Food Reviews International, 26:335–352, 2010

Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 8755-9129 print / 1525-6103 online
DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2010.496022

Alcohol-free Beer: Methods of Production, Sensorial

1525-6103
8755-9129
LFRI
Food Reviews International
International, Vol. 26, No. 4, Aug 2010: pp. 0–0

Defects, and Healthful Effects

S. SOHRABVANDI1, S.M. MOUSAVI1, S.H. RAZAVI1,

Alcohol-free et
Sohrabvandi Beer
al.

A.M. MORTAZAVIAN2, AND K. REZAEI1

1
Department of Food Science, Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture
Engineering and Technology, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
2
Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Nutrition Sciences,
Food Science and Technology/National Nutrition and Food Technology Research
Institute, Shahid Beheshti University (of Medical Sciences), Tehran, Iran

Beer is a universally popular beverage, consumed worldwide. Recently, the beer market
is witnessing a significant increase in the consumption of low- and non-alcoholic beer.
This is mainly due to health reasons, safety reasons in the workplace or on the roads,
and strict social regulations. Also, there are countries where alcohol consumption is
completely forbidden by law. Consumers in such conditions are willing to consume
products as close as possible to the conventional types, from a sensory point of view
(especially flavor characteristics). However, non-alcoholic beer suffers from artificial
and dull flavor as well as improper body and foaming properties. Therefore, production
of alcohol-free beer with satisfactory organoleptic characteristics that can be
compared with conventional beers has recently given rise to increased technological
and economic interest. In this article, methods of production of alcohol-free beer (and
to some extent, low-alcohol beer), its sensory characteristics as well as its health-related
aspects are reviewed.

Keywords alcohol, beer, dealcoholization, fermentation, flavor, health, organoleptic,

sensory

1. Introduction
Beer, a brewed beverage made principally from malt (germinated barley), hop, water, and
yeast, is one of the most popular drinks worldwide.(1) Popularity of beer arises from its
pleasant sensory attributes and favorable nutritional and medicinal (light-to-moderate con-
sumption) characteristics as well as its lower cost, compared to other types of western and
European alcoholic beverages (e.g., wine).
The brewing of beer is an ancient art. The oldest ancient records suggest that formal
brewing dates back to about 6000 B.C. in ancient Babylonia.(2) According to established
documents, numerous types of beer and beer-like beverages from different grains were
industrially manufactured in some ancient countries such as Egypt, Rome, China, India,

Address correspondence to S.H. Razavi, Department of Food Science, Engineering and Tech-
nology, Faculty of Agriculture Engineering and Technology, University of Tehran, Postal code
31587-77871; Karaj, Iran. E-mail: srazavi@ut.ac.ir; A.M. Mortazavian, Department of Food
Science and Technology, Faculty of Nutrition Sciences, Food Science and Technology/National
Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University (of Medical Sciences),
Tehran, Iran. E-mail: mortazvn@sbmu.ac.ir

335
336 Sohrabvandi et al.

and Iran.(2) The basic ingredients for beer remained unchanged over the centuries: barley,
malt, water, hops and yeast. The process for brewing normal beer consists essentially of
the following steps: malting barley by germination, crushing the malted barley to create a
“grist”, adding water to the grist to create a mash, separating the resulting aqueous extract
known as “wort”, boiling the wort with hops, cooling and clarifying the wort, fermenting
the wort with yeast (primary fermentation) to produce “green” or “young” beer, maturing
or “lagering” the fermented young beer by means of “secondary fermentation” again using
yeast, filtering, pasteurizing and finally, packaging the beer. Malted barley can be partially
replaced by adjunct grains (such as maize and rice). Sugar, various syrups, starch-containing
mixture, and different types of adjuncts might also be added to the beer.(3–6)
Normal-/regular-/conventional beer contains 2.5–13% (v/v) ethanol. Most beers
produced worldwide have alcohol content in the range of 3–6% (v/v).(6,7) Considering the
alcohol content of beers, they can be classified into three types, namely, low-strength (con-
taining about 2–3% alcohol), medium-/average-strength (about 5% alcohol) and high-
strength/strong (about 6–12% alcohol) beers.(8) In recent years, there has been an increased
market share for low-alcohol or alcohol-reduced as well as non-alcoholic or alcohol-free
beers. The alcohol content in alcohol-reduced beer is generally recognized to be below
2.5% (v/v). However, the legal definitions of alcohol-free beer vary from country to coun-
try. For instance, this type of beer must contain maximum alcohol level of 0.1% (v/v) in
Arabic countries, 0.5% in England, Germany, the Netherlands, and Iran, 1% (v/v) in Spain
and with no detectable amount, for example less than 0.05% (w/v) in the US.(6,8–14) The
alcohol concentration of ≤0.05% (w/v) is approximately below the usual analytical detec-
tion limits. Low-alcohol beer contains a maximum of 0.5–1.5% (w/v) ethanol
(Germany).(10) This type of beer might be known as “zero-alcohol” beer. The language of
“Nearly alcohol-free” might be used when the alcohol content is within 0.05–0.5% (v/v).(8)
The current increasing demand for low-alcohol and alcohol-free beers among different
populations might be looked at from different aspects such as health, diet (high caloric con-
tent), safety in the workplace or within the framework of the road traffic (increasingly restric-
tive traffic laws regarding blood alcohol content), or prohibition of alcohol consumption in
factories and shops caused by labor protection laws. There are also countries where alcohol
consumption is absolutely forbidden by law.(10,15) In addition, people are becoming aware of
the problems that alcohol can bring about regarding civil responsibilities.(1) Alcohol-free
beers are recommended for specific groups of people such as pregnant women, sporting pro-
fessionals, people with cardiovascular and hepatic pathologies, and medicated people.(16)
Consumers in such conditions are willing to have a beer as close as possible to the conven-
tional types from organoleptic standpoint. Therefore, the main problem in the production of
low-alcohol and alcohol-free beers is the achievement of ‘as close as possible’ in terms of
organoleptic characteristics to that of regular beer, which is very difficult to achieve, because
these beers (especially non-alcoholic beer) suffer from having an artificial and dull (also
known as flat or bland) flavor as well as inappropriate body and foaming properties. It is for
these reasons that alcohol-free and alcohol-reduced beverages require increased technological
and economic concerns. A variety of methods and practices have been proposed and practiced
for industrial production of alcohol-free and low-alcohol beers, which are discussed in this
article along with the difficulties and problems regarding organoleptic characteristics.
Surveys have shown that light-to-moderate consumption of beer with relatively low alcohol
content comprises various favorable medicinal values for humans (higher consumption
causes converse impacts). Therefore, non-alcoholic beer should constitute all health advan-
tages of alcoholic beer except those arisen from low consumption of ethanol. The health-
related aspects of alcohol-free beer are also reviewed in this article.
 Alcohol-free Beer 337

2. Methods of Production
There are several methods applicable to the production of non-alcoholic beers. These
methods can be divided into four main categories including fermentation-free brewing,
dilution procedure, alcohol removal/dealcoholization, and restricted alcohol fermentation.
These methods are discussed below.

2.1. Fermentation-free Brewing

In fermentation-free brewing, no yeast is added to the wort. In other words, the fermentation
stage is eliminated. However, the expected sensory characteristics of the final product
must be improved by using different additives. Achieving the microbalance among beer
components, especially flavor compounds, is difficult and will result in a beer that has a
dull flavor. Nevertheless, the method is easier to perform and more economical compared
to other non-alcoholic- producing procedures. This method is currently being applied in
some Islamic countries such as Iran.(8)

2.2. Dilution Procedure

In this method, wort is initially produced with a dry matter content of several times more
than the expected concentration. After separation of the yeast cells, dilution is carried out
using pure potable water (demineralized and deoxygenized) up to the determined solids
and alcohol concentration. pH is then adjusted by adding organic acids (such as lactic
acid), which is followed by a carbonation stage. This procedure takes advantage of
reduced fermentation time and a higher available capacity of the fermenter, resulting in a
lower production cost.(17) Dilution procedure can also be accomplished by using chilled
carbonated water.(18) The dilution method might also be performed by blending the
dealcoholized beer with normal beer.(12,19)

2.3. Alcohol Removal Procedure (Dealcoholization)

Alcohol removal (dealcoholization) is a process in which the alcohol produced during the
fermentation is removed from the beer by different methods in accordance with the
standards of low-/free-alcohol beer. Alcohol removal process can include heat- and
membrane-based processes (such as vacuum distillation, water vapor stripping under vacuum,
dialysis, and reverse osmosis).(20) Several processes are currently employed commercially
for the dealcoholization of alcoholic beverages, as described below.

2.3.1. Vacuum Distillation. Vacuum distillation consists of two stages: evaporation under
high vacuum (vacuum evaporation) and then, cold condensation (e.g., 38–48°C/0.06–0.1
bar). This practice is also known as low-temperature/low-pressure distillation.(12) Thin
layer evaporators (temperature less than 70°C), atomizing evaporators with vacuum chamber
(temperature about 55°C), and the combination method have been successfully used for
stripping methodology.(12,18,21) In the combination method, beer is initially subjected to
atomization evaporation in a vacuum and then to the thin layer evaporation in a vacuum.
The residuals are reblended and impregnated with carbonic acid (carbon dioxide).(11)
Then, alcohol is distilled off in a brewing pan.(11) Vacuum evaporation suffers from the
limitations that it also removes (to some extent) other volatile components such as flavor- and
fragrance compounds and dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide,
338 Sohrabvandi et al.

which are important in sensory characteristics, controlling the acidity of the beverage and
for their bacteriostatic effects on destructive microorganisms.(22) The flavor components
that are lost during distillation should be restored after dealcoholization. This procedure
adds extra cost to the process and cannot provide the initial balance among flavor
compounds in normal beer.(10–12,18) A method invented for the production of non-alcoholic
beer from a normal beer was described by Caluwaerts.(10) Ethanol was separated from
water by spraying the beer that had been heated to 55°C under a pressure of 2 kg/cm2 in a
separation column.(10) Dealcoholization can also be performed by distillation of the beer
under vacuum, in which an ordinary beer, previously pasteurized, is degassed at a pressure
of about 1 bar (with recovery of the foam and the flavor compounds) and then dealcoholized
by means of a vacuum evaporator (0.05–0.12 bar), at a temperature between 30 and 50°C.
The foam and the flavor compounds are reinjected after dealcoholization and the beer is
then recarbonated at low temperatures.(10) A method for dealcoholization of beer is
described in which yeast-containing light ale is subjected to distillation under a vacuum of
0.06 to 0.1 bar (38–45°C) after separating the yeast from the beer. Part of the lost water
(about 20–30%) is compensated due to the distillation. Then, the fermentation yeast is
re-added allowing the product to stand at low temperature followed by re-separation of the
yeast. The final stages are recarbonating the product and adding a certain amount of yeast.
Beers containing less than 0.5% (v/v) ethanol can be obtained by this process.(10)

2.3.2. Water Vapor-/Gas-Stripping Under Vacuum. Stripping (pervaporation) is a prac-

tice in which water vapor or a neutral gas (nitrogen or carbon dioxide) is passed through
the wort under vacuum in order to carry away ethanol from the bulk. This method is also
called gaseous entrainment or alcohol desorption method.(11,13) At the end of fermentation,
sudden stripping (flash exhausting) of carbon dioxide that is produced during fermentation
in reactor (fermentation tank) leads to alcohol removal from the beer. This is why a high
pressure difference between the inside of the reactor and outside environment (about 1 bar) is
required.(10)

2.3.3. Adsorptive Alcohol Removal. Adsorptive alcohol removal is performed by using

substances that chemically adsorb the alcohol. Alcohol can then be desorbed in a later
stage by applying different methods. In practice, however, this technique is rather difficult
to scale up for industrial purposes. The adsorptive removal of alcohol increase the price
and time of the process.(11,18)

2.3.4. Dialysis. Dialysis has been employed for alcohol removal from beer. This process
operates at low temperature and uses the selectivity of a semi-permeable membrane. Small
molecules pass through the membrane into the dialysis medium. This flows to a vacuum
distillation column, where the alcohol is continuously removed, and the stream of alcohol-free
dialysis liquor returned to the dialysis unit. The final product may contain as little as 0.5%
alcohol.(10,12,14)

2.3.5. Reverse Osmosis. In this method, fermented wort is passed through a semipermeable
membrane under high-pressure condition (above natural osmotic pressure). The
membrane is permeable to water, alcohol and other materials that have small molecules.
Large molecules including flavor agents are rejected and remain in the concentrated beer.
Production of non-alcoholic beer with alcohol contents <0.5% (v/v) is possible with
reverse osmosis.(11,18) Addition of water is recommended for facilitating the removal of
ethanol. In order to retain heat sensitive substances and to increase the rejection coefficient for
 Alcohol-free Beer 339

volatile compounds, temperature should be low (about 5°C).(12,15) However, dealcoholization

of beverages by reverse osmosis removes not only volatile low molecular weight compo-
nents such as water, alcohol, flavor and fragrance components, and dissolved gases such
as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, but may also remove certain low-molecular weight,
nonvolatile, nonionic solutes such as organic acids and simple sugars. Therefore, removal
of a significant amount of alcohol from beer by reverse osmosis may be accompanied by
the removal of proportionately large amounts of these other membrane-permeable compo-
nents.(22) Moreover, the current practice involves dilution of the reverse osmosis concen-
trate or retentate with pure water to replace the water that is removed in the permeate. This
will result in undesirable changes in quality parameters such as flavor, fragrance, color,
acidity, and stability. Restoration of these depleted components by their re-addition to the
concentrate in proper proportions to produce a high-quality product is generally difficult
and costly.

2.3.6. Osmotic Distillation. Osmotic distillation/isothermal membrane perstraction

technique has been used for the selective separation of ethanol. A microporous non-liquid
wettable membrane is applied using alcohol-containing wort from one side and water as a
stripping agent from other side. The membrane materials inhibit formation of boundary
layers on both sides, because formation of boundary layers restricts ethanol transfer
through the membrane. Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic materials may be used in the
membrane (one or both sides of the membrane) in order to give pseudo-selective retention
characteristics. Only small volatile compounds of wort (including ethanol) pass through
the membrane based on a vapor pressure difference between the two sides of membrane.
This will reject big molecules. Therefore, this process efficiently extracts alcohol from a
concentrated ethanol stream to one with no ethanol.
An important advantage of this method over evaporation, pervaporation, and reverse
osmosis is that, since the vapor pressure of water in most alcoholic ferments is very close
to that of pure water, there is very little transfer of water from the stripping solution to the
beverage while rapid transfer of alcohol from the beverage into the stripping solution is
taking place. This process is highly selective for the removal of alcohol relative to water.
As a result, the volume of the solution or beverage and the relative proportions of water
and all nonvolatile solutes remain virtually the same in the final product compared to the
original solution or beverage.(22) However, isothermal membrane perstraction has serious
limitations in that it can adversely affect the dealcoholized beer quality. Partial dissipation
of flavor compounds as well as dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide
are the disadvantages of this procedure. Because the membrane employed is freely permeable
to any volatile solute, components that are present in the original beverage are free to
leave the beverage and dissolve in the stripping solution if the activity of any such solute
is higher in the beverage compared to that in the stripping solution. Other components
such as phenolics and ions might also decline in processed wort. Such compositional
changes might adversely affect the taste, appearance, physical and/or microbial stability of
the beer. Also, even applying pure water in the process (as stripping solution) that contains
almost dissolved oxygen in equilibrium with the ambient atmosphere is not an appropriate
practice, because there is the risk of oxygen permeability from the strip water into the wort
and its improper oxidation, which adversely influences flavor attributes of the beer. Impu-
rities that might be present in the stripping water can also lead to beer contamination. A
modified osmotic distillation method (so-called ‘controlled-strip recycling perstraction
technique’, CRPT) has been invented to minimize flavor and CO2 loss from the wort, in
which concentration gradient of aroma compounds and CO2 is considerably reduced
340 Sohrabvandi et al.

between two sides of membrane . In other words, if the stripping solution is similar to beer
from compositional point of view (especially in the case of carbon dioxide and alcohol),
the pressure gradient between these components in beer solution and stripping solution
would be minimal, preventing their diffusion from beer into the stripping solution.(22) Like
vacuum evaporation (section 2.3.1), osmotic distillation method requires restoration/
renewal of functional substances removed in the process, which is difficult and costly and
often fails to return the product to the quality level it possessed prior to the dealcoholization
process. Also, such restoration might be completely forbidden in some countries where it
is considered adulteration of a natural product. (22)

2.4. Restricted Alcohol Fermentation Method

Producing alcohol-free beer or alcohol-reduced beer using restricted-/limited-/incomplete
fermentation has recently brought much interest and has been the objective of many
research and industrial trials. Restricted fermentation is a method in which the production
of alcohol during the production process is reduced in the early stages of fermentation.
This is achieved either using yeast that can only partially ferment the wort or by repressing
or interrupting fermentation by applying different compositional and/or process procedures
(interrupted fermentation technique).(11) In other words, restricted fermentation methodology
consists of using yeasts under conditions in which they are not physiologically capable of
producing an alcoholic fermentation but can excrete metabolites that help to impart a beer
taste to the solution.(10) The main advantage of this method compared to other previously
described methods is that the dealcoholization stage and its related difficulties are
avoided. Also, the resulting beers are usually organoleptically more acceptable than those
obtained by dealcoholization procedures, especially from a flavor point of view. However,
this process is not completely satisfactory from the organoleptic point of view, since the
drinks obtained are quite different from a regular beer and they more or less have an
“artificially- flavored-beer” taste.(10)
Restricted fermentation processing can be classified into two subclasses, namely,
suspended batch and continuous immobilized processes. In the batch-type process, yeast
cells are in a suspended state in the wort during the fermentation. In this procedure, it is
difficult to keep the process parameters such as temperature and concentration of
dissolved oxygen precisely at the desired values (at equilibrium). Even a minor deviation
from the desired values may result in the formation of alcohol at a higher level than the
allowed level (e.g., 0.05%) in the final product.(13) In the production of alcohol-free beer,
immobilization of yeast cells has also been practiced.(13,23) Immobilization of yeast cells to
a carrier surface (such as cellulose-based granules or hydrocolloid beads) has been shown
to influence cellular metabolism (decreasing the growth rate and increasing the content of
secreted oxo-acids into the medium).(24–27) The immobilization technique with
microporous sintered-glass system has been successfully employed for the production of
alcohol-free beer. This method provides the advantages of high controllability, flexibility,
and high biomass concentration and allows short contact times compared to the batch
method.(24,26,28,29) As an alternative procedure in this practice, firstly, the beer with a
definite amount of alcohol is produced in a short time. Then, after 2–4 hrs of flavor
ageing, dilution of the beer is carried out with cooled carbonated water to achieve the
desired alcohol content (e.g., below 0.5% or even 0.05%, v/v).(29) Lommi et al.(13)
invented an efficient industrial method in which the yeast treatment is carried out at a low
temperature by a continuous process by means of a packed column reactor containing
immobilized yeast bound to the surface of a porous carrier. This provides maximal surface
 Alcohol-free Beer 341

area for the immobilization of yeast cells. The carrier is composed of a continuous porous
matrix (microfibers) or reticulated porous particles (microparticles). The packed column
reactors are preferred to have a height to diameter ratio of at least about 1.25, with the
yeast treatment temperature ranges between 0.5 and 3°C. The alcohol content depends not
only on the temperature, but also on the rate at which the wort is passed through the
reactor and also on the number of yeast cells. (13) Restricting fermentation methods in
batch or continuous immobilized systems are performed using different practices as
follows, which may be applied together at the same time.

2.4.1. Using Special Strains of Fermenting Yeasts. Some of the genetically modified
strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae do not produce alcohol in appreciable amount
because they are unable to produce alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). These strains are
called “ADH-free/negative.” However, employing this type of yeast could lead to inacti-
vation of the yeast cells at early stages of fermentation as well as emergence of off flavor
due to accumulation of acetaldehyde in wort.(30)
Some mutated strains of S. cerevisiae can produce very low amount of ethanol and in
turn relatively high amount of glycerol and sugar alcohols.(12) Production of beer with low
or very low alcohol contents is also possible by using suitable strains of Saccharomyces
ludwigii. These strains are capable of fermenting glucose, sucrose and fructose, but not
maltose. The beer produced in this case contains relatively high amount of lactic acid
instead of ethanol.(12) Saccharomyces rouxii is another strain that consumes some part of
the ethanol produced in the stationary phase (when subjected to aerobic conditions) and as
a result can be applied for the production of beers with reduced alcohol levels.(8,11,18,31)

2.4.2. Reducing Fermentable Fractions to Nonfermentable Fractions. One strategy for

the production of low-alcohol beers is to reduce the ratio of “fermentable extract/nonfer-
mentable extract” in wort in a way that fermentation is restricted at a level to produce only
the desired amount of alcohol. Incorporating adjunct grains such as maize or rice with the
malted barley is one approach to reduce this ratio.(15) The coefficient of “fermentable
extract/nonfermentable extract” represents the fermentable carbohydrates portion of the
wort. When this value is low, the alcoholic fermentation is limited to the amount of sugar
present in the wort. Therefore, the concentration of sugar in the primary formulation
should be adjusted in a way that no considerable sugar residue remains after the restricted
fermentation period. Presence of extra sugar in the wort, apart from giving an unpleasant
sweetness to the beer, increases the risk of microbial contamination.(32)

2.4.3. Reducing Glucose Content in Wort. Brewing yeast synthesizes a group of enzymes
called “alcohol dehydrogenase-2” (ADH2), which is glucose-repressed. That is, as long as
an appreciable amount of glucose is present in the wort, this enzyme will not be produced.
When the concentration of glucose is limited in the nonfermented wort, the yeast
consumes what glucose is available by anaerobic fermentation and produces a low amount
of alcohol as well as aroma substances. Then, after finishing the glucose, but in the
presence of other sugar sources, ADH2 is activated and converts ethanol to acetaldehyde
via oxidation.(18)

2.4.4. Heating of Fermenting Wort. Sufficient heating of fermenting wort at the stage that
low amounts of alcohol along with the desired flavor profile in wort have been produced
will lead to the inactivation of yeast cells and as a result the inhibition of subsequent
342 Sohrabvandi et al.

alcoholic fermentation. (12). However, this procedure is not commonly used due to possible
undesirable heat-induced changes in the beer.

2.4.5. High Temperature Mashing. Holding the malt mash at elevated temperatures
(e.g., 172°F for 30 min) has been shown to produce wort with low fermentability.
Temperatures about 172°F are higher than the thermal inactivation limit of the enzyme
β-amylase and lower than that of α-amylase. Therefore, the inactivation of β-amylase
at high temperatures inhibits the accumulation of maltose (the main fermentable sugar
in the wort). However, since α -amylase is active at these conditions, it can produce
low amounts of dextrins and glucose (to lesser extent) under such condition. Therefore,
high temperature mashing leads to the decline of fermentable sugar in wort and as a
result, restricts alcohol fermentation. Moreover, the resulted beer is a dietary
product.(12,17)

2.4.6. Pressurization During Fermentation. In the primary stages of fermentation, when

the desired amounts of alcohol and flavor compounds are produced, the hydrostatic pressure of
wort (at pressures about 300–500 MPa)(33) could be increased up to the extent that fermen-
tation is restricted or stopped. Pressurization can be carried out by using neutral gases such
as carbon dioxide. To improve the efficiency, this process should be performed at low
temperatures.(22)

2.4.7. Cold Contact Procedure. Cold contact or cold fermentation method is a procedure
in which wort is treated at temperatures within 0–10°C (currently 0–4°C) for 24–48 hrs. It
is suggested that the pH of the wort to be adjusted at about 4.(12,13) During the limited
fermentation at low temperatures and anaerobic conditions, cells reduce wort off flavors
and produce only the desirable beer flavors. The main causes of wort off flavor are alde-
hydes such as 2- and 3-methylbutanal, hexanal, and heptanal, which are reduced to the
corresponding alcohols. In addition, intracellular aldehydes, formed as intermediates in
cell the metabolism are reduced to fusel alcohols, e.g., 1-propanol, iso-butanol, and iso-amyl
alcohol. (23)

2.4.8. Periodic Aeration of Fermenting Wort. Under aerobic conditions, wort aldehydes
(produced from the fermentation or Maillard browning reaction) are not reduced to alcohol,
but are consumed to produce unsaturated fatty acids to provide enough flexibility for their
growth. It has also been known that under aerobic conditions, S. rouxii is capable of
consuming some part of the produced alcohol (under anaerobiosis). Declining molecular
oxygen, meanwhile, avoids improper effects of oxidation in the wort.(11,18)

3. Sensorial Defects
When producing alcohol-free or reduced-alcohol beer, it is very important to maintain the
natural flavor of a regular beer. Unfortunately, beers produced by the above-mentioned
methods have the disadvantage that the taste of the final product is not as good as that of
normal alcoholic beer. Beer that is dealcoholized after production is dull and inharmonious
in taste, whereas beer in which the production of alcohol is prevented or reduced in the
early stage has the typical, unpleasant taste of wort. The dealcoholization methods entail
rather high expenditures and are troublesome.(11) Some of the organoleptic defects of
nonalcoholic beer are discussed below:
 Alcohol-free Beer 343

3.1. Immature Flavor Profile and Mouth Feeling

Apart from giving a warming sensation to mouth and stomach, ethanol is a flavor
enhancer for some flavors. It should be noted that fusel alcohols (butyl, amyl, and iso-
amyl alcohols) have low impact on the flavor profile, but take part in the mouth-stomach
warm sensation.(6,14) Ethanol has also been known to have a key role in formation of the
characteristic background flavor of beer. When alcohol is removed from normal beer
using different methods of dealcoholization, partial flavor loss is inevitable. Therefore,
alcohol-free beers do not constitute the flavor components produced via fermentation in
an appropriate concentration and balance (harmony).(10–12,18) Apart from ethanol functions
mentioned above, it is also a precursor for flavor-active esters. Hence, in the absence of
ethanol, beer exhibits immature flavor.(35)
Restoring the lost flavor compounds after the beer is produced is a common practice.
In this procedure, flavor compounds along with the foam and carbon dioxide are re-injected
after the dealcoholization and the beer is then re-carbonated at low temperatures.(10) The
flavor compounds can be extracted from the alcoholic phase using a flow of carbon dioxide
and then re-injected into the final alcohol-free beer.(10) However, this practice is not
completely satisfactory since the non-alcoholic beers produced this way are organolepti-
cally quite different from ordinary beer and often exhibit an unsatisfactory flavor, which is
described as “artificial, flat, or unbalanced taste.(10) Also, such practices are costly and
economically not viable (section 2.3).
Another issue with alcohol-free beers is that they have weaker fullness when tasted.
To solve this problem, additives such as glycerol (0.3–2.0% by volume) that have improving
effects on the body of the beer are added to the final product. Alternatively, this can be
carried out using yeast capable of providing elevated amounts of glycerol and sugar alcohols
during fermentation.(18)

3.2. Emergence of Some Off Flavors

Acetaldehyde can causes off flavor in wort higher than a determined level. Using mutated
strains of S. cerevisiae (section 2.4.1) for manufacturing alcohol-free beers results in the
production of relatively high amounts of acetaldehyde in the wort and therefore in the
“worty” off flavor in the beer. Accumulation of acetaldehyde in the wort also disrupts the
metabolism of yeast cells,(34) and therefore, it has to be eliminated from the wort during or
after fermentation. Acetaldehyde is a volatile compound and in practice has been removed
from the wort by applying a fermentation temperature of higher than 21°C, its boiling
point, or by stripping a neutral gas such as carbon dioxide through the wort using a
periodic or continuous operation. In the periodic operation, for example, vigorous strip-
ping is performed every day for 15–30 min.(22) Hot stripping consists of a vigorous perco-
lation of gas (e.g., CO2 or N2) through the wort resulting in the elimination of all
undesirable volatiles including aldehydes. This process has two advantages. Firstly, no
oxidation takes place if the liquid is pumped from the cooking vessel to the whirlpool
because the stripping gas flows directly through the pipe into the wort and expands in the
whirlpool. In this way, the wort will not absorb oxygen. Secondly, in the process of
normal beer production volatiles will be washed out by fermentation and maturation
stages. Therefore, by using hot stripping, no natural percolation of gas takes place and the
hot stripping effectively replaces the natural percolation during the fermentation.(13) By
applying hot stripping, aldehydes such as 2,3-dimethylbutanol, hexanal and heptanal,
which are known as the main cause of wort off flavor, are voided from the yeast cells.
344 Sohrabvandi et al.

Off-flavor formation takes place if the aldehydes produced during wort boiling are not
reabsorbed by yeast cells and reduced to alcohol.(15,35) The two yeast-secreted alpha-
acetohydroxy acids during the fermentation (i.e., alpha-acetolactate and alpha-acetohy-
droxybutyrate) would then convert to vicinal diketones (diacetyl and 2,3- pentanedione,
respectively) through a non-enzymatic approach. Vicinal diketones (VDKs) are known as
off flavor compounds in the wort.(35,36) Since ethanol has a masking effect on the perception
of worty off flavor,(35) this taint is perceived (in nonalcoholic beers) at a level considerably
greater than its threshold level.
Presence of Ester compounds in wort is proved to be correlated with off flavors.
Fermentation of wort at low temperatures such as 0–2°C significantly improves the flavor
characteristics of alcohol-free beer due to the decreasing production rate of acetohydroxy
acids such as alpha-acetolactate. Moreover, at low temperatures, synthesis of ester
compounds such as ethyl acetate ester and iso-amyl acetate ester declines.(37) Ethyl acetate
ester and iso-amyl acetate ester produced by yeast exhibit floral and fruity flavors.(37–39) In
the fermentations performed by S. cerevisiae, a-acetolactate, an intermediate product in
the amino acid metabolism, is synthesized from pyrovate. Overproduction of this
compound will then lead to the leakage from the yeast cell into the medium, where it
decarboxylizes to diacetyl, an important off flavor in the beer. Higher temperatures as well
as the increased oxygen concentrations in the wort increase the amount of α-acetolactate
by influencing the rate and extent of yeast growth.(27,40–42)
In the production of alcohol-free beers through the restricted fermentation, attempts
are made to regulate the process in a way that wort aldehydes are reduced as much as pos-
sible by the activity of the yeast ADHs in order to achieve a characteristic flavor profile of
beer without the production of alcohol and the off flavors (such as diacetyl) at high.(42–44)
When using S. ludwigii to ferment the wort, since it is unable to ferment maltose, the final
product is unacceptably sweet (section 2.4.1). Also, excessive amount of produced lactic
acid (by the above strain) (section 2.4.1) might not be acceptable to consumers. In manu-
facturing nonalcoholic beer, due to the shorter contact time between the yeast cells and the
wort in the packed-bed reactors (continuous process), it gives less off flavor compared to
that in the batch culture. In continuous processes, the amounts of ethyl acetate and iso-
amyl acetate esters increase due to the accelerated activity of the enzyme alcohol acetyl
transfrase in the yeast.(29) It has been observed that in immobilized systems, the production
of diacetyl and vicinal diketones are increased, which leads to a buttery off flavor. This is
related to the decrease in the conversion of diacetyl to the less flavor-active acetoin.(45)
Immobilization of yeast cells has been shown to decrease their growth rate and increase
the level of the secreted oxo-acids to the medium, both of which influence the flavor of the
final beer.(24–27)

3.3. Being Prone to Freezing

A problem that beers with reduced alcohols and alcohol-free beers suffer from is that the
reduction or elimination of ethanol increases the risk of their freezing. Also, it might
causes off flavors and the physical instability of the beer.(6)

3.4. Improper Foaming

A reduced foaming property (especially foam head retention property) is another drawback
associated with alcohol-free beers. This is also related to the lack of ethanol in the product
because ethanol increases foaming properties of beer and also enhances stabilization of the
 Alcohol-free Beer 345

produced foam.(46,47) As was the case with the fullness of these types of beer (section 3.3),
addition of glycerol and/or sugar alcohols can reinforce the foaming properties of beer.(18)

3.5. Being Prone to Microbial Contamination

Other concern with nonalcoholic beers is that they are more prone to microbial contamination.
Ethanol has a good synergistic effect on the lethality of thermal processing for microor-
ganisms during the pasteurization of beer. Thus, reduced-alcohol beers need higher
pasteurization temperatures compared to alcoholic beers. Such high-temperature treatment
might adversely influence the flavor characteristics and colloidal stability of the beer. On
the other hand, producing these types of beer through restricted fermentation procedures
can lead to beers with significantly higher fermentable sugar contents, which is another
reason for its greater microbial perishability.(32) Furthermore, contamination with spoilage
microorganisms might result in off flavors such as those of rotten egg, cooked cabbage,
celery-like, vinegary and phenolic as well as those related to lactic acid, diacetyl, and ace-
taldehyde.(32,35)

4. Healthful Effects
Epidemiological, experimental, and clinical investigations have revealed that light-to-
moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages with 10–15 g alcohol/day (that is one glass
of normal beer per day) results in a relatively wide spectrum of health benefits to humans.
Lower alcohol consumption rate has also been associated with a reduced annual mortality
rate when compared with those for non-drinking and heavy drinking populations.(5,48,49)
At low consumption levels, ethanol in beer has positive medicinal properties such as
cardioprotective effect, reduction of risk of dementia, anti-stomach ulcer property, tension
reduction (relaxation) effect, some antiinfection properties and also better cognitive function
in old ages.(7) However, excessive intake of ethanol (e.g., via consumption of strong beers)
results in various adverse individual and social consequences such as vitamin malabsorption,
obesity (ethanol has an energy contribution of 7 Kcal g−1), hyperuridemia, cancer induction,
elevated risk of dementia, disorders in the digestive system, negative impacts on pregnant
women, expert athletes as well as hepatic and medicated people, increasing blood
pressure, domestic and social violence, traffic accidents, inappropriate work incidences as
well as physical and sexual abuse of children and women.(7) Therefore, the ingestion of
nonalcoholic beer does not provide the healthful effects of alcohol intake in low amounts,
as is the case with normal beer or alcohol-reduced beer. However, on the positive side, it
does not comprise any adverse impacts related to the consumption of alcohol through the
indiscriminate consumption of high-alcohol-containing beers. From the health point of
view, alcohol-reduced beers can be deemed as the best choice when consumed at moderate/
low levels. The most important health advantages (nutritional and medicinal) of alcohol-free
beers are discussed below based on its constituting components.

4.1. Vitamins and Minerals

Significant quantities of several B vitamins are available via the moderate consumption of
beer. The vitamin profile of the beer depends on the raw materials used for beer production
and also on the processing conditions. Among B complex vitamins, thiamine is found in
notably lower amounts. Ethanol has indicated an antagonistic effect with the bio-utilization of
vitamins.(7) Therefore, alcohol-free beers can provide the greatest opportunity for the
346 Sohrabvandi et al.

bio-utilization of vitamins in the body.(7) Because of high contribution of beer in B complex

vitamin supply, regular consumption of beer can prevent associated vitamin deficiency
diseases such as beri beri and other neurological diseases.(7)
Beer is frequently cited as being a significant dietary source of selenium. The relatively
high potassium to sodium ratio (typically 4:1) in beer is consistent with a low-sodium diet.
This is the reason beer has a significantly greater diuretic effect than that of water. Beer is
also relatively rich in magnesium and to less extent in phosphorous.(7, 50) Besides the anti-
oxidant compounds (section 4.4), trace amounts of zinc, copper and selenium are also
found in beer. These provide extra in-vivo antioxidant protection since these elements are
part of the active site in the intercellular antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase and
glutathione peroxidase.(51)

4.2. Proteins and Amino Acids

From the nutritional point of view, beer is not considered as a rich source of protein.(7)
Also, from the qualitative point of view, lysine, which is an important essential amino
acid, is a limiting factor (present in very low amounts) in grain proteins.(52)
It has been reported that the beer proteins and amino acids might have much wider
biological functions than their basic biosynthetic roles as building blocks of human body.
Among these functions, controlling cholesterol level in plasma and reducing lipid level in
the blood can be mentioned.(53) Such characteristic is inversely correlated with the risk of
cardiovascular diseases, which is related to the bioactive properties of proteins and essential
amino acids present in the beer.(53,54) It has been reported that total protein content and
levels of albumin and other most studied amino acids are considerably higher in beer than
in wine.(55)
It has been reported that beer could modulate the immune system functionalities (56).
This characteristic has been attributed to the ingredients of beer, especially its biologically
active proteins and peptides.(56,57)

4.3. Phenolic Compounds

More than 35 phenolic compounds have been identified in beer (about 80–90% from malt
and 10–20% from hops).(5,58,59) It has been shown that phenolic acids from beer are
absorbed and extensively metabolized by the human body.(60) Structurally, phenolic com-
pounds in beer are categorized as simple phenols, benzoic and cinnamic acid derivatives,
coumarins, catechins, di-, tri-, and oligomeric proanthocyanidins, prenylated chalcones
and flavonoids as well as alpha- and iso-alpha acids.(5) A considerable number of pheno-
lics may act as antioxidants, with mechanisms involving both free-radical scavenging and
metal-chelating properties.(51,60,61) Epidemiological studies have shown a correlation
between the consumption of phenolic compounds from foods rich in phenolics and the
prevention of many human diseases associated with the oxidative stresses, such as athero-
sclerosis, cancer and tumor development, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases and
aging.(62) Flavonoids, which are part of phenolic compounds, have shown anti-inflammatory
effects.(62,63) Xanthohumol (a principal prenylated flavonoid) and other hop prenylfla-
vonoids have been found to be cancer chemoprotective/chemopreventive agents that act
by (1) inhibiting the metabolic activation of procarcinogens, (2) induction of carcinogen-
detoxifying enzymes, and (3) inhibition of tumor growth via inhibiting inflammatory signals
angiogenesis at an early stage.(64) There are several reports indicating that phenolic com-
pounds in beer can inhibit the development of prostate, breast, intestine, ovarian and blood
 Alcohol-free Beer 347

cancers.(65,66) It has also been known that several phenolic compounds derived from hops
exert antimutagenic effects against heterocyclic amines.(66) Ethanol has not shown any
antimutagenicity effect against these heterocyclic amines.(67–69)
The majority of more recent large, population-based studies have observed that mod-
erate drinking in the range of one to three times a day is associated with 30–40% lower
rate of coronary disease when compared with nondrinking populations.(48) Ethanol, bio-
logically active proteins, and peptides (section 4.3) and some other compounds are considered
involved in the cardioprotective property of beer. In some sources, the improved lipid
metabolism induced by moderate beer consumption has been mainly attributed to the
polyphenols of its dry matter.(70,71) Gasowski et al.(72) reported that in order to receive the
best result in terms of plasma lipid improvement, beer with the highest antioxidant potential
must be consumed.
Compared to other alcoholic beverages, beer may be particularly valuable since the
hop-derived bittering agents reportedly have sedative and hypnotic properties.(73) Beer
also may counteract osteoporosis.(66,68,69) It has been found that humulone (a bitter acid
from beer), isolated from beer hop, is a strong inhibitor for bone resorption.(74) Phenolic
acids of beer with relatively high antioxidant capacities may afford protection against oxi-
dative stress-related diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases and even Alzheimer’s
disease.(60) It has been reported that moderate consumption of beer reduces the changes of
age-induced macular degeneration in eyes.(75) Isohumulones from hops have shown anti-
bacterial activity against most gram-positive bacteria. Some phenolic compounds form
hops (especially 8-prenylnaringenin) reportedly exhibited estrogenic properties.(5,64) It has
been suggested that drinking 8-geranylnaringenin-rich beverages may have positive influ-
ence on the treatment of peri-menopausal problems (hot flashes) as well as prevention of
osteoporosis in post-menopausal women.(66) Prenylated chalcone xanthohumol and further
hop constituents have been shown to possess antiviral activities against a series of DNA
and RNA viruses.(76) Xanthohumol has been able to inhibit HIV-1 induced cytopathic
effects.(77)

4.4. Miscellaneous Compounds

It has been known that glycine betaine (betaine glycine) present in beer exerts antimu-
tagenic effect against heterocyclic amines.(78) It has also been reported that melanoidins
(polymeric and colored final products of the Maillard reaction), which are formed
non-enzymatically during the roasting of malt, exhibit peroxyl radical scavenging poten-
tial.(79,80) Melanoidin fractions with relatively high molecular weight (10–200 kDa) also
exhibit weakly induced NADPH-cytochrome C reductase and size-dependently modulated
glutathione S-transferases (GST) activities in the caco-2 colon cancer cell line.(81–83) The
influence of melanoidins on cancer in-vivo requires further investigations.
Beer contains within 0.4–6.2 g L−1 of dietary fiber.(84) The British Nutrition Foundation
targets 18 g fiber per day as a desirable level for adults.(7,85) Therefore, its regular
consumption might play an appreciable role against colon cancer. It was also claimed that
consumed beer did not support the growth/activity of harmful and pathogenic intestinal
microorganisms.(7) This could be attributed to the prebiotic potential of beer dietary carbo-
hydrate fibers, which enhance growth and/or activity of healthful intestinal bacteria rather
than harmful types.(86) Stimulating growth and/or activity of faecal bacteria increases the
risk of cancer by converting procarcinogens to carcinogens.
β-pseudouridine separated from beer was found to be a potent protector against the
damage caused by radiation.(87) Silicic acid provided by beer has benefits in promoting the
348 Sohrabvandi et al.

renal excretion of aluminum.(88) The immune activation property of beer (section 2.2.3) is
deeply involved in atherogenesis.(89) Mayer et al.(90) have demonstrated that ingestion of
folic acid from beer leads to a decrease in the homocysteine content of blood. Hyperho-
mocysteinemia is a significant risk factor for vascular diseases.(7)
It is noteworthy to mention that beer might contain some components with poisoning
or even mutagenic effects on the body when their daily intake exceeds the threshold levels
(especially on a regular basis), of which toxic amines, mycotoxins, nitrates, aluminum,
formaldehyde and radical forms of oxygen are the most important.(32,91–96)

5. Conclusions
In recent years, there has been an increased market share for low-alcohol-/alcohol-reduced
and non-alcoholic-/alcohol-free beers. This is mainly due to the health reasons (such as
obesity and other issues associated with high alcohol consumption), safety reasons (in the
workplace or traffic roads) and increasingly strict social regulations (e.g., restrictive traffic
laws as well as prohibition of alcohol consumption in factories and shops caused by labor
protection laws) and also the fact that alcohol consumption is forbidden in Islamic countries
as well as the awareness of problems that alcohol can bring about regarding civil responsi-
bilities. Alcohol-free beers are recommended for specific groups of people such as pregnant
women, sporting professionals, people with cardiovascular and hepatic pathologies, and
medicated people. Consumers in such conditions are willing to have a beer as close to the
conventional types as possible, from sensory point of view, a goal that is very difficult to
achieve, because these beers (especially non-alcoholic ones) suffer from having an artificial
and immature flavor as well as inappropriate body and foam head. For these reasons, alco-
hol-free and alcohol-reduced beverages have drawn social, technological, and economical
interests. A variety of methods have been proposed and practiced for industrial production
of alcohol-free and low-alcohol beers with acceptable organoleptic properties.
Beer exerts various healthful effects on the human body due to its different constituents.
However, consumption of nonalcoholic beers does not provide the healthful effects of alcohol
intake (in low amounts) as is the case with normal or alcohol-reduced beers. On the other hand,
it does not comprise adverse impacts of high alcohol intake caused by indiscriminate consump-
tion of high-alcohol-containing beers. When consumed at moderate levels, alcohol-reduced
beers can be a good alternative to the regular alcoholic beers from the health point of view.

Acknowledgments

Gratitude is expressed to “Research Council of University of Tehran” and “Research Council of

Beheshti University (M.C.) for the support of this study.

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