Lecture 9: THE CONCEPT

OF KNOWLEDGE IN ISLAM
DR. RAUDLOTUL FIRDAUS BINTI FATAH YASIN
RKQS 1030- REVELATION AS A SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE
1. Introduction

 The words ‘ilm and ma’rifah in Arabic are generally used to denote knowledge or
science.
 General conception about knowledge in Islam:
 ‘ilm can be interpreted to imply a body of knowledge that is quantitatively and qualitatively
objective or empirical in nature, like mathematics and natural/applied sciences,
 Ma’rifah can be interpreted in reference to a body of knowledge that is subjective in nature and
not subject to empirical methods of study, such as philosophy, metaphysics, theology.
 Semantically, from the same root word ʿilm, one may derive other relevant terms, such as:
 ‘ālim (lit. he who possessed knowledge or the learned),
 ʿalīm (the most knowledgeable), ʿ
 ālam (sign, evidence, symptom or symbol from or by which one may attain the knowledge
about something).
 Cont…

 Rāghib al-Aṣfahānī, Allāh has urged Muslims to study every single “world” (‘ālam), such as:
 the world of human beings (‘ālam al-insān),
 the fiery world (‘ālam al-nār),
 the watery world (‘ālam al-mā’),
 the world of angels (‘ālam al-malā’ikah)
 and others that constitute our greater universe in order to attain the knowledge about the absolute
oneness (waḥdānīyyah) of its Creator, Allāh.
 ‫سى أَن يَ ُكونَ قَ ِد‬ َ ‫ش ْيءٍ َوأ َ ْن َع‬ ‫ض َو َما َخلَقَ ه‬
َ ‫اّللُ ِمن‬ ِ ‫ت َواأل َ ْر‬
ِ ‫س َم َاوا‬
َّ ‫ت ال‬ ِ ‫ظ ُرواْ ِفي َملَ ُكو‬ ُ ‫ أ َ َولَ ْم يَن‬
ُ ‫ِي لَُُ َويَََ ُر َُ ْم ِفي‬
َ‫ُ ْْيَا ِن ِه ْم يَ ْع َم ُهون‬ َ ‫اّللُ فَاَ ََاد‬ ْ ُ‫ َمن ي‬. َ‫ث بَ ْعدَهُ يُؤْ ِمنُون‬
‫ْض ِل ِِ ه‬ ‫ب أ َ َجلُ ُه ْم فَ ِبأ َ ه‬
ٍ ‫ي ِ َحدِي‬ َ ‫ا ْقت َ َر‬
 “Have they not pondered over the kingdom of the heavens and the earth
and whatever that Allāh has created, and that may be their hour of death
has come? In what message after this would they then believe? None can
guide those whom Allāh lets go astray and leaves them blundering about
in their rebellious transgression”. (al-A’raf 7: 185-186)

 Muslim theologians have referred every single human being as a

microcosmic world (‘ālam al-ṣaghīr) vis-à-vis the greater universe (‘ālam al-
kabīr).
2. Maʿrifah and ʿIlm in the Qur’ān

 Islam has made it religiously obligatory (farḍ) for its followers to seek out
knowledge and this obligation is applied to both men and women
 (ʿilm) means knowledge by inference of what is sensible to the five senses, thus
empirical in nature, attainable through empirical and rational methods of
investigation, such as by frequent observation, conducting scientific testing and
experiments, logical explanation based on concrete data and facts
 (maʿrifah) referring to knowledge that is intelligible to the heart, which is the seat
of knowledge. It is a kind of knowledge about something much more abstract
whose nature is known not by empirical methods, but through conviction on the
information or news (khabr) disclosed by authoritative sources or by experience
 Al-Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī has defined maʿrifah as an in-depth understanding or
cognizant of something by means of rational thinking (taʿaqqul), intuitive
reflection (tafakkur), logical reflection (naẓar) and perceptive discernment
(tadabbur) of its implications or phenomena (āthārih).
 the word maʿrifah according to the Qur’ānic expression as stated above
signifies understanding, recognition or a state of being cognizant of
something that corresponds to truth and actual facts.
 The Qur’ān also uses maʿrifah to denote what is generally acknowledged
by the majority as an act of righteousness and kindness (ʿuruf and maʿrūf).
 ʿilm, defined by al-Rāghib al-Iṣfaḥānī as an understanding or a state of being
cognizant of something according to the true nature of its reality (ḥaqīqah)
and essence (dhāt al-syai’).
 From semantic point of view, the term ʿilm is generally used to denote
“knowledge by inference”.
 To the jāhilīyyah conception, the source of ʿilm was found in the tribal tradition
resulted of an accumulated personal experiences that had been
accepted/recognized as an immaterial asset to the tribe. This asset or tradition
was passed down through the ages from generation to generation and
preserved in the form of proverbs known as “amthāl”. Anything contrary to the
tradition was denounced as ẓann, that is, a conjectural or speculative
knowledge that had no scientific values because it was not grounded on a
recognized tribal tradition. (Toshihiko Izutsu, God and Man in the Qur’an, p. 56)
The Qur’ān has repeatedly paraphrased conjectural and speculative
knowledge (ẓann) with the Arabic collocation, ittibāÑ al-ahwā’,
which means – following the natural inclination of the impulsive and
perverse nature of human soul and desire

 All other sources including that which was found in the tribal tradition or
personal experience must be essentially or naturally unreliable. It means that
the jāhilīyyah conception of ʿilm grounded primarily on personal experiences
and tribal traditions should be downgraded to a mere ẓann, i.e., fancies and
conjectures, thus not a reliable knowledge. For instance, the Qur’ān has
denounced the jāhilīyyah atheistic philosophy of life for having denied the
existence of life after death as baseless for it was not grounded on true
knowledge, but on sheer conjecture.
ُ َ‫ي إِ ََّّل َحيَاتُنَا الدُّ ْنيَا نَ ُموتُ َون َْحيَا َو َما يُ ْه ِل ُكنَا إِ ََّّل الدَّ َْ ُر َو َما لَ ُهم بََِ ِل َ ِم ْن ِع ْل ٍم إِ ْن َُ ْم إِ ََّّل ي‬
َ‫ظنُّون‬ َ َِ ‫ َوقَالُوا َما‬
 And they say: What is there but our life in this world? We shall die and we live,
and nothing but Time can destroy us. But of that they have no knowledge: they
are merely making conjecture. (al-Jāthiyah 45: 24)
Knowledge according to Muslim
scholars – Mu’tazilite scholars
al-Qāḍī ‘Abd al-Jabbār,
• the meaning (al-maÑnā) that makes
the soul of the learned feeling
contented after having acquired it. It
is not knowledge if the learned does
not feel contented with it, even
though he believed in it with certainty
• this conception of knowledge
contradicts the definition delineated
by other leading MuÑtazilī
theoreticians
al-Jubbā’ī Abū ‘Alī and al-Jubbā’ī Abū
Hāshim
• a conviction (I’tiqād) of something
that the learned believed to be real,
and corresponds with reality
• Al-Qāḍī ‘Abd al-Jabbār has refuted
this definition, saying that it is far from
truth, because as he stated, “a
faithful follower (al-muqallid) might
have convinced upon something as
real or in correspondent to what it is,
but this state of conviction has never
made him knowledgeable (‘ālim).
Knowledge according to Muslim
scholars – Sunni scholars
Al-Jurjānī
•“attaining the description of
something in the mind” (ḥuṣūl
ṣūrah al-shay’ fī al-’aql)
Ibn Sīnā
• “the understanding or
discernment of something
(idrāk al-shay’), which is
actually the reality reflecting
or representing itself in the
intelligent (al-mudrik) which
has been constantly
observing what it is
al-Ghazālī
•three interrelated concepts;
the innate faculty of
understanding (al-baṣīrah al-
bāṭinah), the true nature of
reality (ḥaqā’iq al-ashyā’),
and the attainment of the
true image or description of
that reality (nafs al-ḥaqā’iq) in
the heart, which he identified
as the seat of knowledge.
•“ḥuṣūl al-mithāl fī al-qalb”,
that is, the attainment of
actual description or
representation in the heart
Knowledge according to al-Ghazali is
attainable through:

the existence of the true nature of the sound and

first,

second,

third,
sound reason things (ḥaqā’iq al- appropriate
(‘aql), intellect ashyā’) which is method by which
(qalb) or the known to man the intelligent soul
intelligent self (al- after having can apply in order
dhāt al-ma’rifah) verified it following to attain the
found in man that sound scientific knowledge
makes him methods; pertaining to the
capable of truth of things
understanding,
and differentiates
him from the rest of the most
animals; important one,
Knowledge according to al-Attās,

 All knowledge whether it be revealed or empirical is originally from Allāh and

makes known to man through either Divine Revelation (waḥy) or symbolic signs
manifested in the natural world of creation (al-kawnīyyah) or signs that are
made hidden in the human self (anfusīyyah).
‫ش ِهيد‬
َ ٍ‫ش ْيء‬ ِ ‫ق َوفِي أَنفُ ِس ِه ْم َحتَّى َيت َ َبيَّنَ لَ ُه ْم أَنَُُّ ْال َح ُّق أ َ َولَ ْم َي ْك‬
َ ِ‫ِ ِب َر ِبه َ أَنَُُّ َعلَى ُك ِه‬ ِ ‫سنُ ِري ِه ْم آ َياتِنَا فِي ْاْلفَا‬
َ 
 Soon will We show them Our Signs in the (furthest) regions (of the earth), and in
their own souls, until it becomes manifest to them that this is the Truth. Is it not
enough that your Lord does witness all things? (Fuṣṣilāt 41:53)
 The main interpreter of this knowledge derived from the three sources above is
the human soul through its spiritual (the faculty of reason and intellect) and
physical faculties (the sensual faculties – sight, hearing, touching, tasting, and
smelling
Al-Attās divided knowledge into two
based on the manner of its attainment:

 Ḥuṣūl – The arrival of the right meaning and descriptions of a thing into the
soul. This can be construed to denote the acquired knowledge, the
knowledge which is attained through observation of the subject of
knowledge and through other relevant empirical methods.
 Wuṣūl – The arrival of the soul at the right meaning and descriptions of a
thing that is in fact the subject of knowledge. This can be interpreted to
signify the Revealed Knowledge that has been made available to men
through tawātur (trustworthy) process of narration, dissemination and
transmission, and handed down from generation to another by authorities
that are trusted in terms of their intellectual and moral integrity
3. Classification of Knowledge and the
Duty of Its Acquisition

 Muslim scholars have classified knowledge and sciences into two main
categories in view of the nature and mode of its arrival, and the order of its
necessity (ahammīyyah) and obligation (wujūb) for Muslims to study:

• originated and developed from the Qur’ān and Sunnah

Al-‘Ulūm al-Naqlīyyah
aw al-Shar‘īyyah • mainly related to the study of Islam as a religion and complete way
of life for humanity

• the Rational or Intellectual sciences

• It is called the Intellectual or Rational sciences because of two
reasons; first, the knowledge established by these disciplines of
Al-‘Ulūm al-‘Aqlīyyah science could be arrived at by human reason and intelligence, and
are not transmitted (naqlī) in the same way as the religious, linguistic
and historical sciences
 Al-‘Ulūm al-Naqlīyyah aw al-
Shar‘īyyah
second, Sharī’ah which covers the
study of the command of Allāh
(Sharī’ah) pertaining to every aspects
first, ‘Aqīdah which covers the of the Muslim life and activities, such as
fundamentals of belief in Islam, such as Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh), Principles
theology (‛ilm al-kalām), the science of Islamic Jurisprudence (Uṣūl al-Fiqh),
of Tawḥīd (‘ilm al-tawḥīd), philosophy Sciences of the Qur’ān (‘Ulūm al-
(falāsifah), metaphysics (‘ilm mā warā’ Qur’ān), Sciences of Ḥadīth (‘Ulūm al-
al-ṭabī‘ah), the principles of religion Ḥadīth), the History of the Prophet
(uṣūluddīn), theology (ilāhīyyah), (Sīrah al-Nabawīyyah), International
Sufism (tasawwuf) and Islamic Relations (Siyār), War and Peace
worldview (taṣawwur); (Maghāzī), Governance and
Administration (al-Aḥkām al-
Sulṭānīyyah), and the Arabic language
(Naḥw, Bayān, Manṭiq, Balāghah);
third, Akhlāq which covers the study of
the principles of ethics and morality in
Islam (‘Ilm al-Ahklāq). It would include
also the study of the nature of human
actions, the meaning of good and evil,
right and wrong, and the ethical
instructions for Muslims to emulate the
morally good (maḥmūdah) and avoid
the morally evil (madhmūmah), and to
constantly strive (mujāhadah) to
achieve the highest possible ranking of
spiritual excellence (iḥsān), piety
(taqwā), sincerity in good deeds
(ikhlāṣ), certain faith (īmān), and
others.
Al-‘Ulūm al-‘Aqlīyyah
the applied sciences
logics, mathematics, (al-‛Ulūm al-
the sciences of nature Riyāḍīyyah) such as
(al-‛Ulūm al- engineering,
Ṭabī‛īyyah), such as architecture and arts,
cosmology, biology, medical sciences,
chemistry and physics farming, and
philosophy (Falāsifah).
‘Ilm al-ladunnī

 Allāh “may bestow the favor of specific spiritual knowledge (‘ilm al-
ladunnī) and wisdom (ḥikmah) upon the elect among His servants, referred
to in the Qur’ān as “the friends of Allah” (awliyā’ulLāh), in proportion to
their degree of sincerity (ihklāṣ) and goodness (iḥsān)”.
 In the Qur’ān, the Prophet Mūsā is mentioned to have met with one of
Allāh’s servant who had been bestowed with “the knowledge directly
from Allāh’s presence”. The servant of Allāh that Mūsā had met is known as
Khiḍr.
 Allāh had bestowed Khiḍr with specific spiritual knowledge and wisdom,
including the ability to interpret the inner meaning and mystery of events
ِ ‫) فَ َو َجدَا َعبْدا ً ِ هم ْن ِعبَا ِدنَا آت َ ْينَاهُ َر ْح َمةً ِم ْن ِعن ِدنَا َو َعلَّ ْمنَاهُ م ِِن لَّدُنَّا‬
 The Qur’ān, al-Kahf 18: 65 (‫ع ْلما‬
Cont…‘Ilm al-ladunnī

 Man can receive this knowledge as a result of:

 his true faith (īmān) in God,
 sincere act of worship and devotion (‘ibādah) to God,
 constant performance of righteous deeds (a‘māl ṣāliḥah) and
 upright moral integrity that reaches the level of iḥsān.
 He receives this special knowledge from Allāh’s presence by direct insight
(dhawq) of the true nature of reality or by unveiling (kashf) it to his spiritual
vision
The obligatory knowledge for Muslims
to attain

 Muslims are obliged to study and master the Transmitted Knowledge

primarily before they decided to specialize in any disciplines of the
Rational Knowledge.
 Transmitted Knowledge is obligatory to all Muslims (farḍ ‘ayn) – a religious
duty that is imposed upon every Muslim men and women, to define the
personal relationship with the Creator as His servants (‘abdulLāh),
 Rational Knowledge is obligatory to some Muslims only (farḍ kifāyah), to
realize the responsibility as vicegerents of God (khalīfatulLāh) on earth
 The importance of mastering
Transmitted knowledge before
Rational knowledge
 Muslims are warned about the danger of having mastered any disciplines of the Rational
Knowledge alone without having deeply grounded on the Transmitted sciences,
 This would import confusion into the Muslim minds and the disintegration of one’s
personality.
 Mastering the Transmitted Knowledge would serve as a guiding principle in determining
the aim and objectives of the scientific learning and research activities involving Muslim
scientists and students.
 During the golden era of Islamic civilization, the study of natural sciences had never been
separated from the study of religion and ethics.
 Students were not allowed to master any disciplines of Rational sciences provided they
were first of all well-versed in the Sharī‘ah sciences, especially those sciences which
enable the students to enhance their understanding of the fundamentals of religion and
ethics from the revealed sources or texts (nuṣūṣ), namely the Qur’ān and Sunnah
 Qur’ānic āyāt that demonstrate its
support towards scientific exploration:

 Destruction of the environment and human civilization

‫ض‬ ِ ‫يروا فِي ْاأل َ ْر‬ ُ ‫ض الََِّي َع ِملُوا لَ َعلَّ ُه ْم يَ ْر ِجعُونَ \ قُ ِْ ِس‬ ِ َّ‫ت أ َ ْيدِي الن‬
َ ‫اس ِليُ َِيقَ ُهم بَ ْع‬ َ ‫سادُ فِي ْالبَ ِ هر َو ْالبَ ْح ِر بِ َما َك‬
ْ َ‫سب‬ َ َ‫ظ َه َر ْالف‬
َ 
َ‫ِْ َكانَ َعا ِق َبةُ الََِّينَ ِمن قَ ْب ُِ َكانَ أ َ ْكث َ ُر َُم ُّم ْش ِر ِكين‬
َ ‫ظ ُروا َكي‬ُ ‫فَان‬
 “Mischief has appeared on land and sea because of (the deeds) that the
hands of men have earned, that (God) may give them a taste of some of
their Deeds: in order that they may turn back (from Evil). Say: Travel
through the earth and see what was the end of those before (you): Most
of them worshipped others besides God”. (al-Rūm 30: 41-42)
Cont…

 Natural phenomena and its evolution and reproduction

ْ ‫ض ث ُ َّم يُ ْخ ِر ُج بِ ُِ زَ ْرعا ً ُّم ْخت َ ِلفا ً أ َ ْل َوانُُُ ث ُ َّم يَ ِهي ُج فَت َ َراهُ ُم‬
‫صفَ هرا ً ث ُ َّم‬ ِ ‫سلَ َكُُ يَنَابِي َع فِي ْاأل َ ْر‬
َ َ‫اء َما ًء ف‬ِ ‫س َم‬ َّ ‫اّلل أَنزَ َِ ِمنَ ال‬
َ َّ ‫ أَلَ ْم ت َ َر أ َ َّن‬
ِ ‫ُاما ً ِإ َّن ِفي ََ ِل َ لَ َِ ْك َرى ِأل ُ ْو ِلي ْاأل َ ْل َبا‬
‫ب‬ َ ‫َي ْج َعلُُُ ُح‬
 “See you not that God sends down rain from the sky, and leads it through
springs in the earth? Then He causes to grow, therewith, produce of various
colors: then it withers; you will see it grow yellow; then He makes it dry up
and crumble away. Truly, in this, is a Message of remembrance to men of
understanding”. (al-Zumar 39:21)