewise, the Th/Sc and La/Sc ratios can be used to deter-
mine sediment provenance (Taylor and McLennan, 1985), while
Wronkiewicz and Condie (1987) considered that, in the absence of
sedimentary cycling, these ratios can be employed to distinguish
mafic/ultramafic and felsic inputs (Fig. 7B). Accordingly, these
two parameters indicate that the major sources of mudstone in
the Fushun Basin were andesite and basalt, whereas the La/Yb
versus REE diagram of Allegre and Minster (1978) similarly

Table 4
REE contents of oil shale in the Fushun Basin, northeastern China.

Sample Location of Jijuntun Depth Concentration (ppm)

no. Formation (m)
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Y

XP58-1 Upper 459.45 38.78 69.56 8.04 28.64 5.25 1.32 4.24 0.67 3.54 0.67 1.82 0.34 1.84 0.3 18.4
XP51-3 part 470.61 40.92 69.72 8.42 30.9 5.74 1.56 5.15 0.77 4.01 0.74 1.96 0.34 1.74 0.29 24.08
XP50-1 484.49 27.89 50.66 6.19 21.93 3.95 0.97 3.25 0.48 2.56 0.48 1.30 0.23 1.25 0.21 13.85

XP42-3 Lower 515.37 39.37 74.03 8.45 30.64 5.78 1.51 4.66 0.73 3.77 0.68 1.83 0.34 1.76 0.29 19.11
XP41-1 part 524.85 35.2 63.99 7.49 26.99 5.02 1.26 4.14 0.63 3.32 0.63 1.72 0.32 1.75 0.29 17.87
XP40-1 525.33 34 61.26 6.99 24.05 4.19 1.02 3.35 0.5 2.59 0.47 1.31 0.24 1.30 0.21 13.57
XP38-7 528.57 42.98 78.59 8.86 30.82 5.64 1.44 4.43 0.71 3.58 0.66 1.76 0.32 1.78 0.29 17.81
XP38-2 530.95 49.95 92.24 10.37 36.75 6.37 1.6 4.92 0.75 3.75 0.69 1.85 0.34 1.83 0.3 18.96
XP36-1 546.38 44 83.6 9.46 35.7 6.26 1.51 5.12 0.77 4 0.77 2.1 0.34 2.04 0.33 22.34
XP36-1-1 547.50 45.27 79.99 9.78 34.18 6.11 1.51 4.86 0.72 3.78 0.72 1.86 0.32 1.96 0.32 20.07
XP21-1 585.94 20.9 46.50 4.79 18.3 3.32 0.83 2.91 0.48 2.53 0.47 1.33 0.2 1.31 0.2 14.18

DLT-034 Upper 1.2 45.17 87.27 10.21 37.84 6.5 1.56 4.92 0.7 3.81 0.71 1.95 0.3 2.18 0.31 19.16
DLT-033 part 2.2 43.22 90.02 10.7 39.41 6.78 1.74 5.67 0.84 4.66 0.89 2.56 0.39 2.45 0.39 26.45
DLT-032 3.2 50.61 102.21 11.83 43.37 7.46 1.82 5.74 0.84 4.63 0.86 2.44 0.37 2.35 0.39 24.65
DLT-031 4.2 44.33 98.56 11.9 44.04 7.66 1.93 6.35 0.94 5.01 0.92 2.61 0.4 2.61 0.41 26.65
DLT-030 5.2 58.08 112.86 13.63 50.33 8.62 2.19 6.9 1 5.53 1.02 2.88 0.46 2.97 0.48 29.03
DLT-029 6.2 60.76 116.27 13.68 50.06 8.41 2.01 6.4 0.92 4.8 0.88 2.43 0.37 2.37 0.37 24.53
DLT-028 7.2 49.83 103.94 12.19 45.54 9.53 2.62 8.4 1.07 5.44 0.97 2.65 0.41 2.58 0.43 28.09
DLT-020 8.2 55.02 107.95 12.61 46.23 8 1.93 6.11 0.85 4.58 0.82 2.40 0.36 2.33 0.39 22.99
DLT-017-1 9.2 38.87 76.33 8.61 32.05 6.29 1.6 4.79 0.7 3.62 0.64 1.69 0.26 1.62 0.24 16.77
DLT-016 10.2 54.08 118.36 13.63 50.82 9.06 2.18 7.39 1.07 5.8 1.11 3.08 0.48 3 0.49 30.35

XLT-9 Lower 42.5 57.35 110.66 12.73 46.31 7.9 1.92 6.12 0.89 4.57 0.85 2.39 0.37 2.46 0.4 22.67
XLT-8 part 43.5 70.79 126.39 15.86 58.17 10 2.35 7.49 1.06 5.43 0.98 2.69 0.43 2.76 0.47 26.05
XLT-7 44.5 80.33 163.02 20.22 75.5 13.18 3.12 9.69 1.32 6.69 1.16 3.12 0.47 3.13 0.5 30.94
XLT-6 45.5 59.57 110.66 12.61 45.53 7.91 1.92 6.36 1.02 5.6 1 2.81 0.43 2.72 0.44 27.67
XLT-5 46.5 57.76 111.32 12.93 45.3 8 1.98 6.43 0.95 4.87 0.86 2.43 0.38 2.41 0.38 22.35

XP7 Lower – 34 61.3 7 24.1 4.2 1.0 3.4 0.5 2.6 0.5 1.3 0.2 1.3 0.2 13.6
XP6 part – 43 78.6 8.9 30.8 5.6 1.4 4.4 0.7 3.6 0.7 1.8 0.3 1.8 0.3 17.8
XP5 – 50 92.2 10.4 36.8 6.4 1.6 4.9 0.7 3.7 0.7 1.8 0.3 1.8 0.3 19.0
XP4 – 59 119.1 13.2 50.3 10.0 2.5 7.6 1.1 5.5 1.0 2.4 0.4 2.3 0.4 26.5
XP3 – 49 90.6 10 35.4 6.2 1.5 4.6 0.7 3.4 0.6 1.5 0.3 1.6 0.3 15.5
XP2 – 34 62.4 7.5 27.2 5.3 1.4 4.8 0.8 4.2 0.8 2.3 0.4 2.0 0.3 24.2
XP1 – 41 76.6 8.7 31.5 5.6 1.5 4.6 0.7 3.8 0.7 2.1 0.4 2.1 0.4 20.8
112 R. Liu et al. / Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116

Table 5
REE parameters of oil shale in the Fushun Basin, northeastern China.

Sample Location of Jijuntun Depth ıCe ıEu (La/Yb)N La/Yb Concentration (ppm)
no. Formation (m)
LREE HREE LREE/HREE REE

XP58-1 Upper 459.45 0.95 0.85 12.92 21.08 155.82 27.57 5.65 183.39
XP51-3 part 470.61 0.90 0.88 14.42 23.52 162.42 33.94 4.79 196.36
XP50-1 484.49 0.93 0.82 13.68 22.31 114.84 20.35 5.64 135.19

XP42-3 Lower 515.37 0.98 0.89 13.71 22.37 164.45 28.50 5.77 192.95
XP41-1 part 524.85 0.95 0.85 12.33 20.11 144.09 26.53 5.43 170.63
XP40-1 525.33 0.96 0.83 16.03 26.15 134.86 20.18 6.68 155.04
XP38-7 528.57 0.97 0.88 14.80 24.15 172.76 26.91 6.42 199.67
XP38-2 530.95 0.98 0.88 16.73 27.30 202.21 28.46 7.10 230.67
XP36-1 546.38 0.99 0.82 13.22 21.57 185.65 32.69 5.68 218.34
XP36-1-1 547.50 0.91 0.85 14.15 23.10 181.70 29.74 6.11 211.44
XP21-1 585.94 1.12 0.82 9.81 15.95 97.55 20.70 4.71 118.25

DLT-034 Upper 1.2 0.98 0.84 12.69 20.72 193.47 29.12 6.64 222.58
DLT-033 part 2.2 1.01 0.86 10.83 17.64 197.54 38.62 5.11 236.16
DLT-032 3.2 1.01 0.85 13.18 21.54 223.04 36.54 6.10 259.57
DLT-031 4.2 1.03 0.85 10.41 16.98 214.77 39.55 5.43 254.32
DLT-030 5.2 0.97 0.87 12.01 19.56 252.61 43.37 5.82 295.98
DLT-029 6.2 0.97 0.84 15.69 25.64 257.59 36.68 7.02 294.27
DLT-028 7.2 1.02 0.90 11.85 19.31 232.05 41.64 5.57 273.69
DLT-020 8.2 0.99 0.84 14.50 23.61 237.85 34.72 6.85 272.57
DLT-017-1 9.2 1.00 0.89 14.74 23.99 168.54 25.53 6.60 194.07
DLT-016 10.2 1.05 0.81 11.06 18.03 255.51 45.37 5.63 300.89

XLT-9 Lower 42.5 0.99 0.85 14.29 23.31 243.00 34.60 7.02 277.60
XLT-8 part 43.5 0.91 0.83 15.71 25.65 291.05 39.87 7.30 330.92
XLT-7 44.5 0.97 0.84 15.73 25.66 365.06 47.34 7.71 412.40
XLT-6 45.5 0.97 0.83 13.41 21.90 244.55 41.70 5.86 286.25
XLT-5 46.5 0.98 0.85 14.66 23.97 243.72 34.63 7.04 278.35

XP7 Lower – 0.96 0.81 16.03 26.15 135.0 20.2 6.68 155.2
XP6 part – 0.97 0.86 14.64 23.89 172.7 27.0 6.40 199.7
XP5 – 0.97 0.87 16.99 27.72 202.2 28.3 7.14 230.5
XP4 – 1.03 0.88 15.75 25.70 261.8 39.6 6.61 301.4
XP3 – 0.99 0.86 18.69 30.50 197.1 23.9 8.25 221.0
XP2 – 0.94 0.85 10.39 16.95 142.5 35.0 4.07 177.5
XP1 – 0.98 0.90 11.97 19.52 169.5 31.0 5.47 200.5

N Represents the chondrite-normalized values, (La/Yb)N is the ration of LaN and YbN . ıEu and ıCe are the abnormal chondrite-normalized values: ıEu = EuN /(SmN × GdN )
1/2
,
EuN , SmN and GdN are chondrite-normalized values; ıCe = CeN /(LaN × PrN )1/2 , CeN , LaN and PrN are chondrite-normalized values.

demonstrates that the principal source lithotype was alkali basalt
(Fig. 7C). Together these findings indicate that the source rocks of
oil shale in the Fushun Basin were mainly basalt and andesite.
5.3. Tectonic setting of provenance
The distinctive elemental compositions of siliciclastic rocks
in various tectonic environments have been successfully used to
identify the tectonic setting of their respective sedimentary basins
(Bhatia, 1983; Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Akarish and El-Gohary,
2008).
Based on the nature of the Earth’s crust, Bhatia (1983, 1985)
divided continental margins and ocean basins into four structural
types (viz., oceanic island arc, continental island arc, active con-
tinental margin and passive continental margin), and proposed
the use of (Fe2 O3 T + MgO) versus TiO2 and (Fe2 O3 T + MgO) versus

Fig. 4. REE distributions in oil shale from the Fushun Basin, northeastern China: A) Chondrite- normalized (after Taylor and McLennan, 1985); and B) PAAS-normalized (after
McLennan, 1989).
 R. Liu et al. / Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116 113

Fig. 5. Relative abundances of selected major and trace elements in oil shale of the Fushun Basin, northeastern China, showing the weathering status of its source rocks: A)
Al2 O3 –(Na2 O + CaO∗ )–K2 O ternary diagram (after Condie et al., 1992); and B) Th/U versus Th plot (after McLennan et al., 1993).

Al2 O3 /SiO2 cross-plots for sandstones and greywackes to discrim-

Fig. 6. Zr/Sc versus Th/Sc plot (after McLennan et al., 1993) of oil shale in the Fushun
Basin, northeastern China, showing the source affinity of its component minerals and
their lack of sedimentary recycling.
inate between their different tectonic settings. In these diagrams
(Fig. 8A and B), (Fe2 O3 T + MgO) represents the basic component of
the clastic input to the Fushun Basin. Allowing for the fact that oil
shale has a lower SiO2 content than sandstone, the provenance of
the Jijuntun Formation is shown to be a combination of oceanic
and continental island arc. Fine-grained clastic rocks (oil shale,
mudstone and siltstone) and any associated sandstone will usually
have the same provenance, and thus possess similar geochemical
signatures (Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1987).
As the mudstone of the Jijuntun Formation is a proximal sedi-
mentary deposit, the log (K2 O + Na2 O) versus SiO2 diagram of Roser
and Korsch (1986) also can be used to discriminate its tectonic set-
ting (Fig. 8C). Most of the oil shale samples of the Fushun Basin
cluster in the island arc area with the remainder having an active
continental margin signature, which is consistent with the tectonic
setting determined from Fig. 8A and B.
Some trace elements (e.g., Co, Sc, Th, Zr) and REE (e.g., La) are
unreactive in their igneous source rocks and undergo only slight
fractionation during the transportation and deposition of clas-
tic sediments. They can therefore effectively reflect the tectonic
environment of a sedimentary basin (Taylor and McLennan, 1985;
Bhatia, 1985; McLennan, 2001). In ternary diagrams illustrating the
relative abundances of the aforementioned elements (Fig. 9), the


Fig. 7. Relative abundances of selected trace and rare earth elements in oil shale of the Fushun Basin, northeastern China, showing the likely source affinity of its detrital
mineral components: A) La/Th versus Hf plot (after Floyd and Leveridge, 1987); B) Co/Th versus La/Sc plot (after Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1987); and C) La/Yb versus REE
plot (after Allegre and Minster, 1978).
114 R. Liu et al. / Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116

Fig. 8. Major element tectonic discrimination plots for oil shale in the Fushun Basin, northeastern China: A) TiO2 versus (MgO + Fe2 O3 T) (after Bhatia, 1983); B) Al2 O3 /SiO2 -
versus (MgO + Fe2 O3 T) (after Bhatia, 1983); and C) log (K2 O + Na2 O) versus SiO2 (after Roser and Korsch, 1986). Key: a. Oceanic island arc; b. Continental island arc; c. Active
continental margin; and d. Passive continental margin.

Fig. 9. Trace element tectonic discrimination plots (after Bhatia, 1985) for oil shale in the Fushun Basin, northeastern China: A) Th-Co-Zr/10 ternary diagram; B) Th-Sc-Zr/10
ternary diagram; and C) La-Th-Sc ternary diagram. Key as for Fig. 8.

majority of the Fushun Basin oil shale samples plot within or adja-
cent to the continental island arc domain, although most have Co
signatures more typical of an oceanic island arc origin.
According to the discrimination diagrams, the tectonic setting
of oil shale of the Jijuntun Formation in Fushun Basin, i.e., conti-
nental island arc appears to differ from the main tectonic setting
of the Dunmi fault, i.e., continental rift. This is because the overall
sedimentary composition is controlled by rocks in the provenance
area. The main source material from which the mudstone in the
Fushun Basin was formed was basalt of the Laohutai Formation,
plus a minor contribution from Jurassic neutral rocks. A geochem-
ical study by Wang (1986) showed that the basalt of Laohutai
Formation was formed in an oceanic island arc-continental island
arc transition tectonic setting in the Fushun Basin.
5.4. Influence of source rocks on lake productivity
Rock-Eval, kerogen elemental, maceral and biological marker
data has shown the Fushun oil shale to be high in TOC and immature
(Liu, 2007; Liu et al., 2009a,b), and formed in a freshwater anoxic
semideep-deep lake environment (Hu et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2007,
2008, 2009a,b). The organic matter type is type I and II, and primary
production is the main mechanism for enriching organic matter at
the depositional site (Liu, 2007; Liu et al., 2009a,b).
Among the major elements dissolved in freshwater lakes, Fe and
P are key limiting nutrients capable of influencing the lake’s phy-
toplankton productivity. Of these, P is a macronutrient (required
in relatively large amounts), whereas Fe is a micronutrient (Hecky
and Kilham, 1988). The trace elements, Ni, Cu and Zn (in a constant
valence state), likewise can be used as micronutrients. Previous
research by Wang (1986) indicates that the basalt of the Laohutai
Formation, the principal source rock for oil shale in the Fushun
Basin, contains abundant Fe- and P-oxides, of which Fe2 O3 and
FeO account for 11–14% and P2 O5 accounts for 0.2–0.9%. Associated
trace elements such as Zn, Cu, and Ni are also abundant.
Therefore, the basalt of the Laohutai Formation was a rich source
of nutrients for the water body of the Fushun Lake Basin. During
deposition of the Jijuntun oil shale, the tectonic setting was sta-
ble with weak physical weathering, little local sediment transport
into the basin by streams, and a slow rate of sediment accumu-
lation. This gave rise to undercompensation, a situation where
the rate of sedimentation is less than the rate of basin subsi-
dence. Such a regime facilitated the enrichment and storage of
organic matter in fine-grained sediments on the lake floor beneath
a progressively deepening water body. Meanwhile, due to strong
chemical weathering in the sedimentary provenance, rivers car-
ried nutrient elements from the source rocks to the lake. This
led to relatively high nutrient levels in the water body, which in
turn boosted phytoplankton growth and maintained the lake in
a eutrophic state, resulting in the production of large amounts of
organic matter. As it settled through the water column, this algal
biomass was subject to attack by aerobic bacteria which eventu-
ally over-consumed dissolved oxygen in the water body, creating
sub-oxic to anoxic conditions at the bottom of the lake. These
 R. Liu et al. / Chemie der Erde 75 (2015) 105–116
conditions slowed the rate of bacterial decay in the hypolimnion,
allowing the accumulation of the thick and extensive organic-rich
muds that upon burial became the oil shale of the Jijuntun Forma-
tion.
6. Conclusions
Samples of lacustrine oil shale (n = 38) collected from vari-
ous stratigraphic levels in two open-pit sections of the Eocene
Jijuntun Formation 318 within the Fushun Basin have nearly
identical PAAS-normalized trace element distributions. Combined
with the characteristics of their corresponding REE distribution
curves, this indicates that the sources of their constituent min-
erals remained unchanged throughout the deposition of the host
formation.
The CIA and Th/U ratio of the oil shale show that its source rocks
underwent medium-to-strong chemical weathering. The position
of the samples on a Th/Sc versus Zr/Sc cross-plot confirms that their
trace element signatures are primary (i.e., inherited directly from
their source rocks) and not affected by later sedimentary recycling.
A variety of the oil shale’s trace element and REE parameters,
when plotted on provenance and tectonic setting discrimination
diagrams, identify basalt of the Paleocene Laohutai Formation as
its major source rock, possibly with a small additional input from
Late Jurassic basalts. These source rocks originated in a continental
back arc setting.
Basalt of the Laohutai Formation is enriched in Fe, P, Ni,
Cu, and Zn, which became sources of nutrition for the phyto-
plankton growing in ancient Lake Jijuntun. The resulting high
productivity of the lake, combined with its stable tectonic set-
ting and sedimentary regime of undercompensation, contributed
to the widespread deposition of thick oil shale in the Fushun
Basin.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr. Han Fang (Manager) and Mr. Li
Nianyuan from the Fushun Mining Industry Group for their support
of our fieldwork in the Fushun Basin. Especially grateful thanks are
extended to Prof. David McKirdy (Adelaide), thanks for his stalwart
service correcting our English language prose.
We acknowledge financial support from the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (40972076, 41302097); a National
Potential Oil–Gas Resources (Oil Shale Exploration and Utilization),
Cooperation and Innovation Construction Project for Production
and Research (OSP/OSR-01); a Funding Project of the Min-
istry of Land and Resources for Public Sector-specific Research
(201211051-04); a Seed Funding Project of Jilin University; and a
Funding Project of the Jilin Province Technology & Development
Plan (20090167/20110427).
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