Name : Septi Rahayu

Nim : 1711230034
Class : PBI 6 B

Part II: Quantitative Research Methods

Chapter 2: Research Process, Problems, Variables, and Research Paradigms
A. Quantitative research process

testing
instrument

population
instrument
and sample development

formulation theoretical hypothesis

of the data collection data analysis
basis formulation
problem

conclusions and
recommendations
Figure 2.1 components and process of quantitative research

Figure 2.1 explains that a study is carried out because there is a problem that is
happening, but the problem in the research must be clear, different from the problem in
qualitative research, the problem is still temporary and will develop after the researcher
enters the field.
After the problem has been identified and limited, then the problem is then
formulated. The formulation of the problem is generally stated in question sentences. So
the theory in quantitative research is used to answer the formulation of the research
problem. The answer to the formulation of a new problem using the theory is called a
hypothesis, then the hypothesis can be interpreted as a temporary answer to the research
problem formulation.
The hypothesis which is still the temporary answer will then be proven
empirically / real truth. For this reason, researchers conducted data collection. Data
 collection is carried out in certain populations determined by researchers. Researching is
looking for data that is accurate / accurate. For this reason researchers use research
instruments, so that research instruments can be trusted it must be tested for validity and
reliability. After the instrument has been tested for validity and reliability, it can be used
to measure variables that have been determined to be examined. Instruments for data
collection can be in the form of test and non-test. For non-test instruments, it can be used
as a questionnaire, observation guide and interview.
The collected data is then analyzed. The analysis is directed to answer the
problem formulation and the proposed hypothesis. In quantitative research, data analysis
uses statistics. Data from the results of the subsequent analysis are presented and given
discussion. Presentation of data can use tables, frequency distribution tables, line graphs,
bar graphs, piecharts (pie charts) and pictograms. Restrictions on the results of research
are in-depth explanations and interpretations of the data that has been presented.
After the research results are given a discussion, then it can be concluded. The
conclusion contains short answers to each problem statement based on data that has been
collected.
If the proposed hypothesis is not proven, it is necessary to check whether there is
something wrong in the use of theory, instruments, collection, data analysis or the
formulation of the problem proposed.

B. the problem
Emory (1985) states that both pure and applied research, all depart from the
problem, only for applied research, the results can directly be used to make decisions.
 So every research that will be done must always depart from the problem,
although it is passed that choosing research problems is often the most difficult thing in
the research process (Tuckman, 1998).
1. source of the problem
Stoner (1982) suggests that problems can be known or sought if there is a
deviation in experience with reality, between what is planned with reality, complaints,
and competition.
Here are the sources of the problem:
a. There is a deviation between experience and reality
b. There is a deviation between what has been planned and reality
c. There is a complaint
d. There is competition

C. Problem Formulation
The formulation of the problem is a question whose answers will be sought
through data collection. each research problem statement must be based on the problem.
 Forms of research problem formulation
a. Descriptive problem formulation
that is, a problem statement concerning the question of the existence of an
independent variable, whether only on one or more variables. So in this study the
researcher did not make a comparison of that variable in another sample, and looked
for the relationship of that variable with other variables. This kind of research
henceforth is called descriptive research. Example formulation of descriptive
problems.
1. How well does the united cabinet perform?
2. What is the attitude of the community towards state universities with legal status?
3. How high is the effectiveness of the three passenger car policy in Jakarta?
4. How high is the level of community satisfaction and appreciation for local
government services in the health sector?

b. Comparative problem formulation

Comparative formulation is a research problem formulation that compares the
existence of one or more variables at two or more different samples, or at different
times. Examples of the formulation of the problem are as follows.
1) Are there differences in work productivity between Civil Servants, BUMN and
Private? (one variable in 3 samples)
2) are there similarities in the way of promotion between companies A and B?
3) Are there differences in work discipline skills between national private employees
and foreign companies? (two variables in two samples)
4) Is there a difference in the comfort of riding a Train and Bus according to various
community groups.
5) Is there a difference in the durability of the shopkeepers standing from the city
and village, mountain (one variable in 3 samples).
6) Are there differences in the level of community satisfaction in Districts A and B
in terms of health services?
7) there differences in management quality between Private Banks and Government
Banks.

c. Associative problem formulation

is a research problem formulation that is asking the relationship between two or
more variables. There are three forms of relationships, namely symmetrical, causal
and interactive / reciprocal relationships
1) Symmetrical Relationship
A symmetrical relationship is a relationship between two or more
variables that coincidentally occur together, so it is not a causal or interactive
relationship, an example of the problem formulation is as follows:
 a. Is there a relationship between the number of ants in the tree and the level of fruit
sweetness?
b. Is there a relationship between hair color and leadership ability?
c. Is there a relationship between the number of umbrellas sold and the number of
crimes?
d. Is there a relationship between the number of radios in the countryside and shoes
purchased? Example of the research title is as follows:
(1) The relationship between the number of radios in the countryside and the
number of shoes sold.
(2) The relationship between height and work performance in marketing
(3) The relationship between the umbrella sold and the crime rate.

2) Causal Relations
Causal relationships are causal relationships. So here there are
independent (influencing) and dependent (influenced) variables, for example:
a. Is there any effect of the payroll system on work performance?
b. How big is the influence of national leadership on employee work efficiency?
c. How much influence the office layout on employee work efficiency
d. How much influence the curriculum, education media and teacher quality on the
quality of human resources produced from a school? Examples of research titles
are as follows:
(1) Effect of incentives on employee work discipline in department X. (one
independent variable)
(2) Effect of leadership style and office layout on work efficiency in Department
X. (two independent variables)

3) Interactive / reciprocal / reciprocal relationships

Interactive relationships are relationships that influence each other. Here it is
unknown which independent and dependent variables. Example:
(a) The relationship between motivation and achievement. Motivation can affect
achievement and vice versa.
(b) The relationship between intelligence and wealth. Intelligence can cause
wealth, also rich people can increase intelligence because nutrition is fulfilled.

D. Research Variables
The research variable is an attribute or nature or value of people, objects or
activities that have certain variations determined by researchers to be studied and then
conclusions drawn.
According to the relationship between one variable with another, the various
research variables can be divided into:
 a. Independent variable The independent variable is a variable that affects or is the
cause of the change or the emergence of an independent variable (bound).
b. dependent variable. Dependent variable is a variable that is affected or which is due,
because of the independent variable.

learning motivation learning achievement

(independent variable) (dependent variable)
Figure 2.2 Example of an independent-dependent variable relationship

c. Moderator Variables, are variables that influence (strengthen and weaken) the
relationship between independent and dependent variables.
d. variable intervening, Tuckman(1988) an intervening variable is that factor that
theoretically affect the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen, measure, or
manipulate.
e. Control variable: is a variable that is controlled or made constant so that the influence
of the independent variable on the dependent is not influenced by external factors not
examined. The control variable is used by researchers when they are going to conduct
comparative research.

E. Research Paradigm
The research paradigm is a mindset that shows the relationship between variables
to be examined while also reflecting the type and number of problem formulations that
need to be answered through research, theories used to formulate hypotheses, types and
amounts of hypotheses and statistical analysis techniques to be used.
Paradigm is a perspective or see something that lives in a person and influences
that person in looking at the surrounding reality. The research paradigm is a framework
of thinking that explains how researchers' view of the facts of life social and researchers
treatment of science or a theory constructed as a fundamental view of a discipline
knowledge of what is the main problem that should be studied. Paradigm research also
explains how researchers understand a problem, as well testing criteria as a foundation
for answer research problems (Guba & Lincoln, 1988: 89-115).
The term paradigm was first introduced by Thomas Kuhn (1962), and later
popularized by Robert Friedrichs (1970). According to Kuhn, paradigm is a way of
knowing which social reality constructed by mode of thought or mode of certain inquiry,
which then produces a specific mode of knowing. This definition is confirmed by
Friedrichs (1980), as a view the fundamental of a scientific discipline about what is the
issue that should be learned. Another understanding put forward by George Ritzer, with
states the paradigm as a view the basis of what scientists know which is the main problem
that should be studied by one branch / discipline Science.
 The following is a form of quantitative research paradigm / model specifically for
survey research:

1. Simple paradigm
This research paradigm consists of one independent and dependent variable.

Figure 2.5 Simple Paradigm

X = Quality of equipment Y = Quality of goods produced

Based on this paradigm we can determine:

a. There are two descriptive formulations and one associative, namely:

1) Descriptive problem formulation (two)
a) What about X? (tool quality)
b) What about Y? (quality of goods produced)
2) Formulation of associative / relationship problems (one)
How does the relationship or influence the quality of the tool with the quality of
goods produced
b. There are two theories used, namely the theory of working tools and the quality of
goods
c. Hypothesis there are two kinds of descriptive hypotheses and associative hypotheses
d. Data Analysis Techniques
Statistical techniques used for data analysis and hypothesis testing.99
1. For two descriptive hypotheses, if the data is in the form of intervals and
ratios then the hypothesis testing uses one sample t-test.
2. For associative hypotheses, if the data for both variables are in the form of
intervals or ratios, then using the product moment correlation statistics
technique.

2. Simple Sequential Paradigms

In this paradigm there are more than two variables, but the relationship is still simple.

X1 = input quality X3= output quality

X2 =process quality Y = quality of outcome
 Figure 2.6 Simple paradigm, showing the relationship between an independent
variable with a dependent variable in sequence. To find the relationship between
variables (X1 with X2; X2 with X3; and X3 with Y) simple correlation techniques are
used. Up and down of Y prices can be predicted through the regression equation Y over
X3, with the equation Y = a + bX3
3. Multiple Paradigms with two Independent variables
In this paradigm there are two independent variables and one dependent. In this
paradigm there are 3 descriptive problem formulations and 4 associative problem
formulations. (3 simple correlations and 1 double correlation)

X1 = family environment Y = family success

X2 = demographics

Figure 2.7 Multiple paradigms with two independent variables X1 and X2 and
one dependent variable Y. to find the relationship X1 with Y and X1 with Y using simple
correlation techniques. To find the relationship between X1 and X2 together with Y,
using multiple correlation.

4. Multiple Paradigms with three Independent variables

In this paradigm there are three independent variables (X1, X2, X3) and one
dependent Y. There are 4 descriptive problem formulas and associative problem
formulation (relations) for simple ones there are 6 and double ones are at least 1.

Figure 2.8 Double paradigm with three independent variables

X1 = Engine quality X3 = Career system
X2 = Manager's leadership style Y = Work productivity

Figure 2.8 Double Paradigm with three Independent variables namely X1, X2,
X3. to find the magnitude of the relationship between X1 and Y; X2 with Y; X3 with Y;
(X1 with X2; X2 with X3; and X1 with X3 can use a simple correlation. To find the
 magnitude of the relationship between X1 together with X2 and X3) with respect to Y
used a multiple correlation. Simple, double regression and partial correlation can be
applied in this paradigm.

5. Multiple Paradigms with two Dependent variables

X = education level Y1 = career in a workplace

Y2 = work discipline

Figure 2.9 Dual Paradigm with one independent variable and two Dependent variables. to
find the magnitude of the relationship between X with Y1 and X with Y2 use a simple
correlation technique. Likewise for Y1 and Y2. Regression analysis can also be used
here.
6. Multiple Paradigms with two Independent variables and two Dependent variables
In this paradigm there are two Independent variables (X1, X2,) and two
Dependent variables (Y1, Y2). There are 4 descriptive problem formulas and 6 simple
relationship problem formulas. Correlation and multiple regression can also be used to
analyze the relationship between variables simultaneously.

X1 Y1

X1 Y2
X1 = Train cleanliness Y1 = number of tickets sold
X2 = train service Y2 = train passenger satisfaction

Figure 2.10 Multiple Paradigms with two Independent variables and two Dependent
variables. The relationship between variables r1, r2, r3, r4, r5, r6 can be analyzed with a
simple correlation. The relationship between X1 and X2, with respect to Y1 and X1
and X2, together with Y2 can be analyzed by multiple correlations. Simple or multiple
regression analysis can also be used to predict the number of tickets sold and train
passenger satisfaction.

7. Path paradigm
 X1 = Socioeconomic status X2 = IQ
X3 = Achievement motivation Y = Learning achievement

Figure 2.11 Path paradigm using statistical analysis techniques, namely path analysis.
The analysis is done using correlation and regression so that it can be known to arrive at
the last dependent, must go through a direct path or through intervening variables. In that
paradigm there are 4 descriptive problem formulas and 6 relationship problem

F. Finding Problems
When the research problem has been found, the research work has been
completed 50%.To find a problem can be done by analyzing the problem that is with the
problem tree.
Problems can be identified which problems are important, which are less
important and which are not important. Through the analysis of this problem, the roots of
the probl Example Problem analysis uses the paradigm of Sutermeister (1976) about the
factors that affect work productivity.
For example: low productivity or many complaints from the public about the
quality of services provided by the organization.
An analysis was conducted on what caused the low productivity of the
organization's work. Caused by the low productivity of the people in the organization.em
can also be identified.
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