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Metal cutting - theory and application

Book · December 2014

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Gordana Globocki Lakic D. Kramar

University of Banja Luka University of Ljubljana
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 ЕТ У БАЊ
ИТ О
РЗ

UNIVERSITY OF BANJA LUKA

ЈЛ
ВЕ
•УНИ

УЦ
И•
19 71

1975 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Gordana Globočki Lakić

Davorin Kramar
Janez Kopač

METAL CUTTING
THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

Cutting forces Surface quality Chip shape

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UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 PREFACE

Dear readers,

More than 5% of the world GDP is related to machining processes as part of manufacturing
technologies. This proves that knowledge about machining processes is strategically
important and has to be further improved. With this in mind, the idea is to have a book
that gives us an opportunity to open it at any time and provide us with theoretical or/and
technological information about machining processes. Therefore, this book covers the most
important processes, such as turning, milling, drilling, etc. Besides conventional, this book
also describes cutting-edge technologies. The basic cutting theory is similar or practically the
same for all the processes, while for further development, we must be familiar with the
mechanisms occurring in the cutting zone and improve this understanding. In the cutting zone
takes place the transformation of material, where material is separated from the workpiece,
producing chips, and what is most valuable – the final shaped workpiece (product).
However, technicians and engineers must also become familiar, besides conventional, with
the latest sound developments in this field, and make a step further in the real production
environment. Therefore, we still have to improve our knowledge and fully comprehend
cutting processes and focus on mechanisms and reasons for successful or less successful
cutting. This can be achieved through a careful and precise analysis of the cutting process
behaviour. Machining problems such as bad surface roughness, unpredictable tool-wear and
vibration occurrence (chatter), are directly related to the machining parameters. Usually, when
these problems occur, they have to be minimised. This will however lead to lower
productivity, while trends require the opposite. The solution lies in careful analyses and the
development of predictive performance models that can predict the process behaviour as well
as the mentioned problems. The fact is that in order to prevent bad machining scenarios, one
must predict them. These are the reasons why further analysis, research, and studies of the
cutting theory, processes and technologies, are inevitable. Ideally, improved knowledge
would offer the possibility of finding the best/optimal solution for any specific/unique
problem. Nevertheless, this cannot be done without the strong support of a theoretical
background.
What is the difference between a technician and an engineer? The technician is an operator
responsible for the realization of the machining production (by using modern machine tools,
of course). On the other side, the engineer is a person who has to take care of the preparation
of technology and definition of optimal cutting/machining parameters. And the fact is that
there can be no single optimal solution in machining. This depends on specific objectives that
we have, and they are case-based. In general, these objectives pertain to three main areas: cost
optimization, time optimization and quality optimization. All the objectives are in fact
opposite in nature. It is therefore important for process planning to consider all the conditions
and choose the right viewpoint for optimization. Moreover, recent trends are directed towards
a sustainable production, sustainable machining, etc. In order to reach the goal of this idea, the
book is encouraging engineers to act in a manner where they can significantly contribute to
saving energy, reducing consumption of cooling/lubrication fluids, minimizing waste, etc.

Banja Luka and Ljubljana, November, 2014

 Contents

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Importance of processing technology with chip removal in modern manufacturing ..............1
1.2 General information on machining technology .......................................................................6
1.3 Types of machining with chip removal ...................................................................................6
1.4 Model of the cutting process ...................................................................................................8
1.5 Machinability of materials ......................................................................................................9
Literature .....................................................................................................................................12

CHAPTER II
MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL IN MACHINING PROCESSES ..........................................13
2.1 The importance of measurement and quality of products .....................................................13
2.2 Process of measurement ........................................................................................................16
2.3 Basic principles of measurement ..........................................................................................16
2.4 Accuracy of machining – dimensions, tolerances and related attributes ..............................17
2.5 Length measurement .............................................................................................................22
2.5.1 Single purpose measuring tools ...................................................................................22
2.5.2 Multipurpose indicating measuring instruments ..........................................................26
2.6 Angles and cones measurement ............................................................................................28
2.7 Laboratory exercise – cutting wedge angles measurement ...................................................31
2.7.1 Geometry of the cutting tool ........................................................................................32
2.7.2 Description of the experimental exercise .....................................................................34
Literature .....................................................................................................................................36

CHAPTER III
CHIP SHAPES AND TYPES ..........................................................................................................39
3.1 Chip shaping and forming process ........................................................................................39
3.2 Rating of chip forms; favourable and unfavourable chip forms ...........................................45
3.3 Experimental chip shape determination ................................................................................47
3.4 Main conclusions regarding the creation of favourable chip forms ......................................50
3.5 Laboratory exercise – Determination of shape and type of the chips ...................................50
Literature .....................................................................................................................................55

CHAPTER IV
CHIP COMPRESSION RATIO .......................................................................................................57
4.1 Theoretical considerations ....................................................................................................57
4.2 Influence of the cutting regime on the chip compression ratio .............................................59
4.3 Experimental determination of the chip compression ratio ..................................................60
4.4 Laboratory exercise – Determination of the chip compression ratio ....................................61
Literature .....................................................................................................................................67

CHAPTER V
CUTTING FORCES ........................................................................................................................69
5.1 Theoretical considerations ....................................................................................................69
5.2. Determination of specific cutting forces ..............................................................................75
5.3 Determination of the resultant cutting force components .....................................................77
5.3.1 Components of resultant cutting force in turning ........................................................78

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METAL CUTTING – Theory and Applications

5.3.2 Components of resultant cutting force in drilling ........................................................78

5.3.3 Components of resultant cutting force in milling ........................................................79
5.4 Statistical evaluation of experimental results ........................................................................82
5.5 The cutting force components measuring system .................................................................83
5.6 Laboratory exercise – Measurements of cutting force components ......................................87
5.6.1 Software for cutting force measurement and analysis .................................................92
5.6.2 Measurements of feed force and torque in drilling ......................................................95
5.7 Final conclusions ...................................................................................................................98
Literature ...................................................................................................................................100

CHAPTER VI
THERMAL PHENOMENA IN MACHINING PROCESSES ......................................................101
6.1 Theoretical considerations ..................................................................................................101
6.2 Temperature field of the cutting zone .................................................................................103
6.3 Methods for determining temperatures in cutting ...............................................................105
6.3.1 Caloric heat measurements ........................................................................................106
6.3.2 Measurement with thermo-colours ............................................................................107
6.3.3 Thermoelectric measurement methods ......................................................................108
6.3.4 Radiation measurement ..............................................................................................111
6.4 Laboratory exercise .............................................................................................................112
6.4.1 Calorimetric method for mean chip temperature measurement .................................112
6.4.2 Cutting temperature measurements with thermocouple .............................................116
Literature ...................................................................................................................................118

CHAPTER VII
TOOL WEAR ................................................................................................................................121
7.1 Theoretical considerations ..................................................................................................121
7.2 Determination of tool wear .................................................................................................128
7.3 Tool life line determination .................................................................................................129
7.4 Final conclusions .................................................................................................................133
7.5 Experimental measurement of tool wear .............................................................................135
7.6 Laboratory exercises ...........................................................................................................138
Literature ...................................................................................................................................144

CHAPTER VIII
SURFACE ROUGHNESS .............................................................................................................145
8.1 Theoretical considerations ..................................................................................................145
8.2 Basic definitions of surface roughness ................................................................................147
8.3 Surface roughness in machining .........................................................................................149
8.4 Surface roughness measurements .......................................................................................151
8.5 Laboratory exercises – Surface roughness measurements ..................................................153
Literature ...................................................................................................................................159

CHAPTER IX
MANUFACTURABILITY AND MACHINABILITY .................................................................161
9.1 Theoretical considerations ..................................................................................................161
9.2 Manufacturability ................................................................................................................164
9.3 Machinability ......................................................................................................................171
9.4 Practical examples ...............................................................................................................178
Literature ...................................................................................................................................192

xii
 Contents

CHAPTER X
PROCESS MODELLING USING DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS ..............................................193
10.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................193
10.2 Process modelling .............................................................................................................195
10.3 Methodology for Design of Experiments ..........................................................................199
10.3.1 Selecting an appropriate design for the experiment ................................................203
10.3.2 Analytical tools of DOE ..........................................................................................205
10.4 Laboratory exercise ...........................................................................................................208
Literature ...................................................................................................................................215

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