Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

Solar Energy 93 (2013) 72–79

www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Brief Note

Determination of time and sun position system

Richard Kittler ⇑, Stanislav Darula 1
Institute of Construction and Architecture, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia

Received 4 June 2012; received in revised form 11 March 2013; accepted 30 March 2013
Available online 1 May 2013

Communicated by: Associate Editor David Renne

Abstract

Accurate calculations and recording of time either in local clock time or true solar time in regular daytime measurements of sun and
sky radiation and light, in computer programs evaluating solar irradiance or sunlight and skylight illuminance currently apply differently
defined solar hour angles as well as angularly determined solar altitude and azimuth coordinates. The historical basis of solar geometry
used to construct sundials for the measurements of true solar time were gradually replaced during Middle Ages by spherical trigonometry
relations of solar altitude and azimuth angles including solar declination, local geographical latitude and time changes in better precision.
However, in different scientific and practical applications like in solar energy or daylight calculations are currently used several systems
and formulae defining sun position and time which need to be unified and standardised in computer programs or measurement evalu-
ations. Potential confusion and inconsistent results should be avoided, possible mistakes have to be checked and corrected after the valid
ISO international standard. This paper discusses various approaches considering time and sun coordinates in different systems.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Sun position; Orientation and time; Solar hour angle; Solar altitude and azimuth

1. Introduction
The need to determine orientation in space or location
and in fluent time was felt a long time ago during the era
of food gatherers and hunters and even stronger in the
beginning of civilisation when the first settlements were
built. The periodic changes of daytime and night-time with
the typical regular sun-paths logically led to simple sundi-
als using the sun shadow of a vertical stick thrown by sun-
beams in equatorial regions. Long ago were also noticed
the two extraordinary days when these were divided into
two exactly same and equal periods with sunrise and sunset
on the horizon opposite to each other (Kittler et al., 2012).
Probably in Egypt 5000 years ago a Solar calendar with
365 days, i.e. 12 times 30 days plus 5, was used with 24 h a
day. Also in old Sumer roughly about 3000 BC the correct
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +421 2 59309267.
E-mail address: usarkit@savba.sk (R. Kittler).
1
ISES member.
spring and autumn equinox dates were identified and these
were expected to appear in any place also far from the
equator and seemed to be a perfect expression of the
“heaven–nature justice” given by gods to men. Dungi as
the first king of Ur established since 2650 BC the sexages-
imal system for measuring time and space after a moon cal-
endar with 12 month, 30 days each and double 12 h in a
day. So, the day was divided to 12 h of daytime and 12 h
of night-time expressing each the 180° sun-path range with
an hourly angular step of 15° (Paturi, 1989). This is an evi-
dent remnant of the sexagesimal calculation system devel-
oped by Sumerians which is still alive nowadays with the
60 min in an hour and 60 s per minute too. The Sumerian
system of 360° circularly returning periods enabled the
division possibility using integer numbers. Uncertain was
the compensation necessary to adjust the calendar to the
true length of a solar year, i.e. to 365.25 days.
Anyhow, the long experience with sundials and sun-path
observations resulted in its perfect geometrical interpreta-
tion probably stored on clay tablets in the Babylonian main

0038-092X/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2013.03.021
 R. Kittler, S. Darula / Solar Energy 93 (2013) 72–79
archives of the Mardok church where the chief priest Ber-
ossos has studied the geometrical principle later called ana-
lemma by Vitruvius (MS. 13 BC printed 1487). The
descriptive orthogonal projection of the sun-path diagrams
were later used in urban planning, for the orientation of
houses, churches or pyramids (Rossi, 2007, Kittler and
Darula, 2008a,b) and these were also taught in architec-
tural schools (Tregenza and Wilson, 2011). However, it
seems that recently the analemma rule (Kittler and Darula,
2006) is almost forgotten due to the use of spherical trigo-
nometry in computer programs (Doerfler, 2007), thus the
descriptive imagination of typical sunpath changes is some-
times not realized.
2. Time determination and measurement system
The oldest traditional sundial inherited from Sumerian
and Mesopotamian knowledge and graphical description
applied the symmetrical N–S projection of the hemisphere
section determined the parallel line to the globe pole and
equator plane related to the horizon and zenith point.
The local sun shade studies enabled to determine also the
solar declination range which was taken as 1/15th part of
 
the hemisphere circle, i.e. d ¼ 360 =15 ¼ 24 , (now more
exactly 23.45°).
Evidently, the noon sun culmination at 12o0 clock true
solar time (TST) in the Northern globe hemisphere has
always the South direction and dividing the whole circle
for 24 h, the time or hour angle is 15° or s = pH/12 in radi-
ans, when H is hour number in TST.
In fact in the equatorial belt the noon sun position is
passing from the South to the North but in the Southern
global hemisphere typical are noon solar azimuth angles
due North.
So, to be precise a North oriented hour angle s has to be
clearly marked and distinguished from the South oriented t
as differently are then determined the solar altitude and azi-
muth angles. As already published (Kittler and Mikler,

1986a, p. 42) the mutual relations are t ¼ 180  s and

cos t = cos s, sin t = sin s, where s ¼ 15 H , while
 
t ¼ 15 ð12  H Þ if H 6 12 and t ¼ 15 ðH  12Þ if H > 12,

or t ¼ 15 jH  12j. All old sundials, water, candle and pen-
dulum time measuring apparatus were respecting the solar
hour angle, i.e. 360°/24 = 15°, but could not care about the
minute and second precision. However, even if the 15° hour
angle is valid the daily period in number of hours a.m.
(ante meridian) or after noon p.m. (post meridian) can be
used as applied in Britain. So, various hour angle systems
are presented in Fig. 1.
Early mechanic clocks gravitationally driven by weight
were installed since the 13th Century in many church or
town hall towers. Also later watches with their hour and
minute hands rotating over the clock dial covered a 360°
clockwise circle twice from hour number H = 0–12 per
day. All these mechanical clocks and watches were based
on the circular turning of cogwheels, therefore needed a
coordinated step between the hour and minute rotation
73
which meant for minutes and seconds 360°/60 = 6° while
for an hour 360°/12 = 30° i.e. twice the hour angle. Thus,
if in a day is the division of the circular clock face covers
only 12 h, the 180° turn is precisely 30 min or half an hour.
However, this technical solution of the clock dial dividing
the day in two 12 h parts on 360° dials brings the clock
hands fictitiously either at noon or midnight to the upper
position both seemingly indicating the North direction.
So in fact inherently is applying a solar angle twice which
means artificially introduced distortions in the coordinated
system of time and space orientation.
It has to be noted that the now accepted Universal Time
Coordination (UTC) and the so called Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT) is also based on the globe rotation and is
counted from 0.00 midnight and valid for the reference
geographical longitude 0° (Greenwich, London). Of course,
the local clock time (LCT) within defined time zones is usu-
ally based on UTC respecting state or national territories
that sometimes do not coincide with the 15° longitude
scale.
3. Determination of solar position angles
Besides the analemma geometrical construction of solar
altitude and azimuth angles published in several editions of
Vitruvius’s books (MS 13 BC, printed 1487), astronomers
were trying to define separately the position of different stars
including the sun using spherical geometry. Probably the
first trials by Johannes de Sacrobosco or John of Holywood
(1230) to determine the position of stars by their angles from
the globe pole and local zenith were applied also to sun posi-
tion expressing its spherical angles. His imagination of
spherical trigonometry (Paturi, 1989) applying spherical
angles for navigation and calendars made him renown in
Medieval years after his book was first printed in 1472 and
65 times reprinted in the next 75 years (Daly, 2008).
However, after the old Ptolemy’s “Mathematical Syn-
taxis” written about 150 AD and rediscovered in the 12th
Century Medieval Europe in an Arabic translation known
as al-Majisti or Almagest corrected by Jabir ibn Aflah in
“Islah al-Majisti” implemented also Arabic knowledge of
spherical trigonometry. Later similarly Regiomontanus
(1436–1476) during his studies at the Rudolfina University
in Vienna tried to translate the original Greek Almagest
and introduced with his teacher Georg von Peurbach
(1461) trigonometric functions instead of the old angular
chord system. In his seminal book on triangles Regiomont-
anus (1464, 1533) probably copied Aflah’s spherical trigo-
nometry and following Peurbach’s suggestions worked
out probably the first tables of sine functions in “Compos-
itio tabularum sinum recto”. These later compiled by
Santbech et al. (1561) with edition of his summary on pla-
nar and spherical trigonometry enabled also the solar alti-
tude and azimuth angles to be determined anew. However,
only after sine, cosine, tangent and cotangent tables were
worked out by Rheticus and after his death published by
74 R. Kittler, S. Darula / Solar Energy 93 (2013) 72–79
Fig. 1. Alternative systems of defining hour angles and solar azimuth angles.
his pupil Oth (1596), the solar trigonometry could be used
to define the momentary sun position in any location.
In mapping the globe, states or countries, in urban and
local cadastral maps these are oriented from the North car-
dinal point identifying places by their geographical latitude
and longitude and with the compass orientation of sites
measured clockwise relaying on the magnetic globe poles.
In fact these geodetic measurements started a very long
time ago, since 1160 BC in China were used magnetite nee-
dle-like pieces inset in straw and flown in water. The mag-
netite always turned to align with the N direction of the
North Star and oppositely to S noon position of the Sun.
Later in 1269 AD Pierre de Maricourt studied magnetite
and explained the existence of two equally strong magnetic
poles and an Italian Sanuto in 1588 discovered the N and S
Earth magnetic poles and assumed that these are placed
close to globe poles. Nowadays geodetic measurements
are using theodolite with the compass adjustment directing
the equipment to the magnetic globe meridian due North.
In fact the main problem was to establish a unified sys-
tem binding the time progress, i.e. changes in the hour
angle, with the solar altitude and azimuth angular changes.
Several orientation systems were used in different scientific
and practical regions of measurements as shown in Fig. 1.
In geodetic measurements, in surveying and geographical
mapping several more sophisticated systems of azimuth
determination are currently based on spherical trigonometry
and solar position observations (Boucher, 1983). Astron-
omy calculations used a similar system of 360° clockwise
angles are also used but taken from the South are preferred
probably due to simple apparent angles in spherical trigo-
nometry representation. However, in nautical navigation
due to ship routes between the Northern and Southern globe
hemispheres a dual orientation system was used in practice.
Although these differences were summarised by Vinaccia
(1939) he proposed for building purposes to use the solar
azimuth taken in morning from South to North anticlock-
wise while in the afternoon the clockwise angles both 0–
180° were taken in plus or minus angular values. Some-
times in solar engineering textbooks as e.g. by Iqbal
(1983) this system has still some tradition in spite of the
fact that neither astronomy nor geodesy and cartography
do not favour it. Some books in building science and archi-
tecture (e.g. Markus and Morris, 1980) also favour the azi-
muth zero from the Southern cardinal point with ±180°
eastward and westward angles respectively probably due
to similar insolation conditions for buildings with symme-
try to the sun noon position. However, currently urban and
building designs are based on geodetic maps of settlements
with the orientation of building sites oriented from the
Northern cardinal point with measured angles 0–360°
clockwise, thus hour and sun position angles are coordi-
nated with the geodetic system. In fact the North oriented
system is now standardised by ISO, 2003 world-wide.
 R. Kittler, S. Darula / Solar Energy 93 (2013) 72–79 75

4. Solar positions expressed by spherical trigonometry – a – the co-declination angle or polar angular distance of

relations the sun, which is a ¼ 90  d, thus cos a ¼ sin d or
sin a = cos d,

The spherical trigonometry assuming a fictitious sphere – b – the co-altitude angle b ¼ 90  cS equal to solar

with a unity radius can be divided by any three great circles zenith distance ZS i.e. b ¼ Z S ¼ 90  cS , thus
forming an arbitrary triangle with three sides and spherical cos b = cos ZS = sin cS or sin b = cos cS = sin ZS,
angles. Their arc distances can be divided by the sphere – c – the co-latitude uZ, i.e. the angular distance of the

radius to yield radians, now preferred angular units in com- pole to the zenith of the hemisphere, c ¼ uZ ¼ 90  u
puter programs. Given three elements of the spherical tri- and cos c = cos uZ = sin u or sin c = cos u where u is
angle it is possible to solve those remaining. the geographical latitude of the locality.
To determine the solar altitude and azimuth the best
choice is the triangle formed by great circles passing the To define the solar zenith distance ZS or the solar alti-
observer’s zenith Z, the celestial pole P and the sun posi- tude cS the cosine basic formula of spherical geometry
tion S in Fig. 2. Thus the three triangle sides are defined can be applied as:
by co-declination, co-altitude and co-latitude angles. These
cos b ¼ cos a cos c þ sin a sin c cos b ð1Þ
are identified and measured from the hemisphere centre,
i.e. i:e: cos Z S ¼ sin cS ¼ sin d sin u  cos d cos u cos s ð2Þ

where s ¼ 15 H
To determine the solar azimuth angle ANS taken from
North clockwise the second cosine formula can be applied
as:
cos a ¼ cos b cos c þ sin b sin c cos a ð3Þ
i:e: sin d ¼ sin cS sin u þ cos cS cos u cos ANS ð4Þ
where from is:
sin d  sin cS sin u
cos ANS ¼
cos cS cos u
sin d
¼  tan u tan cS ð5Þ
cos cS cos u
The first relation corresponds with that in Tregenza and
Wilson (2011).
If in Eq. (5) is inserted the sin cS from formula (2), then:
1
cosANS ¼ ½sin d  sin uðsin u sin d  cosu cosd cossÞ
coscS cosu
cos d
¼ ðcosu tan d þ sin u cossÞ
coscS
ð6Þ
The last Eq. (6) was recommended by Kittler and Mikler
(1986a,b) as a best azimuth cosine function for the North
oriented system which was derived by applying the cotan-
gent and sine functions leading directly to Eq. (7) for morn-
ing hours, i.e. for H 6 12 is:
cos ANS ¼ cot ANS sin ANS
1 cos d sin s
¼ ðcos u tan d þ sin u cos sÞ
sin s cos cS
cos d
¼ ðcos u tan d þ sin u cos sÞ
cos cS
1   
¼ cos u sin d þ sin u cos d cosð15 HÞ ð7Þ
Fig. 2. The orthogonal sketch of the fictitious sky hemisphere with a unity cos cS
radius in the N–S section and plan showing the sun position in angular
distances from the zenith and the direction of the globe pole thus forming Then afternoon azimuth for H > 12 can be calculated
the spherical triangles. after:
76 R. Kittler, S. Darula / Solar Energy 93 (2013) 72–79


cos ANS ¼ 360 either in the astronomical or in Vinacciás systems that yield
1    the same formula, i.e:
 cos u sin d þ sin u cos d cos ð15 HÞ ð8Þ
cos cS sin cS ¼ sin d sin u þ cos d cos u cos t ð16Þ
Because computer calculations are generally performed The same positive equation is recommended for solar
in radians above formulae are slightly adapted, i.e. for engineering purposes by ASHREA (2009), probably fol-
the solar altitude Eq. (2) is taken in the form: lowing Iqbal (1983), thus it is evident that the South ori-
  ented system for solar position definition is proposed. In
pH
cos Z S ¼ sin cS ¼ sin d sin u  cos d cos u cos ð9Þ contrary, the North oriented geodetic system is used in
12 cadastral maps, in urban planning and architecture, in illu-
The solar azimuth in radians after Eq. (7) for H 6 12 minating engineering calculations (IESNA, 2000) as well as
and after Eq. (8) if H > 12 can be written as follows: in daylight science (Kittler et al., 2012), i.e. the coordinated
   issue in defining hour angles and solar position angles to
N 1 pH the same basic Northern cardinal point. Thus the hour
cos AS ¼ cos u sin d þ sin u cos d cos ð10Þ 
cos cS 12 angle s ¼ 15 H in degrees or s ¼ pH =12 in radians and
cos ANS ¼ 2p then cos t = cos s, thus after Eq. (2) is:
   
1 pH sin cS ¼ sin d sin u  cos d cos u cosð15 H Þ ð17Þ
 cos u sin d þ sin u cos d cos
cos cS 12 In some publications the basic orientation record of
ð11Þ solar altitude and azimuth is not provided and the hour
angle relationship to true solar time is uncertain. However,
Note that if the computer calculations are processed
although the solar altitude difference is only in the positive
only in radians then all angles in Eqs. (9)–(11) have to be
or negative relationship of the formulae two members, even
reduced to their radiant values similarly as the hour angle.
more complex occur in various azimuth formulae.

15 pH pH The older Vinaccia (1939) formula is based on the sine
s¼  ¼ ¼ 0:2617992H ð12Þ
180 12 function and the two-sided South orientation:
i.e. any angle for x, d and u has to be taken in radians as: cos d sin t
sin ASS ¼ ð18Þ
 cos cS
px 
x¼  ¼ 0:017453x ð13Þ
180 which is mentioned by Iqbal (1983) with a note that “this

equation gives improper values when ASS P 90 and should
Therefore in some formulae e.g. (ASHREA, 2009) the
be avoided”. Therefore he recommended to apply a cosine
angles d and u are denoted differently as d and l. Here
function similar to that in Eq. (5), but with the two-sided
the actual geographical latitude of the location u is taken
South orientation:
from maps with a positive value in the Northern globe
hemisphere or with a negative value for locations in the sin cS sin u  sin d
cos ASS ¼ ð19Þ
Southern hemisphere. The solar declination d can be taken cos cS cos u
from astronomical almanacs or after Meeus (1998) or Reda
However, the ASHREA Handbook (2009) is using both
and Andreas (2004) in a precise value with respect to the
the sine Eq. (16) as well as a cosine function with the two-
actual year/calendar changes. In the engineering calcula-
sided South orientation as is:
tions approximate simpler formulae can be used after dif-
ferent formulae summarised by Kittler and Mikler 1
cos ASS ¼ ðcos t cos d sin u  sin d cos uÞ ð20Þ
(1986b), including e.g. the one by Smith and Wilson cos cS
(1976) in degree.
   Eq. (20) in the North oriented system, when
 360 ðJ  81Þ cos t = cos s leads to:
d ¼ 23:45 sin ð14Þ
365 1
cos ANS ¼ ð cos s cos d sin u  sin d cos uÞ ð21Þ
or by Pierpoint (1982) in radians: cos cS
 
2p ðJ  81Þ while Vinaccia’s Eq. (18) for morning hours in the North
d ¼ 0:4093 sin ð15Þ oriented system is
 
t ¼ 180  15 H and
365 
sin t ¼ sin s ¼ sinð15 H Þ, then:
where J is the day number within a year.
cos d sin s
sin ANS ¼ ð22Þ
5. Comparison of several published azimuth formulae cos cS
The tangent form can be derived applying Eqs. (22) and
The advantage when taking the hour angle from the (21) as:
Southern cardinal point is in its sine positive function
 R. Kittler, S. Darula / Solar Energy 93 (2013) 72–79 77

sin ANS the Northern globe hemisphere (with N on the upper side)
tan ANS ¼ as well as for the Southern hemisphere localities by turning
cos ANS
 the diagrams 180° around. So in fact both the third and
½cos d sinð15 HÞ= cos cS fourth azimuth systems on Fig. 1 were applied. A similar pos-
¼ 
½cos d sin u cosð15 HÞ þ sin d cos u= cos cS sibility of using Eq. (22) is recommended by Martin and
ð23Þ Goswami (2005, p. 2), when defining the solar azimuth angle:
 
which coincides with the IESNA (2000) formula given in S cos d sin t
AS ¼ arcsin ð26Þ
radians, i.e.: cos cS
½cos d sinðpH Þ
tan ANS ¼ 12
ð24Þ where the hour angle t is defined as 15° times hours from
½cos u sin d þ sin u cos d cosðpH
12
Þ
local solar noon, while the solar azimuth angle is deter-
A similar but simpler formula was also derived by Bou- mined as “the angle between the projection of the earth–
cher (1983) in degrees as: sun line on the horizontal plane and the due South direc-
tion (Northern hemisphere) or due North (Southern
sin s
tan ANS ¼ ð25Þ hemisphere)”.
cos u tan d  sin u cos s
In Australia is frequent only the fourth azimuth system
However, it seems that there is a disadvantage in using in Fig. 1 taking azimuth angles from North, which was
tangential function as in 90° or in 270° angles it reaches used by Roy et al. (2007) in the computer program
infinity. This discontinuity can cause uncertain calculation MAM for calculating sky luminance within any window
errors in the general simulation of fluent changes due to solid angle after the 15 ISO standard skies. To document
disruptions especially in extreme cases when the whole and compare azimuth angles and sunpath changes in typi-
range 0–360° or 0–2p has to be modelled for the sunpaths cal localities in Tables 1–3 were chosen:
fluently. Therefore the cosine functions in Eqs. (7) and (8)

in degree, or in Eqs. (9) and (10) in rad. were also recom- – Roy’s Australian hometown Perth, u ¼ 32 S;

mended by Muneer (1997) for computer algorithms. Treg- k ¼ 116 E.
enza and Sharples (1993) used both the sine and cosine – Opposite in the Northern hemisphere Savannah, USA.
 
functions of the solar altitude after Eq. (5) which inherently u ¼ 32 N ; k ¼ 81 W .
 
include also the two tangent functions as shown in second – Equatorial locale Quito in Ecuador u ¼ 0 ; k ¼ 80 W .
part of this equation. Thus misunderstandings can be
caused in calculations for equinox days at globe poles In all these locales are traced sunpaths in the equinox
where zero azimuths for the whole days would be indi- day 21st March in Table 1 as well as in the extreme sol-
cated. More sophisticated calculation methods for accurate stices, i.e. 21st June (in Table 2) and 21st December (in
solar positions were suggested recently by Blanc and Wald Table 3) in hourly steps in local clock time (LCT). In all
(2012) recommended for astronomy purposes and satellite tables are as AS given azimuth values in the Australian sys-
data evaluations but their use has to expect rather tedious tem preferred by Roy, while in the next column are ANS azi-
and complex algorithms. muth values after the standard ISO North oriented system.
Markus and Morris (1980) in their sunpath diagrams wit- Of course the seasonal solar altitudes indicate the shift
tily introduced the possibility to use the same diagrams for of the summertime to December in high sunpaths in the
Table 1
Solar altitudes and azimuths in degrees in an equinox day 21st March.
Hour in LCT Quito Savannah Perth
u = 0°; k = 80° Ref(k) = 75° u = 32°; k = 81° Ref(k) = 75° u = 31.9°; k = 116° Ref(k) = 120°
cS AS ANS cS AS ANS cS AS ANS
6 – – – – – –
7 7.20 89.94 89.94 6.13 93.78 93.78 7.70 85.11 85.11
8 22.00 89.94 89.94 18.72 102.15 102.15 20.27 76.64 76.64
9 37.20 89.93 89.93 30.88 111.86 111.86 32.35 66.70 66.70
10 52.20 89.91 89.91 42.11 124.29 124.29 43.42 53.80 53.80
11 67.20 89.86 89.86 51.47 141.53 141.53 52.44 35.78 35.78
12 82.20 89.59 89.59 57.22 165.49 165.49 57.56 11.02 11.02
13 82.80 89.56 270.44 57.34 166.57 193.43 56.90 16.87 343.13
14 67.80 89.85 270.15 51.78 142.35 217.65 51.75 40.22 319.78
15 52.80 89.91 270.09 42.53 124.87 235.13 41.16 56.93 303.07
16 37.80 89.93 270.07 31.35 112.29 247.71 29.81 69.03 290.97
17 22.80 89.94 270.06 19.22 102.51 257.49 17.58 78.55 281.45
18 7.80 89.94 270.06 6.64 94.10 265.90 4.96 86.84 273.16
19 – – – – – –
78 R. Kittler, S. Darula / Solar Energy 93 (2013) 72–79

Table 2
Solar altitudes and azimuths in degrees in a solstice day 21st June.
Hour in LCT Quito Savannah Perth
u = 0°; k = 80° Ref(k)=75° u = 32°; k = 81° Ref(k)=75° u = 31.9°; k = 116° Ref(k) = 120°
cS AS ANS cS AS ANS cS AS ANS
6 – – 7.13 66.76 66.76 – –
7 7.89 66.32 66.32 19.10 73.74 73.74 – –
8 21.56 64.68 64.68 31.49 80.37 80.37 7.20 56.57 56.57
9 34.92 60.98 60.98 44.13 87.29 87.29 17.21 46.90 46.90
10 47.61 53.84 53.84 56.84 95.67 95.67 25.59 35.16 35.16
11 58.68 40.08 40.08 69.27 109.02 109.02 31.61 21.05 21.05
12 65.75 14.41 14.41 79.74 144.99 144.99 34.50 4.99 4.99
13 65.11 19.04 340.96 78.55 136.24 223.76 33.75 11.63 348.37
14 57.22 42.73 317.27 67.48 106.41 253.59 29.52 27.02 332.98
15 45.80 55.21 304.79 54.97 94.26 265.74 22.45 40.17 319.83
16 32.98 61.69 298.31 42.26 86.22 273.78 13.34 51.01 308.99
17 19.55 65.03 294.97 29.64 79.39 280.61 2.84 60.00 300.00
18 5.86 66.43 293.57 17.30 72.75 287.25 – –
19 – – 5.41 65.67 294.33 – –

Table 3
Solar altitudes and azimuths in degrees in a solstice day 21st December.
Hour in LCT Quito Savannah Perth
u = 0°; k = 80° Ref(k) = 75° u = 32°; k = 81° Ref(k)=75° u = 31.9°; k = 116° Ref(k) = 120°
cS AS ANS cS AS ANS cS AS ANS
6 – – – – – 9.33 111.91 111.91
7 8.73 113.77 113.77 – – 21.41 105.07 105.07
8 22.38 115.52 115.52 6.42 122.89 122.89 33.87 98.47 98.47
9 35.71 119.38 119.38 16.50 132.45 132.45 46.54 91.45 91.45
10 48.33 126.81 126.81 24.99 144.04 144.04 59.25 82.61 82.61
11 59.24 141.15 141.15 31.17 157.98 157.98 71.57 67.43 67.43
12 65.93 167.61 167.61 34.28 173.92 173.92 81.01 21.35 21.35
13 64.77 159.14 200.86 33.78 169.48 190.52 76.84 53.05 306.95
14 56.56 136.29 223.71 29.77 153.98 206.02 65.20 76.80 283.20
15 45.03 124.31 235.69 22.89 140.68 219.32 52.58 87.63 272.37
16 32.16 118.07 241.93 13.91 129.66 230.34 39.86 95.25 264.75
17 18.71 114.87 245.13 3.50 120.58 239.42 27.28 101.94 258.06
18 5.02 113.57 246.43 – – 15.00 108.60 251.40
19 – – – – – – 3.21 115.79 244.21

Southern globe hemisphere in contrary to wintertime in the 6. Conclusions

Northern one which is associated with cold dull weather
and sunshine deprivation.
Bearing in mind the comparison of the ISO recom-
mended orientation with that used in Australia the solar
azimuth in any locality is different only in afternoon

hours, i.e. then ANS ¼ 360  jAS j which means a trivial
correction of AS in Tables 1–3. However, if a particular
computer tool is to be utilised further, e.g. needs any
input of building, window or solar collector orientations,
these have to be defined in the specific orientation system
of such computer program. So, for instance in use of
MAM the window orientation input should be in azimuth
AS, i.e. respecting minus azimuth for western windows
and facßades.
The main purpose of this article was not only to review
the historically very long development trial to determine
solar coordinates influenced by the specific localities, their
geographical latitude and longitude, with seasonal solar
declination and daily hourly changes. The ancient graphi-
cal determination of sunpaths for sundials known as the
Analemma rule preserved in the Vitruvius manuscript were
gradually later replaced by trigonometric functions and
spherical images of angular relations that nowadays serve
effectively in computer algorithms. However, different
approaches and ways in this development search brought
several relations using hour angles resulting in different
expressions for solar azimuth angles.
 R. Kittler, S. Darula / Solar Energy 93 (2013) 72–79
At the same time the separate long history of geographic
and geodetic measurements resulted in global, country or
state maps, as well as in town and village plans and cadas-
tral division of ownership and real estate documentation
which have to be respected in urban planning or architec-
tural and building design. All professions linked with envi-
ronmental and climatic aspects of these designs have to use
in their calculations and computer programs a unified sys-
tem of time and orientation mutually understandable
worldwide. Such a unified and coherent system of time
and orientation is now standardised by ISO. It is necessary
to respect it at least in the computer programs for building
physics, solar engineering and illuminating engineering cal-
culations when specifying the true solar time, solar hour
angle as well as solar altitude and azimuth in calculations
or measurements. Therefore, to comply with the ISO
19115 international standard, solar azimuth ANS with the
North zero turning clockwise around to 360° after Eqs.
(10) and (11) should be recommended in all solar energy
and illuminating engineering calculations as well as in com-
puter programs. To avoid misunderstanding and errors in
solving practical problems by computer programs azimuth
coordinates in other coordinate systems have to be checked
and corrected if necessary as indicated and demonstrated in
this paper.
Acknowledgement
This paper was written under the financial support of
the Slovak Grants APVV-0177-10 and VEGA 2/0029/11.
References
ASHREA Handbook. 2009. Fundamentals. In: Climatic Design Infor-
mation. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Condi-
tioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta. (Chapter 14)
Blanc, Ph., Wald, L., 2012. The SG2 algorithm for a fast and accurate
computation of the position of the sun for multi-decadal time period.
Sol. Energy 86 (10), 3072–3083.
Boucher, P., 1983. Azimuth determination by solar observation: new
perspectives on an old problem. Surveying and mapping 43 (3), 307–314.
Doerfler, R., 2007. The analemmas of Vitruvius and Ptolemy. Dead
reckonings. In: Lost Art in the Mathematical Sciences. <http://
www.myreckonings.com/wordpress>.
Daly, J.F., 2008. Sacrobosco, Johannes de (or John of Holywood). In:
Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. <http://www.encyclope-
dia.com/topic/Johannes_de_Sacrobosco.aspx>.
Holywood, J., (Johannes de Sacrobosco), MS 1230, first printed 1472. De
Sphaera. Tractatus de Sphaera, Algorismus, de Arte Numerandi.
Ferrara.
IESNA Lighting Handbook., 2000. Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America, NY.
Iqbal, M., 1983. An Introduction to Solar Radiation. Academic Press,
NY.
ISO 19115, 2003. Geographic Information – Metadata. Correction 2006.
International Organisation for Standardisation, Geneva.
79
Kittler, R., Mikler, J., 1986a. Podklady pre určovanie svetelnej klı́my v
stavebných súboroch. In: Slovak Basis for the Determination of Light
Climate in Building Sets. Research Report of the Institute of
Construction and Architecture, SAS Bratislava.
Kittler, R., Mikler, J., 1986b. Základy využı́vania slnečného žiarenia. In:
Slovak Basis of the Utilization of Solar Radiation. Veda Publisher,
Bratislava.
Kittler, R., Darula, S., 2006. Analemma: the ancient sketch of fictitious
sun path geometry – sun, time and history of mathematics. Architec-
tural Science Review 42 (2), 141–144.
Kittler, R., Darula, S., 2008a. Applying solar geometry to understand the
foundation rituals of´Old Kingdoḿ Egyptian pyramids. Architectural
Science Review 51 (4), 407–412.
Kittler, R., Darula, S., 2008b. Historická dôležitosť solárnej geometrie pre
orientáciu v čase, priestore a v architecture. (In Slovak: Historical
importance of solar geometry for the orientation in time and space and
in architecture), Architektúra & urbanizmus, 42, 3–4, 159–165.
Kittler, R., Kocifaj, M., Darula, S., 2012. Daylight Science and
Daylighting Technology. Springer, NY.
Markus, T.A., Morris, E.N., 1980. Buildings, Climate and Energy. Pitman
Publ., Ltd., London.
Martin, Ch.L., Goswami, D.Y., 2005. Solar Energy Pocket Reference.
International Solar Energy Society, Freiburg.
Meeus, J., 1998. Astronomical Algoriths. Willmann-Bell Inc., Richmond,
USA.
Muneer, T., 1997. Solar Radiation & Daylight Models for the Energy
Efficient Design of Buildings. Architectural Press, Oxford.
Paturi, F.R., 1989 Chronik der Technik. Slovak translation. In: Kronika
Techniky. Fortuna Print. Chronik-Verlag, Dortmunt. Bratislava, 1993,
p. 89).
Peurbach, G., 1461. Epytoma in Almagesti Ptolemei de sinubus et chrodis.
MS, Vienna.
Pierpoint, W., 1982. Recommended practice for the calculation of daylight
availability. US IES Daylight Guide Draft.
Reda, I., Andreas, R., 2004. Solar position algorithm for solar radiation
applications. Solar Energy 76 (5), 577–589.
Regiomontanus, J., (Müller, J. von Königsberg), 1464, 1533. De Trian-
gulis omnimodus, In: de Triangulis planis et sphaericis libri quinque. J.
Schöner Verlag, Nürnberg.
Rheticus, G. J., Oth, V., 1596. Opus Palatinum de Triangularis. J.
Schöner, Nürnberg.
Rossi, C., 2007. Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt.
Cambridge Univ. Press, UK.
Roy, G., Kittler, R., Darula, S., 2007. An implementation of the Method
of Aperture Meridians for the ISO/CIE Standard General Sky. Light
Research and Technology 39 (3), 253–264.
Santbech, D., Regiomontanus, J., Peurbach, G., 1561. Triangulis planis et
sphaericis libri quinque. Compositio tabularum sinus. Problematum
astronomicorum et geometricorum sectiones septem. H.Petri & P.
Perna, Basel.
Smith, F., Wilson, C.B., 1976. The shading of ground by buildings.
Building & Environments 11 (3), 187–195.
Tregenza, P., Sharples, S., 1993. Daylight Algorithms. Report ETSU.
University of Sheffield.
Tregenza, P., Wilson, M., 2011. Daylighting, Architecture and Lighting
Design. Routledge, London.
Vinaccia, G., 1939. Il corso del sole in urbanistica ed edilizia. Hoepli Ed.,
Milano.
Vitruvius, M.P., MS 13 BC, printed 1487. De architectura libri decem.
Rome. English translation by Morgan, M.H.. Vitruvius. In: The Ten
Books on Architecture. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard Univ. Press, 1914
and Dover. NY, 1960, also by Granger, F. In: Vitruvius of Architec-
ture. Heinemann, London, 1970.