International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36

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International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmactool

Review

Evolution of electrochemical finishing processes through cross innovations

and modeling
Piyushkumar B. Tailor, Amit Agrawal, Suhas S. Joshi n
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076, India

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: Recent advances in precision technologies have put stringent demands on micro-/nano-surface finishing
Received 1 July 2012 processes; they require hygienic surfaces that are free from lays and stresses induced by finishing processes.
Received in revised form Over the last two decades, the so-called conventional electrochemical finishing processes working on the
16 November 2012
electrical, chemical and mechanical principles have been coupled with additional sources of energy like
Accepted 18 November 2012
Available online 28 November 2012
magnetic field, ultrasonic vibrations, etc. to enhance their capability. This review focuses on fundamental
principles and controlling parameters of the ECF/ECP processes that have been developed through cross
Keywords: innovations. It encompasses a detailed classification of the processes, followed by their salient features and
Electrochemical finishing (ECF) capabilities. Mathematical and empirical approaches for the modeling of the processes have been presented
Variants of ECF
along with their key formulations. It is understood that the processes are available for specific work materials
Removal mechanism
and surface geometries, and in specific applications. It is necessary to investigate the effects of work/tool
Modeling
interactions in the presence of additional sources of energies besides the usual parametric effect, and to
develop comprehensive phenomenological models and simulations of the ECF/ECP processes.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2. Electrochemical finishing processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3. Basic mechanisms in electrochemical finishing/polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1. Principle of electrochemical finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.1. Role of power supply in electrochemical finishing/polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.2. Effect of electrolyte properties on electrochemical finishing/polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.3. Importance of relative position/movement of electrodes in electrochemical finishing/polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.4. Role of work and tool material in electrochemical finishing/polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4. Mechanism and parameters of evolve electrochemical finishing processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1. Phenomenal changes due to the use of mechanical energy source in electrochemical finishing/polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2. Effect of magnetic field in electrochemical finishing/polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3. Effect of current/voltage modulation in electrochemical finishing/polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4. Use of ultrasonic energy in electrochemical finishing/polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5. Use of lasers in electrochemical finishing/polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.6. Classification of ECF/ECP processes based on process capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5. Modeling of electrochemical finishing processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.1. Empirical models for prediction of material removal/surface finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2. Analytical models for prediction of material removal/surface finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3. Other Models for ECF/ECP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6. Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 22 2576 7527 (office); fax: þ91 22 2572 6875.
E-mail address: ssjoshi@iitb.ac.in (S.S. Joshi).

0890-6955/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2012.11.005
16 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36

Nomenclature Fc cutting force

Fs
-
active surface area of anode
a atomic molecular weight F Lorentz force
a0 inter-electrode gap GECS-ET grinding and electrochemical smoothing on end turn-
ai proportion of ith element ing surfaces
ac activity of solution h Burr height
A electrophoretic effect ho initial burr height
Aa atomic mass Hp hardness of grinding wheel
Ac cross-sectional area of electrode Hw hardness of metal dissolved hydroxide
AECF abrasive electrochemical finishing id dissolving electrical current density on anode
AECG abrasive electrochemical grinding il limiting current
Aw gram atomic weight of the metallic ions ilp pulse limiting current
A1 surface area of workpiece, machining area ipl pulse limiting current density
B constant I current
-
B vector of the magnetic flux density Il steady state limiting current density
c molar conductance IR potential drop
C concentration of solution j integer
CL weight loss due to corrosion J current density
Co concentration of original solution Kb Boltzmann constant
Cs concentration of dissolved product on the surface of Ke conductivity of electrolyte
electrodes KV electrochemical machinability coefficient
d diameter of double side round shape tips of feed K conductivity of electrolyte
electrode Kp degree of polarization
dcont diameter of abrasive grain, which just contact the K0 correction coefficient of the effect from loss current
work surface K00 specific conductance
dg average size of grain l length of channel
dmax maximum grain size L electrode length
dmean mean diameter of abrasive grain LECM laser enhanced electrochemical machining
D diffusion coefficient mi mass of the electrolytic ion
D0 diffusion coefficient at zero time Dmn effective mass removal of material in n number of
D1 diffusion coefficient of ion cycle of voltage
DD thickness of surface layer removed M atomic weight
e charge of electron Mi atomic mass of ith element
eECG specific energy consumption of ECG MEAP magneto-electrolytic-abrasive polishing
E over potential MEF-ET magnetic-assistance electrochemical finishing of end
Ea anode reversible potential turning process
Ec cathode reversible potential MPEF-ET magnetic-assistance pulsed-electrochemical finishing
EL weight loss due to pure erosion of end turning process
ECAL electrochemical abrasive lapping MREF-ECM modulated reverse electric field electrochemical
ECB electrochemical buffing machining
ECB0 electrochemical boring Mh material removal height
ECD electrochemical deburring MRR rate of material removal
ECF electrochemical finishing MRRabrasion material removed by abrasive action
ECFG electrochemical finishing and grinding MRRECM material removed by electrochemical action
ECG electrochemical grinding MRRtotal total material removed
ECH electrochemical honing n number of equivalents exchanged
ECL electrochemical lapping ni atomic number of ith element
ECM-AP ECM-abrasive polishing n0 number density of anions and cations at zero time
ECMmicro electrochemical micromachining nt number of the constituent element
ECMP electrochemical mechanical polishing N numbers of side cutting depth
ECM lapping electrochemical machining-lapping Ntotal number of abrasive grains in machining zone per
ECP electrochemical polishing unit time
ECS electrochemical saw O limiting conductivity
ECSm electrochemical smoothing process P0 constant
ECT-MAFelectrochemical turning-magnetic abrasive finishing PEAAP pulse electrolysis asymmetric alternating potential
ECT-RB electrochemical turning with roller burnishing PEF-ET pulsed-electrochemical finishing of end turning
EMAF electrolytic magnetic abrasive finishing process
Ed decomposition potential PEL pulse-electro-leveling
EECG energy consumption for ECG PGECS-ET pulse grinding and electrochemical smoothing on
Es streaming potential in diffused double layer of EDL end turning surfaces
-
E vector of electrical field strength Pulsed-EP pulsed electrochemical polishing
f feed rate q charge
fm feeding velocity of electrode qc specific soluble volume of metal
F Faraday constant Q electric charge
Q0 constant
 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36 17

r radius of workpiece VECG volume of material surplus removed as a result of ECG

-
RaE electrode roughness parameter v velocity vector
RT ratio of instantaneous heating to average heating DV over-voltage
S arc of electrode boring-bit w specific conductance of electrolyte
Sn minimum gap size for given t1 W dissolved weight
DS material removal thickness during single pulse x solids loading
SL weight loss due to interactive/synergistic X X-coordinate from cathode to anode
T temperature Xo initial gap between electrode and hole wall
TECP tribo-electrochemical polishing X1 magnetic flux density
t time X2 applied voltage
tc critical pulse on-time for thermal limitation X3 tool feed rate, SR ¼surface finish
tg width of grinding wheel X4 workpiece rotational speed
tp pulse time yo initial inter-electrode gap
tp/tpp duty cycle Dy removal of base material
tpp pulse period Ye equilibrium gap
t1 pulse on time Z valency of ions/cations/anode metal
t2 pulse off time aT conductivity coefficient at initial temperature of
Ttot total time of machining electrolyte
u linear flow velocity of the electrode d thickness of viscous layer
U amplitude of voltage pulse dd thickness of diffusion boundary layer
UEF ultrasonic electrochemical finishing/ultrasonic-aided davg average steady state diffusion layer thickness
electrochemical finishing dp pulsating diffusion layer thickness
UEL ultrasonic-aided electro-leveling Z current efficiency
UMEMM ultrasonic and magnetic assistance in electrochemical Za anode over-potential
micromachining Zc cathode over-potential
UPL-IED ultra-precision lapping with in-process dressing Zd duty factor of pulse
vc cutting speed yb difference between boiling and initial temperature of
vd diffusion velocity electrolyte under the gap
vdf diffusion velocity of product yi current efficiency of metal dissolution
vds dissolving velocity on anode ypl current efficiency of metal dissolution at i¼ ipl
vf velocity of electrode tool l constant factor
V applied voltage v kinematic viscosity of solution
VPM-AECMP voltage pulse-modulated abrasive free electro- r density
chemical mechanical planarization ra density of anode
Vm volume of machined material s reciprocal resistance
Vov over potential c potential
Vr potential difference across the electrolyte o pffiffiffiffiffiffi Rangular velocity
1 2
Vspec specific metal removal ð1= 2pÞ p ex =2 dx probability equation

1. Introduction  The generated surfaces have superior corrosion resistance,

It is known that a manufacturing process leaves its marks on
surfaces and sub-surfaces that it generates. This in turn influences
the functional life of the product bearing the surface. Therefore,
application of a manufacturing process to obtain the surface and
sub-surface of desired quality is always a major challenge. In
many cases, roughing and semi-finishing operations are followed
by finishing or polishing techniques to make the surface more
amenable to its function. The finishing and polishing processes
are broadly classified into a variety of categories based on the
energy sources [1–5] they use in effecting material removal. See
for typical types of finishing processes in Fig. 1.
The finishing processes that use mechanical force as the
energy source tend to generate heat and consequently leave
behind an affected zone. On the other hand, the electrical
energy-based processes normally show thermal effects on the
generated surfaces. The chemical energy-based processes suffer
from low material removal rates. However, the electrochemical
energy-based processes have some advantages over the other
processes for the reasons mentioned below:
 These processes do not depend on the mechanical properties
of the material that is being finished or polished [6].
stress relief and are hygienically clean with no directionality
finish or hydrogen embrittlement [7].
 The electrochemical processes have good compatibility with
a wide range of other processes in which different sources
of energy are used. They allow hybridization and hence their
performance enhancement [8–14].
Several significant contributions in the area of finishing using
electrochemical-based processes have occurred during the last
four decades some of which are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
In the 1980s, Pramanik et al. [15] compared the performance
of three electrolytes in electrochemical deburring process.
They found that a combination of H3PO4 and H2SO4 gives best
metal dissolution rate and minimum deviation of contour at the
deburred edge. Chirkov et al. [16] have extended the application
of ECP to improve the corrosion resistance of medical instruments
made from martensite chrome steel. They have smoothened
a micro-relief by electrochemical polishing and noted that
low roughness values give higher corrosion resistance. Ebeid
et al. [17] hybridized the electrochemical and boring processes
and termed the new process as electrochemical boring (ECBo).
18 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36
Energy source Mechanical
Abrasive
wheel
Example
Grinding
Fig. 1. Classification of finishing processes by the type of energy source.
They have used rotating and non-rotating electrodes for enlarge-
ment of pre-drilled holes. Their comparative experimental
research inferred that the non-rotating process yields higher
material removal rate, whereas the rotating configuration of
electrode gives constant material removal rate irrespective of
machining time. They have also shown that rotational speed
(11000 rpm) is adequate for achieving competent accuracy and
surface finish. Tam et al. [18] have optimized the ECM-abrasive
polishing process for mild steel and biomedical titanium orifice
ring. They have achieved surface roughness of 0.64 mm Rtm with
5.64 V, 7% concentration of electrolyte and 0.61 bar tool-holding
pressure. While in case of titanium orifice ring surface finish of
0.09 mm Ra was obtained.
A thorough review of the literature suggests that during the
last few decades, many researchers have focused primarily on
the ECF/ECP processes. The classical studies on mechanisms of
the processes include a study of electro-polishing of stainless
steel [19]. In the recent past, Lin and Su [20]analyzed the four
different machining characteristics: sub-electro-polishing, crack-
ing, electro-polishing and pitting as a function of applied current
during ECP of tungsten carbide. El-Taweel [21] modeled hybrid
ECT-MAF on the 6061 Al/Al2O3 composite workpieces. Sarkar
et al. [22] have developed mathematical models to predict
deburring time and material removal in terms of initial burr
height, inter-electrode gap and voltage. They observed that the
rate of deburring is initially high and it reduces gradually with
respect to time. Kim et al. [23] have developed in-process
electrolytic dressing for metal-bonded wheels during the lapping
process that are used in the polishing of ceramics, sintered
carbide and optical glass. They have achieved a finish of 10.7
and 16.7 nm Ra on sintered carbide and optical glass, respectively
in ultra-precision lapping with in-process electrolytic dressing.
Xu et al. [24] studied the effect of tool shape and movement in
electrochemical abrasive lapping theoretically. Their analysis
inferred that the diameter of disc-type tool should be larger than
the width of workpiece, whereas in case of ring shaped tool, inner
diameter should be larger than the width of workpiece to get
better evenness in the electrochemical and abrasive lapping
actions. Apart from this, it is also found that the ratio of revolving
radius of the tool to diameter of the tool should be as large as
possible to improve preciseness. Kurita et al. [25] worked on ECM
lapping to achieve mirror finish of 0.07 mm on a surface, which
was previously machined by EDM and ECM. In ECM lapping,
researchers have used ceramic free abrasives in electrolyte that
had helped remove oxide layer generated by electrochemical
action. Dubey et al. [26] have investigated the electrochemical
honing (ECH). The aim of hybridization of here was to achieve
controlled functional surface generation and rapid material
removal in single action. They found that major process
Finishing Processes
Chemical Electrical Electrochemical
+ -
Electrolyte
Hybrid Electrical
Horizontal chemical discharge polishing[5] Electropolishing
Polishing[3, 4]
parameters in ECH are – current density, electrolyte concentra-
tion, stick-out pressure and grit size. Ma et al. [27] experimented
on pulse ECF process and analyzed anodic smoothing character-
istics. They found that the total removal thickness and height of
surface profile depend on factors such as the finishing time, inter-
electrode gap, applied voltage and the electrode rotation speed.
The theory of pulse ECP indicates that by varying the amplitude
and current pulse duration, it is possible to form anode potential
that ensures a compromise between the rates of dissolution and
passivation. That is why recently, Galanin et al. [28] studied
features of ECP by unipolar and bipolar current pulse on gold
alloy jewelry. Their experimental research shows that bipolar
regime is more efficient than unipolar.
In general, the literature related to ECF/ECP shows that
 The existing research uses Faraday’s and Ohm’s laws to explain
the mechanism of ECF/ECP process. However, over and above
these laws, the mechanism is governed by several other factors
acting individually or collectively, which have not been com-
pletely investigated so far.
 The mathematical modeling of the processes is primarily
limited to ECF to predict the material removal and surface
roughness in the process. Most of the models are empirical in
nature and include the effect of a limited number of para-
meters on the response variables.
 The performance of hybrid ECF techniques has been investi-
gated by many researchers. Substantial further efforts would,
however, be required to bring these variants into a realistic
production environment.
 The ECF/ECP processes research pertains to a large variety of
work materials with differing finishing characteristics. Work
material specific changes in removal mechanisms, however,
have not been clearly understood.
It is also understood from the literature that there are several
review papers on abrasives finishing processes with and without
consideration to electrochemical processes. These include the classical
paper by Landolt [111] that covers the fundamental aspects of
electro-polishing like – mechanism, comparison between macro-
and micro-smoothing, role of anodic film and pitting. Inasaki et al.
[29] dealt with ultra-precision abrasive machining with bonded
abrasives and recommended future of abrasive technologies. Koman-
duri et al. [1] reviewed developments in a variety of fixed and free
abrasives processes, especially in finishing of brittle materials. Rajur-
kar et al. [6] reviewed developments related to ECM and its
combination with other processes so as to improve the process
performance. Jain et al. [2] reviewed analytical modeling of abrasive
(mechanical) finishing processes. Evans et al. [30] reviewed funda-
mental mechanism of material removal in lapping, polishing, and
Table 1
Definition of variants of electrochemical finishing processes.

Enhanced by

Mechanical action Magnetic Pulse/reverse current/voltage Ultrasonic Laser

Abrasives Force

EC grinding
– Abrasive EC grinding [12] – Pulse grinding and EC smoothing on
– Grinding and EC smoothing end turning surfaces [10]
on end turning surfaces [10]

EC Finishing/EC Polishing [36,37,9,38,39]
– Abrasive EC finishing [12]
– EC mechanical polishing
[40,41]
– Grinding and EC finishing
following turning [42]
– Tribo-EC polishing [33]
– ECM-abrasive polishing [18]
P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36
– EC turning with – Magnetic-assistance EC – Modulated reverse electric field – Ultrasonic-aided electro-leveling [50] Ultrasonic – Laser enhanced
roller burnishing finishing of end turning ECM[43] electrochemical finishing/ultrasonic-aided EC finishing EC machining
[17] process [9] – Pulse electrolysis asymmetric [13,51,52] [11]
alternating potential [44]
– Pulsed EC polishing [8,45,10]
– Voltage pulse-modulated abrasive free
EC mechanical planarization [46,47]
– Pulsed- EC finishing of end turning
process [9]
– Pulse-electro-leveling [50]

– Magneto-electrolytic-abrasive polishing [48] – Ultrasonic-aided pulse electro-leveling [50]

– Electrolytic magnetic abrasive finishing [49]
– Electrochemical turning-magnetic abrasive finishing [21]

Magnetic-assistance pulsed-EC finishing of end turning process [9]

- Ultrasonic and magnetic assistance in

electrochemical micro-machining [14]
EC Lapping
– Ultra-precision lapping with
in-process dressing[23]
– EC abrasive lapping[24]
– ECM lapping [25]

– EC saw [57]

Other EC Variants: EC deburring [15,22], EC boring [53], EC buffing [54,36,112,113,114], EC honing [26,55,59].
Note: EC ¼ Electrochemical.

19
20 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36

identified domains for future work. Brinksmeier et al. [31] discussed
chemical mechanisms in machining and grinding processes, which
influence the process performance. Sen et al. [32] discussed various
electrochemical macro- to micro-hole drilling processes and the effect
of key factors and their comparative analysis. Zhai [33] covered
progress in research on tribo-electrochemical mechanisms and pro-
posed tribo-electrochemical polishing methods. Jain [34] reviewed
free/loose abrasives based nano-finishing techniques. Rahman et al.
[35] reviewed electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) grinding cover-
ing mechanism, modeling, applications and various stages of evolu-
tion in the process. Most of the review papers deal with the processes
that use bonded or free abrasives for finishing applications. Some of
the papers deal with the specific processes like ECM [6], mechanical
finishing processes [34], ELID [35], etc. The electrochemical finishing
holds future promise in the age of miniaturization and the process is
amenable to hybridization. Since the process mechanism has elec-
trical, chemical and mechanical components in it, the process
encompasses a wide knowledge spectrum. Therefore, a comprehen-
sive review of these processes elucidating the following aspects is
presented in this paper:
 Fundamental mechanisms that prevail during the finishing
processes.
 Importance and effect of processing conditions on the nature
or characteristics of the surfaces generated after polishing.
 Mathematical modeling of the processes to predict the process
performance in terms of the parameters such as material
removal rate, surface finish, etc.
 Guidelines for future development in this area.
This paper therefore is divided into five sections. Section 2
discusses electrochemical finishing processes and applications.
Section 3 deals with the basic mechanisms and parameter effects.
Section 4 covers the mechanisms and associated parameters that
prevail in variants of electrochemical finishing processes. Further,
developments in the domain of modeling the processes have been
discussed in Section 5. The commendations and conclusions are
presented in Section 6 of the paper.
2. Electrochemical finishing processes

 Variants (types) of electrochemical finishing processes, their The material removal in electrochemical dissolution is known
capabilities and their evolution with time. from 1780 AD but only since the last few decades, it has been used

Table 2
Reported applications of electrochemical finishing processes.

Application(s) Reference

Electrochemical finishing/polishing
Improving surface finish and corrosion resistance of medical instruments, e.g. surgical scissors made of martensite chrome steel [16]
Polishing of biomedical titanium orifice rings used in a St. Vincent’s prosthetic heart valve [58]
Polishing of various spring alloys and steels to improve their fatigue strength [59]
(1) Polishing of metallic coronary stents medical device, which provide endovascular scaffolding to relieve the vascular obstruction. [60]
(2) Removing the slag formed during laser cutting
Finishing of aluminum, stainless steel, titanium, die steel AISI P21 [37,61,62]
Can be used for thinning purpose of material like Fe–Mn alloys without phase transformation [63]
Polishing of porous AISI 316L [64]
Polishing of inner surface of gun barrel chamber [65]
Surface treatment of boron nitride precipitated stainless steel SUS 304 for obtaining extremely low out gassing [36]
Surface finishing of part made by LIGA [66]
Smoothing of different steels like: tool steel (SKD 61), cold work tool steel (SKD 11), mold steel (NAK 80) [38]
Pulse-electrochemical polishing
Smoothing the holes [8]
Electrochemical buffing
Buffing of ball-screws and nuts used in ultrahigh-vacuum [67]
(1) To reduce the required number of breakdowns for improves the insulating capability of the vacuum gap. (2) To reduce the residual [68]
stresses due to machining
As a outgassing reduction method without baking through getting mirror finish surface [69,70]
To reduce the frictional force between moving surfaces in vacuum through mirror finish [71]
Buffing of SUS 316L VV ultrahigh pure components [54]
Electrochemically buffing of niobium SRF cavity [112]
ECB of titanium casting used in dental prostheses [113]
Magneto-electrolytic-abrasive polishing
Polishing of Shafts, rolls, tubes, piston, etc. made from stainless steel, tungsten, chrome. (2) Finishing of Cr-coated roller used [48,72]
in the video-tape manufacturing
Electrochemical turning-magnetic abrasive finishing
Finishing of 6061 Al/Al2O3 composite [21]
Grinding and electrochemical finishing following turning
To finish the parts simultaneously [42]
Electrochemical honing
Honing of part used in aerospace, auto, petrochemical reactor, mold, dies, rollers, gears, etc. [26]
Pulse-electro-leveling, ultrasonic-aided electro-leveling ultrasonic-aided pulse electro-leveling
Leveling and finishing of threads [50]
Abrasive electrochemical grinding
Sintered carbides, creep resisting alloys (Inconel, Nimonic), titanium alloys, metal matrix composites, e.g. PCD-Co, Al–SiC, Al–Al2O3 [12]
Grinding and electrochemical smoothing on end turning surfaces (GECST), pulse-GECST
Smoothing end turning surfaces like SKH 57 high-speed steel [10]
Electrochemical mechanical polishing, Voltage pulse-modulated abrasive free electrochemical mechanical planarization
Planarization of copper [41,46]
Laser enhanced electrochemical machining
Aluminum, stainless steel, titanium alloy [11]
Electrochemical turning with roller burnishing
Finishing of Al–Zn–Mg alloy [17]
 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36
as an advantageous method. The distinguishing features of the
process are its contactless nature, use of electrical energy for accel-
erating the chemical reactions, and material removal irrespective of
hardness of the workpiece. The electrochemical finishing process
works on Faraday’s Laws of electrolysis coupled with the mechanical
abrasive processing principles. A typical set up of the electrochemical
machining consists of work as anode, tool as cathode, flowing
electrolyte, and process control unit. Various innovative configura-
tions of this process have been developed by using additional energy
sources besides electrical energy being the main source of material
removal (see Table 1). The additional sources of energy used in the
process and their roles in the process are summarized below:
(i) Mechanical action: The use of free or bonded abrasives
abrading the metal hydroxide accelerates the rate of surface
improvement.
(ii) Magnetic field: Use of magnetic field promotes dissolution of
peaks from side faces and causes electrolyte to agitate more.
Due to which the rate of material removal is increased. This
aspect is discussed in detail in Section 4.2.
(iii) Current/voltage modulation: It improves the preciseness of
the process.
(iv) Ultrasonic energy: Drags the by-products more effectively
from the inter-electrode gap.
(v) Laser energy: Makes the work-surface more active for elec-
trolysis and reveals new surfaces repeatedly thereby improv-
ing the surface finish.
With these innovations, the process has found a variety of
applications. The ECF/ECP have been most widely used to improve
the corrosion resistance and fatigue strength of medical instru-
ments, dies, molds and parts made by LIGA. A summary of
applications of ECF/ECP is presented in Table 2.
Number of researchers has worked on analyzing and improv-
ing the electrochemical finishing process. It is understood that the
processes have five main groups such as
 Electrochemical deburring (ECD)
 Electrochemical finishing/polishing (ECP/ECF) without abra-
sives or with abrasives
 Electrochemical buffing (ECB)
 Electrochemical lapping (ECL)
 Electrochemical honing (ECH)
Fig. 2. Main parameters of electrochemical finishing process.
21
Apart from the application of ECF/ECP finishing/polishing
process [9,37,38,75], researchers have also explored the electro-
chemical processes for deburring [15,22], lapping [23,24,25],
boring [53], sawing [57], buffing [36,54] and honing [26,55,56]
purposes. All these processes use electrochemical energy; hence
their names are preceded by word ‘‘electrochemicalyy’’.
It is experienced that the electrolytic dissolution process has a
very low rate of removal and does not give nanometric finish.
Therefore, to achieve nanometric finishing and good surface
integrity quickly, various additional sources of energy have been
used in the ECF processes. These include mechanical, magnetic
field, vibration, etc. as shown in Table 1. An improvement in the
performance of the processes occurs because of a change in the
basic mechanism, as discussed in Section 5. For example, Kim
et al. [48] have applied the magnetic field in electrolytic abrasive
polishing, which is called as a magneto-electrolytic-abrasive
polishing (MEAP) process. This process has relatively low energy
consumption but gives high surface finish. Similarly, Ebeid et al.
[17] have applied mechanical compressive force using rollers in
electrochemical turning. Tang [11]combined laser with electro-
chemical machining to enhance the surface finish, whereas Pa
[50] used vibrations in combination with the ECP/ECF. The
researchers have also studied the effect of various characteristics
of power spectrum. These have given rise to a variety of processes
such as, pulse grinding and electrochemical smoothing [10],
modulated reverse electric field electrochemical machining [43],
pulsed electrolysis asymmetric alternating potential [44],
pulsed electrochemical polishing [8,10,45], pulsed electrochemi-
cal finishing of end turning process [9], pulse electro-leveling [50],
etc. Some researchers [9]have used more than one mode of energy
such as magnetic-assisted and pulsed-current electrochemical end
turning (MPEF-ET) to improve process and performance.
Ideally, any material can be finished or polished by ECF
processes provided, it is not soluble and non-reacting with the
electrolyte [35]. The processes can be used for soft materials such
as aluminum and ‘difficult-to-finish’ materials like titanium and
Inconel. In Table 2, a few of the reported applications are
compiled to illustrate capabilities of the ECF processes.
3. Basic mechanisms in electrochemical finishing/polishing
The ECF/ECP processes invariably involve a variety of energy
sources to cause material removal. They also involve a large
22 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36
number of processing variables as summarized in Fig. 2.
The variables are of four types: (i) electrolytic and its properties,
(ii) electric power and related parameters, (iii) relative position of
tool-work and, (iv) tool and work material properties. A lot
of experimental research has gone into ECF/ECP processes in
order to achieve the best parametric conditions to maximize
the process response. In addition, the process is usually combined
with other sources of energy such as mechanical, vibration,
magnetic field, etc. as shown in Table 1 in order to further
enhance the process yield. In the following section, an elaborate
review of the literature is presented with an aim to understand
the work done till date and opportunities for future research and
development activities.
3.1. Principle of electrochemical finishing
In this process, removal occurs because of differential dissolution,
where the coupled workpiece and tool acts as anode and cathode,
respectively. Both the electrodes are immersed in an appropriate
electrolyte and a high current with a low DC voltage potential
difference is normally applied. The electrolyte used in this process is
a viscous acid [78]. The anode forms a passive film, metallic oxide
that has a high specific gravity. This film covers the lower peaks,
whereas the higher peaks remain uncovered. Because the process is
operated at a constant voltage as per the Ohm’s law, the current
densities vary for different uncovered peaks based on their heights.
This causes a variation in the dissolution at individual peaks as per
Faraday’s law. The different removal rates cause a significant
improvement in the surface finish [39,78,79,80,81]. The volume of
material removed follows Faraday’s law and removal height of a
workpiece can be expressed through the following equations[20]
a
Vm ¼ UIUt
rZF
a a better surface finish, process must be operated in the plateau
Mh ¼ UIUt
ArZF
In general, above relations show that in the ECP/ECF, surface
smoothing occurs by anodic leveling (macro-smoothing) and
anodic etching (micro-smoothing). The macro-smoothing means
the difference in the dissolution between the peaks and valleys
that governs the surface geometry and process parameters.
Whereas, the latter is the crystallographic etching and is
governed by surface defects, crystals orientation along with the
process parameters. To establish the surface improvement with
brightness, both macro- and micro-level smoothing are necessary
and can be dominating individually [111].
In the following subsections, role of the main four parameters
of ECF i.e. power supply, electrolyte, relative position of electro-
des, and electrode material is discussed.
3.1.1. Role of power supply in electrochemical finishing/polishing
Power supply in ECF process controls the volume and rate of
material removal and surface integrity of the desired surface after
electrolysis. A typical current–voltage characteristics curve of an
ECF process is shown in Fig. 3 [19,20,39,78]. The curve shows four
different anodic dissolution characteristics: (i) The active zone
(a–b) during which the least anodic dissolution occurs due to low
magnitude of current–voltage. (ii) The passive zone (b–c–d)
occurs, when voltage reaches b, the metallic hydroxide film
formation begins and further increment in voltage forms stronger
passive film that has higher resistance; thus, the plateau region
forms. (iii) The transient zone (d–e) occurs, where the voltage is
high enough to pill-off the passive film. (iv) Trans-passive zone
occurs (after e), from where very active reaction begins. Further, it
is understood that at very low current–voltage combination
c
Current
b d
e
a
Voltage
Fig. 3. Current–voltage curve [39,78].
value, the material removal or smoothing effect is minimal.
This may be due to the formation of a very thin passive film on
the anode that stops further reaction. Alternatively, there may not
be sufficient agitation force applied by the electrolyte, which can
remove the reacted compounds; these may therefore settle down
back on the anode. At the moderate level of current–voltage
combinations (plateau region), brightening of the surfaces occurs.
In this region, the current is high enough to agitate and to dissolve
or evaporate the metallic compounds. The atoms from anode
may interfere with the electrons going towards the anode; some
of them may therefore become ionized. But the electrons gain
additional energy from the anodic drop and are forced to go close
to the anode. A further increase in voltage causes over-polishing
ð1Þ or pitting (i.e. creation of surface with small pits) and it can
further cause huge electrolytic by-products. This infers that to get
ð2Þ region (passive zone). The above discussion is in line with the
results of parametric studies reported in Refs. [13,40,58,79,81,82],
where it is understood that up to a certain value of current
density or voltage, the surface finish decreases but increases
later on. It further implies that by using ample current–voltage,
electrochemical polishing can be operated in the passive zone
(plateau region),which can give superior surface finish.
3.1.2. Effect of electrolyte properties on electrochemical finishing/
polishing
The main function of an electrolyte is to act as a carrier of
current, heat and reaction products. In the electrochemical polishing
process, organic, inorganic or combined organic/inorganic mixtures
are used as electrolytes. Some of the electrolytes used by researchers
are listed in Table 3 along with the work materials.
Datta et al. [82] have used various compositions of phosphoric
acid and sulfuric acid with butyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, glycerol
as well as chromic acid for finishing of high-speed print bands. They
observed that a mixture of butyl and isopropyl alcohols does not
improve the surface finish, while the mixture made with chromic
acid causes localized attack and produces highly rough surface. On
the other hand, an electrolyte with glycerol gives good surface finish
because it influences the physical properties of the electrolyte.
It also affects the transport properties of the diffusing species,
thereby creating favorable conditions for finishing. Apart from these,
it lowers the operating current density.
The literature indicates that concentration, composition, tempera-
ture and flow rate of electrolyte govern the above discussed func-
tions by influencing conductivity of electrolyte and passivation of
work material. The flow rate affects removal of heat and bubbles
 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36 23

Table 3
Various electrolytes used in ECF as reported by Hensel [7] and others.

Workpiece material Electrolyte(s)

Aluminum Phosphoric acid þ sulfuric acid þ chromic acid [7]

Copper and alloys Water þ chromic acid þ sodium dichromate þ acetic acid þ sulfuric acid [7]
Sodium tripolyphosphate þ boric acid [7]
Ammonium phosphate þ citric acid þ potassium phosphate þ water [7]
Oxalic acid þ H2O2 [47]
Citric acid þ H2O2 þ KHNo3[46]
Nickel and alloys Sulfuric acid þ chromic acid þ water [7]
Sulfuric acid þ glycerin þ water [7]
Nickel sulfate þ ammonium sulfate þ potassium chloride þ orthophosphoric acid þ sulfuric acid þ water [7]
Steel Pyrophosphoric acid þ ethyl alcohol (water must be absent) [7]
Sulfuric acid þ phosphoric acid þ chromic acid [7]
Lactic acid þ phosphoric acid þ sulfuric acid [7]
Phosphoric acid þ trialkali metal phosphate þ alkali metal sulfate [7]
Sodium nitrate þ sodium sulfate þ additives (sodium tartrate þ glycerin þ glycol) [40]
SUS316LVV Sodium nitrate20 wt% [54]
Stainless steel Phosphoric acid þ glycerin [7]
Citric acid þ sulfuric acid ( alcohol is recommended to reduce freezing point) [7]
Sulfuric acid þ phosphoric acid [7,19]
Sulfuric acid þ phosphoric acid þ diethyleneglycolmonobutylether [7]
Lactic acid þ sulfuric acid þ phosphoric acid [7]
Phosphoric acid þ chromic acid [7]
Sulfuric acid þ glycolic acid [7]
Phosphoric acid þ sulfuric acid þ glycerol or butyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol or chromic acid [82]

formed and consequently the conductivity of the electrolyte. There-
fore, it is important that all these parameters related to electrolyte
should also be optimized for obtaining the best material removal
[58,79]. For example, concentration of the electrolyte solution should
be sufficiently low to get good passivation effect but not too low,
otherwise the conductivity will also be low and the required current
density may not be attained [40]. A rise in temperature improves the
current efficiency by lowering the electrolyte viscosity and improv-
ing the supply of fresh electrolyte. However, the temperature rise
makes the electrolyte chemically unstable. Similarly, a lower flow
rate is not sufficient to carry away the heat, bubbles and by-products,
which reduces the conductivity of the electrolyte. On the other hand,
a higher flow rate that causes turbulence in the electrolyte, deterio-
rates the surface finish [58].The forgoing discussion reveals that the
parameters related to electrolyte are interdependent, and in turn
govern the surface finish.
3.1.3. Importance of relative position/movement of electrodes in
electrochemical finishing/polishing
The relative position or movement between the tool and the
workpiece determines a number of parameters in the ECF/ECP
process. They are inter-electrode gap, feed rate, rotation of electrode,
etc. It is observed that a very small inter-electrode gap causes
electro-discharge sparking, which may generate pits on work sur-
face due to the high current density [19]. Furthermore, too small gap
restricts the free flow of electrolyte. It dissolves the work material
and causes more heat accumulation in the gap. These conditions are
again not favorable for good surface finish [81]. On the other hand, a
large gap is not a good alternative either because it ultimately
reduces the current density, thereby reducing the overall effective-
ness of the anodic dissolution. The experimentation has shown that
to obtain efficient current density, the gap must be maintained by
moving to one electrode towards the other. Also, for a good finish, a
judicious combination of current and feed rate is required [8,9,42].
Under constant current, there is again an optimal feed rate [9]; the
rapid feed rate reduces the power delivered per unit area while a
lower feed rate promotes more electrochemical reactions.
Among the group of electrochemical finishing processes and its
variants, many processes use rotating electrodes. The investigations
in Refs. [9,10,13,43,81] indicate that an appropriate range of rotation
speed should be used. A lower rotational speed cannot create
sufficient centrifugal action in the electrolyte in between the tool
and workpiece. Due to which, effective flushing may not occur,
consequently it slows down the rate of improvement of surface
finish. Too high a rotational speed causes very strong centrifugal
force, which can obstruct the process and electrolytic homogeneity.
3.1.4. Role of work and tool material in electrochemical finishing/
polishing
The main function of tool material is to act as an anode for
electrolysis process in ECF/ECP. The literature shows that (Fig. 2)
the conductivity, chemical composition, geometrical shape, che-
mical properties and previous history [25,79,83] of electrode
material affect the finishing and material removal phenomenon.
As shown in Table 2, almost all, from soft materials to ‘difficult-
to-machine’ materials like metal matrix composites [21] and
porous metals [64] can be finished provided they are not soluble
or react with the electrolyte. Chandler [61] reported that 1XXX to
3XXX, 5XXX and 6XXX series of aluminum alloys can be polished
to a very high level using ECP/ECF processes. However, 7XXX, 3XX
and 5XX series cannot be polished using ECF/ECP. Tang [11] used
aluminum, stainless steel and titanium alloys as workpieces. The
achieved surface finish under the same experimental condition
reduces successively from stainless steel, aluminum to titanium.
The texture on titanium surface was reported to have spots and
slots, which suggests that changes in finishing can occur due to
different etching characteristics of grains and grain boundaries.
Various die materials were also finished by Hocheng et al. [8].
They found that the current carrying capacity of the individual
material affects the material removal.
Nevertheless, it appeared that parameters related to electrolyte
and work/tool need further elaborate studies, as they are equally
responsible for the surface generated by ECF/ECP processes.
4. Mechanism and parameters of evolve electrochemical
finishing processes
The main disadvantage of the electrochemical finishing pro-
cess is the relatively low speed of the process. It is also observed
that machining of materials consisting of hard spots, inclusions,
24 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36

Table 4
Summary of research work on mechanism of electrochemical finishing processes.

Researcher(s) Reported on

Lee et al. [78] The mechanism of ECMP has been studied with linear polarization and Faraday’s law on SKD 11 tooling steel.
Neville and Hu [84] The mechanical and electrochemical interaction during liquid-solid impingement on high-alloy stainless and erosion–corrosion
behavior thereof.
Fang et al. [85], Yan et al. [49], Effect of magnetic field on mechanism with velocity and track equations and verified experimentally.
Kim et al. [86]
Liu et al.[87] A planarization mechanism for electrochemical mechanical planarization process is proposed to explain high efficiency.
Larsen-Basse and Liang [88] Role of abrasion in chemo mechanical polishing through two and three body for tungsten.
Lee and Lai[39] Mechanism explained in terms of how the electro-polishing improves the corrosion resistant of 316L stainless steel.
Kulkarni et al. [89] Studied the electrochemical-mechanical wear behavior during Cu chemical mechanical planarization.
Pandija et al. [90] Proposed reaction mechanism for chemical component of Cu CMP along with electrochemical measurements support in abrasive-
free solution of H2O2 and oxalic acid as a function of pH and H2O2 concentration.
Mukherjee et al. [80] Role of NaCl in current carrying processes in electrochemical machining has been analyzed.
Ji and Li [81] Mechanism of electrochemical finish machining is investigated through vital parameters.
Lin and Su [20] In electro-polishing the sub-electro-polishing, crack, electro-polishing and pitting characteristics are analyzed with respect to
increasing of current of tungsten carbide.
Xieeryazidan et al. [91] Effect of micro-profile on anodic dissolution as well as mechanical role of abrasives on passive film and surface micro-profile.
Ohmi et al. [92] Mechanism of selective oxidation of Cr explained and developed new Cr2O3 treatment technology using the application of
electrochemically buffed 316L austenitic stainless steel.
Lee [19] Basic mechanism of electro-polishing and machining characteristics of EP of stainless steel.

ECMF

Bonded Free Burnishing Force

F R C
F
T
E
T E Pad
Bonded W
“A” F
E +A
W W
F: Force, T: Tool (cathode), E: Electrolyte, A: Abrasive, W: Workpiece (anode),R: Roller,
C: Cathode Surface
Fig. 4. Variants of mechanical action in ECF processes. F, force; T, tool (cathode); E, electrolyte; A, abrasive; W, workpiece (anode); R, roller; C, cathode surface.

sand and scale is rather difficult. To overcome the above pro-
blems, researchers have used a variety of energy sources to effect
material removal. They are mechanical, magnetic, pulse-voltage,
vibration, laser, etc. It is evident that the performance of ECF
could be improved by the use of one or more of these energy
sources. The research work related to material removal or surface
finish mechanism of ECF/ECP reported in the literature is sum-
marized in Table 4.The principle mechanism of the group of ECF
processes remains same as discussed above. However, depending
on the energy source used, the phenomenon of material removal
gets modified.
4.1. Phenomenal changes due to the use of mechanical energy source
in electrochemical finishing/polishing
The electro-polishing is greatly affected by the occurrence of
slight convexity near the border of electrode on the workpiece
and surface waviness due to hydrodynamic vortex called length
scale phenomena. However, mechanical polishing is not subjected
to this phenomenon [93]. Therefore, one of the most successful
hybridization of ECF is with the mechanical action. This
category of hybridization is achieved by the use of bonded
[10,12,25,26,40,42,55,56] or free [12,23,41,54,75] abrasives or
burnishing force [17,115]. See Fig. 4. The material removal or
surface finishing occurs based on electrochemical and mechanical
principles. An example each process is shown in Fig. 4.
As compared to electrochemical finishing, the reactants used
in these processes are metallic hydroxide (M(OH)n) compounds
instead of metallic oxides, which are removed by the subsequent
mechanical abrasive actions. The role of electrochemical reactions
in these processes remains same as in ECF, as shown previously in
Fig. 2. But due to removal action of abrasives, a passive film is
accelerated in both passive (the region, where at moderate
current–voltage surface finish is improved Fig. 3 (c,d)) as well as
in the trans-passive regions, where at higher current–voltage
polishing/pitting occurs, Fig. 3(d,e).
Nevertheless, the efficient flashing or mechanical action (by
abrasives or pressure) is required to remove the re-deposited
metallic hydroxides. In the normal circumstances, by re-passiva-
tion, the reaction stops but sometimes due to the rapid dissolu-
tion or defects or impurity, the reactions at certain places does
not stop by itself. This leads to formation of pits during the
transient-passive state [88]. Lin et al. [20] observed this pitting
phenomenon experimentally and found that after 400 s of sub-
electro-polishing, material removal does not follow Faraday’s law.
The characteristics of abrasives in the ECF processes also play a
role in maintaining the surface quality. Kozak et al. [12] reported
that the combined effects give better surface improvement and
reveal the role of free and bonded abrasives. Neville et al. [84]
found that the material removal increases as the percentage of
solids (abrasives) increases. Also, the corrosion is important in
such processes, even though they are primarily dominated by
 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36
Cathode
N S
Anode
Electrolytic ions, Ionic movement,
After finishing, Beforefinishing,
Fig. 5. A schematic of effect of magnetic field [21,85,86].
mechanical erosion. It was also found that the coarse grains are
more effective and reduce surface roughness quickly due to
effective scrubbing [26,40]. However, with the finer size grains,
a comparatively better surface finish can be achieved. Therefore,
it is recommended that instead of using very hard abrasives, it is
advantageous to use soft and elastic abrasives such as PVA sponge
abrasives [40]. The force or pressure exerted through abrasives
governs not only the surface roughness improvement but also
dominates the mode of abrasion for material removal. The mode
can be two-body and three-body abrasion from tribological point
of view [31]. The two-body abrasion means abrasives have a
direct contact with targeted surface when higher amount of force/
pressure is applied. In such kind of situation, more number of
active abrasive particles contributes to the material removal.
Whereas, in case of three-body abrasion, the abrasives have an
indirect contact i.e. via the electrolyte (third body), which exists
between the abrasive and work surface; this occurs at low value
of applied force or pressure. In the latter condition, the effective-
ness of abrasives in removing the material reduces. Neville et al.
[84] have shown that the total weight loss during the process
from the work surface is the sum of total weight loss due to pure
erosion, pure corrosion and the interactive or synergistic
components.
The higher improvement in surface polishing has also been
observed when mechanical agitation of electrolyte is done. This is
because it removes the hydrogen bubbles that adversely affect the
conductivity of the electrolyte [94].
4.2. Effect of magnetic field in electrochemical finishing/polishing
The basic objective of applying the magnetic field is to change
the path of anions in the ECF/ECP. It is well known that the
electrolytic ions move towards the anode in a straight line, they
get concentrated at various peaks of the work surface, and the
material is removed by dissolution. But when magnetic field is
applied orthogonally, the path of the anions becomes curvilinear,
instead of linear, due to the co-action of Lorentz force and
electrical field force [9,21,85,86]. This phenomenon-, promotes
dissolution not only on peaks but also from the side faces of the
peaks, as shown in Fig. 5 [21,85,86]. Apart from this, the field also
agitates the electrolytes, which creates a further favorable condi-
tion for the polishing process. All these actions collectively are
called principle of magnetic assisted electrochemical finishing
process. Literature shows that the effect of magnetic field on
material removal/finishing is mainly governed by flux density,
potential and inter-electrode gap [86]. The performance of the
25
Cathode
Anode
Manetic field, Abrasives,
Electric field, Electrolyte
process is improved when the value of the first two parameters is
increased at a given inter-electrode gap. However, when the
inter-electrode gap is increased at constant flux density and
potential, the ions and anions are unable to continue and form
metal hydroxide at the anode. Therefore, the current is reduced
and so is the removal rate. Pa [9] used concurrent actions of
magnetic field and electrochemical reaction, in magnetic-assisted
surface finishing of end turning (MEF-ET). In case of MEAP [48]
and ECT-MAF [21], three concurrent actions, electrochemical,
abrasives and magnetic field are employed.
It is also noted that the researchers have attempted to use the
magnetic field directly or indirectly for certain other purposes as
well. These include magneto-electrolytic abrasive polishing [45],
magnetic compound fluid polishing [95], novel magnetic abrasive
particles by eletrolessnickel-cobalt/diamond plating on active
carbon powder to make the processes more efficient [96,97]or
to enhance the process performance as in the case of magnetic
abrasive finishing processes [98,99].
4.3. Effect of current/voltage modulation in electrochemical
finishing/polishing
The current density or voltage between the electrodes, influ-
ence the material removal and surface finish. It is inferred that by
changing the waveforms of current/voltage, the material removal
or surface finish can be governed. Both the current and voltage
pulse modulation techniques are the second most widely used
ones for the enhancement of process efficiency. Among the two,
current modulation method is more widely used than the voltage
modulation technique. Datta et al. [100] explored the possibility
of using pulsed current in electrochemical machining at low
electrolyte flow rate and found that the anode potential and
surface finish are controlled by mass transport in concurrence
with steady-state behavior. Nevertheless, in case of pulsed direct
current, the overall time and cost of processing may rise, but the
preciseness of the process is also improved [57]. The main
controlling factors for this mode are peak current, pulse-on and
pulse-off time. Normally, in case of electrochemical finishing
processes, the surface finish is improved with the pulse-off time
up to certain level [8,9,10,42,45], but further improvement is
achieved only by hybridization of the process, without prolonging
the cycle time, e.g. in the case of magnetic-assisted pulsed-
electrochemical finishing of end turning MPEF-ET [9]. The
reported contribution of pulsed current in surface finish improve-
ment is between 6–32% for different variants of electrochemical
finishing processes [8,9,10,45].
26 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36

Goonetilleke et al. [46] demonstrated the use of voltage pulse

modulation for electro-dissolution of Cu in low-pH based citric
acid without mechanical abrasion with low activation voltage.
The use of voltage pulse modulation avoids strong diffusion and
voltage induced decomposition of ions in electrochemical
mechanical polishing of Cu. Sulyma et al. [47] analyzed the
current transients for voltage pulse modulation, which help find
a detailed electrochemistry of surface layer removed. This tech- Laser
nique however becomes ineffective for hard passive super alloys beam
due to the formation of instantaneous self-healing oxide film
during off-time, which undergoes partial breakdown in the Electrolyte
subsequent on-time. The self-healing oxide film formation pro- flow in
blem can be resolved by using bipolar potential pulses
[43,44,101]. Using the bipolar potential pulses, hydrodynamic
uniformity of electrolyte is maintained by removing the heat,
stirring the gas bubbles and metal precipitation. The bipolar -ve
potential pulses are governed by the frequency, cathodic and
anodic duty cycle during the polishing processes. At low fre-
quency, alternate current, higher material removal rate and lower
surface roughness have been obtained than with direct current. Electrolyte
This is due to elimination of oxide film re-healing. The best results flow out
are obtained when 75% anodic and 20–30% cathodic duty cycles
+ve
are used [101].

4.4. Use of ultrasonic energy in electrochemical finishing/polishing

The basic purpose of providing the ultrasonic vibration is to

cause effective discharge of electrolyte and by-products in Fig. 7. Laser enhanced electrochemical machining [11].
ECF/ECP. Experimental results show that ultrasonic vibrations
can give 21–44% improvement in surface finish, depending upon
machining gap. This way, it contributes to the effective utilization
the process variants and conditions used. The use of ultrasonic
of applied current density. Further, it reduces the finishing
energy began in 1927 to produce holes in a glass bar. Later on, its
time too.
application was extended to welding, metallurgy and cleaning
processes. Likewise, it has been utilized in electrochemical finish-
4.5. Use of lasers in electrochemical finishing/polishing
ing processes to enhance surface finish. Pa [13,50,51,52] has
shown that the addition of ultrasonic energy (Fig. 6) in electro-
Tang [11] developed a hybrid laser enhanced electrochemical
chemical finishing processes gives better surface finish. Further,
process (Fig. 7) in which a laser beam passes through the
addition of pulse mode over and above ultrasonic vibrations gives
electrolyte nozzle. It affects the electrochemical erosion at the
still larger improvement in surface finish. The main governing
anode surface. The laser action gives better accuracy and a
parameters while using ultrasonic vibrations are frequency and
brighter surface. The laser beam makes surfaces more active for
power of variants. A high frequency and high power combination
electrolysis and helps reveal virgin surfaces repeatedly. It thereby
generates better surface finish because it improves the drag
improves the process efficiency.
and the subsequent discharge of by-products away from the

4.6. Classification of ECF/ECP processes based on process capabilities

EUT
The applicability and competency of any process in industries
relies on its capabilities relative to the existing processes.
EF A comprehensive summary of capabilities ECF variants is pre-
sented in Table 5. It is observed that hybridization of ECF variants
is in the initial stages. However, it requires further theoretical as
well as experimental efforts to exploit their potential further.
A bird’s eye view of research work done so far by various
E researchers in this field is presented in Table 6. The table is
arranged such that it illustrates the basic mechanism of the
process as well as the energy sources, objectives and main results
W of the work.

5. Modeling of electrochemical finishing processes

UB In this section, the work done on modeling of ECF and its

Fig. 6. Ultrasonic electrochemical finishing process [52]. E, electrode (cathode);
EF, electrolyte flow; W, work (anode); EUT, electrolytic and ultrasonic tank; UB,
ultrasonic base, Feed of cathode perpendicular to page in and out.
variants is described in detail. Most of the models pertaining ECF/
ECP processes predict the material removal rate, surface finish,
removal mechanism, and so on. Jemmely et al. [102] developed a
model to find out the oxide growth in lateral as well in vertical
 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36 27

Table 5
Overview and comparative capabilities of variants of ECF.

ECF variant Work Work material Surface Material

geometry finish (lm) removal rate

Electrochemical deburring(ECD) [15] Simple Al X 0.0188–0.0895

g/min/A
Grinding and electrochemical smoothing on end turning surfaces Same as above SKH 57 0.03o Ra o 0.04 X
(GECS-ET) [10]
Abrasive electrochemical grinding(AECG) [12] Same as above Difficult to cut materials Up to Ra ¼0.002 X
Pulse grinding and electrochemical smoothing on end turning surfaces Same as above SKH 57 0.03o Ra o 0.04 X
PGECS-ET [10]
Electrochemical Finishing/Electrochemical polishing (ECF/ECP) [39] Same as above 316L steel Up to Ra ¼0.02 X
Abrasive electrochemical finishing (AECF) [12] Same as above Difficult to cut materials Rmax ¼0.006 X
Electrochemical mechanical polishing (ECMP) [40] Same as above X Ra o 0.05 X
Compound processes of grinding and electrochemical finishing Same as above AISI P21 Ra  0.032 X
following Turning (ECFG-T) [42]
Tribo-electrochemical polishing(TECP) [33] X Si3N4 Rmax ¼0.001296 X
Electrochemical turning with roller burnishing(ECT-RB) [47] Simple Al–Zn–Mg aluminum alloy 5–81% improvement X
Modulated reverse electric field electrochemical machining Same as above IN718 Ra ¼ 0.18, Rmax ¼ 1.15 6.97–10.59 mm/s
(MREF-ECM) [43] (depth)
Pulsed electrochemical polishing(Pulsed-EP) [45,110] Same as above SKD61,SKD11, NAK80,SNCM8, Ra ¼ 0.4 X
SKH57
Laser enhanced electrochemical machining(LECM) [11] Same as above Aluminum Ra ¼ 1.6–2.1 X
Stainless steel Ra ¼ 1.2–1.6
Titanium Ra ¼ 2.4–2.9
Magneto-electrolytic-abrasive polishing (MEAP)[48] Same as above Cr-coat Ra ¼ 0.01,Rmax ¼0.08 X
Electrolytic magnetic abrasive finishing (EMAF) [49] Same as above SKD11 Ra  0.011768 25 to 118 mg
Electrochemical turning-magnetic abrasive finishing (ECT-MAF) [21] Same as above 6061 Al/Al2O3 Ra ¼ 0.15 68 mg/min
ECM-Abrasive polishing (ECM-AP) [18] Same as above SS41 mild steel Rtm ¼0.63 X
Magnetic-assistance electrochemical finishing of end turning process Same as above AISI P21 Ra o 0.35 X
(MEF-ET) [9]
Pulsed-electrochemical finishing of end turning process (PEF-ET) [9] Same as above Same as above Ra  0.35 X
Magnetic-assistance pulsed-electrochemical finishing of end turning Same as above Same as above Ra o 0.32 X
process(MPEF-ET) [9]
Pulse-electro-leveling (PEL) [50] Threaded AISI H13, AISI D2, AISI P21, Ra  0.53 X
cylindrical AISI 4340
Ultrasonic-aided electro-leveling(UEL) [50] Same as above Same as above Ra o 0.43 X
Ultrasonic-aided pulse-electro-leveling (UPEL) [50] Same as above Same as above Ra  0.41 X
Ultra-precision lapping with in-process dressing (UPL-IED) [23] Simple Sintered carbides (M30) Ra ¼ 0.0107, X
Rmax ¼0.050
Optical glass (BK -7) Ra ¼ 0.0167
Rmax ¼0.0408
Electrochemical machining lapping (ECM lapping) [25] Complex hole Hardened steel (61 HRC) Ra ¼ 0.07 X
Electrochemical boring (ECBO) [53] Simple St 37 Ra ¼ 1 X
Electrochemical buffing(ECB) [54,75] Same as above SUS 316L VV, SUS 304 Ra ¼ 0.150 X
Electrochemical honing(ECH) [26,56] Same as above ASTM 35C.I X X

Notes: (1) The presented data from referred literature only. (2) The word ‘Simple’ means, the shape, which can be identified by standard geometrical shapes, e.g. flat,
cylindrical, spherical, etc. (3) ‘X’ means not reported or not available or not found. (4) Some of surface finish values have been read from graphs and figures.

directions over the surface, which is the one of the important
phenomenon in ECF/ECP.
5.1. Empirical models for prediction of material removal/surface
finish
It appears that most of the process models predict the material
removal and surface finish [18,21,83]. Tam et al. [18] have
formulated a model using response surface methodology to
predict the surface roughness Rtm (mm) in ECM-abrasives polish-
ing process. A first-order (linear) model has been developed with
voltage (V), electrolyte concentration (C) and tool holding pres-
sure (P) as the variables (see Eq. (3)). The equation shows that the
surface finish can improved by increasing the voltage and elec-
trolyte concentration or by reducing the tool holding pressure:
Rtm ¼ 0:9000:190V0:020C þ 0:017P
Further, using the steepest descent method, they have pre-
dicted the optimum surface finish. It was given by a second-order
model as below:
Rtm ¼ 0:6940:158V0:008C þ 0:028P þ 0:133V 2 þ 0:185C 2
þ 0:114P2 þ 0:005VC0:013CP þ 0:048PV
The optimum surface finish obtained by the second-order
model is (Rtm ¼0.67 mm) but is not substantially better than the
first-order (Rtm ¼0.63 mm) model. This may be due to relatively
flat region on the response surface. It indicates that more
replications would be required for obtaining better results. Never-
theless, the model results deviate by only 4.5% from the experi-
mental data, although the model considers only three out of many
variables (discussed in Section 3) that governs the surface finish.
Zybura-Skrabalak et al. [83] studied the effect of geometrical
structure of the electrode on the resulting surface roughness on
the workpiece. The regression equation (5) has been developed,
which gives surface roughness as a function of electrode rough-
ness parameter (RaE) and velocity of electrode tool (vf):
Ra ¼ 1:97 þ 0:318R0aE 0:07v0f 0:197ðR0aE Þ2
ð3Þ
þ0:228R0aE v0f 0:082ðv0f Þ2 ð5Þ
It is clear that by choosing proper parameters of the electro-
chemical smoothing process, the influence of the geometrical
structure on the electrode can be reduced to an insignificant level.
In such cases, the surface roughness of the work surface or height
ð4Þ
of waviness is smaller than the roughness of the electrode.
28 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36

Table 6
Salient features of experimental work on various electrochemical finishing processes.

Variant/basic mechanism Theme of work Main results Reference

Electrochemical deburring (ECD)

Graphite balls used as moving Parametric study: voltage (6–20 V), current (0.2–2 A) and type of electrolyte H3PO4 þ H2SO4 gives best result [15]
electrode
Workpiece: Governor –shaft Characteristics of electrochemical deburring Burr height reduced from 0.9 to 0.15 mm, [73]
cross hole equilibrium gap, current contribution
Electrochemical finishing/polishing (ECF/ECP) without abrasives
Electrochemical polishing/ Surface treatments boron nitride precipitated stainless steel. Highly orientated boron nitride [36]
electrolytic dissolution Optimization (Temperature, current density, electrolyte composition) by Surface roughness ratio, passivation [37]
grey relational analysis on 316L. strength
Pulse-electrochemical Designing of electrode For hole smoothing Electrode with helical flute perform best [8]
polishing/pulse DC current For large hole for hole
smoothing Single plate with slant discharge flute [45]
perform best for large hole
Pulsed DC improve polishing effect.
Electrochemical finishing end Mechanism design, Parametric analysis and comparison Contribution in surface finish; Pulse: 32%, [9]
turning/electrochemical Magnetic: 44%, electrode rotation:
Pulse-electrochemical 24% MPEF-ET most effective
finishing end turning/pulse
modeþ electrochemical
Magnetic-assisted
electrochemical finishing
end turning/magnetic þ
electrochemical
Magnetic-assisted pulsed-
electrochemical finishing
end turning/magnetic þ
Pulse
modeþ electrochemical
Voltage pulse-modulated Citric acid as High rate of electro-dissolution without large Citric acid with pulse voltage modulation [46]
abrasive free EC mechanical complexing agent activation voltage gives higher rate of dissolution of Cu
planarization/voltage pulse- Theoretical and quantitative analysis Formulas application [47]
modulation
Modulated reverse electric field electrochemical Parametric study Ra ¼0.18–0.5 mm [43]
machining/Modulated reverse electric field Rmax ¼1.29–2.56 mm
MRR¼ 7–10.59 mm/s
Electrochemical turning and roller (ZrO2) burnishing/ Significant factors and their level of association Improvement ratio of surface roughness [17]
electrolysis and roller burnishing through Taguchi approach from 5% to 81%
Pulsed-electrochemical leveling/pulsed DC Parametric study, Design of electrode for thread Average effect of ultrasonic is better than [50]
Ultrasonic-aided pulse electrochemical leveling/ surface finish pulsed current UPEL has best effect.
ultrasonic
Ultrasonic-aided pulse electrochemical leveling/
pulsed DC þ Ultrasonic
Electrochemical finishing/polishing (ECF/ECP) with abrasives
Magneto-electrolytic-abrasive polishing/ Development of nonwoven pad Life of wheel [48]
electrochemical þ magnetic þ mechanical
Abrasive electrochemical grinding/bonded abrasives Fundamentals with applications, opportunities for Physico-chemical connection [12]
Abrasive electrochemical finishing/free abrasives micro-finishing and nanotechnology
Grinding and electrochemical smoothing on end turning Parametric study, Development of finishing tool High electrolytic flow, high rotational [10]
surfaces/bonded abrasives speed of tool and work is advantages
pulse-grinding and electrochemical smoothing on end
turning surfaces/pulsed DC
Electrochemical mechanical polishing/free soft abrasives Parametric study Effect of parameters [40]
PVA sponge abrasives
Ideas for different geometries
Electrochemical mechanical polishing/alkaline (KOH) Alternative of chemical-mechanical polishing Minimizing the dishing effect and [41]
electrolyte and benzotriazole (BTA) as inhibitor enhancing uniformity of the within-wafer
profile
Electrochemical mechanical deposition/plating cum Process demonstration Success of process [74]
polishing
Electrochemical turning and magnetic abrasive Parametric study Ra ¼0.15 mm [21]
finishing/free abrasives, hybrid process, Work: 6061 Mathematical model 33–147.6% more compare to traditional
Al/Al2O3 ECT
Grinding and electrochemical finishing following Parametric study Adequate work rotational speed with high [42]
turning/bonded abrasives Compound process rotational speed of electrode and grinding
tool is advantages. Process time reduced.
Electrochemical buffing (ECB)
Electrochemical buffing/electrolysis þ mechanical Surface treatments for boron nitride precipitated Highly orientated boron nitride [75]
action stain less steel
2
Optimization through Taguchi, workpiece: SUS 316L Current density: 2 A/cm [54]
VV Pressure: 36 KPa
Rpm: 900
Investigation on effect of controlled parameters: – Current density, concentration [114]
current density, inter-electrode gap, rotational rotational speed influences the
speed of the tool, concentration of electrolyte and surface finish.
– Current density, rotational speed and
 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36 29

Table 6 (continued )

Variant/basic mechanism Theme of work Main results Reference

abrasive particle size on the surface finish and abrasive particle size influences the
material removal rate. material removal when the inter-
electrode gap is 200 mm.
– Influence of the parameters of the
quality characteristics changes when
inter-electrode gap is 300 mm.

Electrochemical lapping (ECL)

Ultra-precision in-process dressing lapping/dressing Study of wheels and parameters Ra ¼10.7 nm, sintered carbide [23]
during process of metallic bonded wheels Ra ¼16.7 nm, Optical glass
Electrochemical machining lapping/water as electrolyte Comparative study with ECM and abrasive polishing Ra up to 0.06 mm [25]
Electrochemical honing (ECH)
Electrochemical honing/Honing sticks, Electrochemical Set-up development – Surface finish [26,55]
þ Mechanical Parametric study through L27 – Cylindricity

Multi-response optimization of ECH using utility- – Potential of proposed method [76]

based Taguchi approach – Optimization of ECH process

Taguchi loss function-based hybrid strategy for Comparison of various approach [77]
multi-performance optimization
Field controlled electrochemical honing/varying the DC Gears profile finishing Error and roughness of gear profile [56]
voltage reduces

Similarly, El-Taweel [21] used response surface methodology
to establish a relationship between material removal rate (MRR)
and surface roughness (SR) with magnetic flux density, voltage,
tool feed rate and workpiece speed, in the case of hybrid ECT-MAF
process. The errors in proposed models for maximum material
removal and surface roughness lie within 4.5% and 5.73%, respec-
tively. Although, the models consider the magnetic effect, they
exclude many other basic process parameters and some of the
coefficients from the model:
MRR ¼ 0:219 þ 0:747X 1 þ 0:034 X 2 3:251 X 3 þ 0:001 X 4
6:557 X 21 0:001X 22 9:016 X 23 þ 0:026 X 1 X 2
þ 22:917X 1 X 3 þ0:125 X 2 X 3 þ 0:004 X 3 X 4 ð6Þ
SR ¼ 0:61:724 X 1 0:023 X 2 0:79 X 3 þ 5:304 X 21 þ0:001 X 22
þ 28:984X 23 0:031 X 2 X 3 0:008 X 3 X 4 ð7Þ
where X1 ¼ magnetic flux density, X2 ¼ applied voltage, X3 ¼tool
feed rate, X4 ¼workpiece rotational speed.
An empirical model was developed by De Silva et al. [103] for
predicting material removal rate in ECM as given by
MRR ¼ ZV spec J ð8Þ
The model infers that current efficiency is more significant
than the current density in deciding the final surface roughness
for precision ECM process. The experimental data gives correla-
tion between dissolution rate, current density distribution and
the growth of side gap with time.
Neville and Hu [84] found that the total weight loss (TWL) has an
exponential relation with loading of solid silica in the electrolyte:
The above relation was obtained experimentally on the basis
of erosion–corrosion mechanism. It was also shown that the
total weight loss is given by the algebraic addition of the loss
due to pure erosion (EL), corrosion (CL) and interactive/synergistic
(SL) (means the effect of corrosion on erosion) and is given
simply by
TWL ¼ EL þC L þ S L ð10Þ
Their investigations infer that higher micro-hardness does not
always cause the higher resistance to material loss because corro-
sion also plays a role in erosion–corrosion process phenomenon.
5.2. Analytical models for prediction of material removal/surface
finish
Gaikwad and Joshi [104] have developed a model of material
removal rate for micro-ECG process by considering the contribu-
tion of electrochemical and abrasion actions that prevail in the
process. The model has been developed for flat and cylindrical
configurations of the electrochemical grinding process and is
validated by experiments. The total removal in the process is
governed by the following equations:
MRRtotal ¼ MRRECM þ MRRabrasion ð11Þ
 
½ðvr þvov þ Es Þw  F s 
MRRECM ¼ qc ,
K pa0

TWL ¼ p0 eQ x
0
ð9Þ F s ¼ t g Ul ðfor flat surfaceÞ and F s ¼ pr 2 ðcylindricalÞ ð12Þ

0 0 R  2  1 1
0
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi   pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z B B Dp½ðd þaÞ2 r2 y2 t g þ rgt g r½ 2=3 ra 1þ Hw =Hp
dmax
B B r dg C C
C dl C
MRRabrasion ¼ Bd g B  1=2  2 C C
dcont @ @ 10
ðvol: fraction of abrasiveÞ
1=3
Hw V w t g  probability of active grains  coeff: of friction A dt A
dmean

Z 1
1 2
=2
Ntotal pffiffiffiffiffiffi ex dx ð13Þ
2p p
30 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36

Electrochemical deburring, which is also a finishing technique exclusively on the bare metal surface in lateral growth of oxida-
has been modeled by Sarkar et al. [22] to determine the burr tion. On the other hand, in the second model, it is assumed that
height, deburring time and loss of base material under various anodic oxide grows uniformly on the surface. The reported
parametric combinations as mentioned below: simulation infers that the growth model should be used after
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
ffi applying the lateral growth model.
h¼ y0 þ 2lt  y0 h0 þ 2lt ð14Þ Datta and Landolt [100] have derived theoretical expressions,
which give high rate of mass transportation with minimum
( )
h0 h n 2 2  o electrolyte heating in PECM process:
2 2

t¼ 2
h0 h þ 4y0 y0 h0 ð15Þ    2
8lh RT ¼ t p u=L = t p =t pp ð20Þ
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
( )
u 1
h0 h n 2 2  o ipl
u 2 2 y dp tp tp

t 2
Dy ¼ y0 þ h0 h þ 4y0 y0 h0 ð16Þ ¼ i 1 þ ð21Þ
4h
2 il ypl davg t pp t pp
Similarly, the rectangular pulse limiting current for electro-
Additionally, it is inferred from their experiments that the burr
chemical anodic dissolution was determined by Davydov et al.
height and the loss of base material are independent of voltage,
[101]. The experimental and calculated results were compared
work material and electrolyte conductivity. They depend on
and found to match well. The formulae derived by them are
the initial burr height, deburring time and loss of material.
as under for the estimation of limiting current for the required
It appears that the application of the model is limited to a
reaction rate:
particular combination of electrolyte fluid, workpiece material
2 31
and supply voltage. The authors have identified a constant factor
4 2 X1
1elg 5
l, which depends on the material removal mechanism as given ilp ¼ il 2 ð22Þ
p j ¼ 1 j1=22 ½1el 
below in their model. Nevertheless, the model agrees well with
    2
experimental results: 1=3
where l ¼ p2 D1 ðt 1 þt 2 Þ j 1=2 Þ2 = dd , dd ¼ 1:61D1 v1=6 o1=2 ,
ZAw KV g ¼ t1 =ðt1 þ t2 Þ
l¼ ð17Þ
ra ZF Lee et al. [78] have derived an equation to evaluate the weight
of metal dissolved and decomposition potential [78].
Pa [51] formulated a model for predicting surface roughness in
terms of center line average (Eq. (18)) through geometrical MIt
W¼ ð23Þ
configuration of the tool and the workpiece combinations based nF
on Faraday’s law, which can be used for a specific hole geometry. Ed ¼ ðEc 2Ea Þ þ Zc þ Za þIR ð24Þ
The derived equation shows that under identical machining
conditions, smaller initial gap and diameter of round shaped tips, Goonetilleke and Roy [108] depicted that the thickness of
higher feeding velocity of electrode and reciprocal resistance is surface layer removed through number (N) of cycles of voltage
better for the polishing effect. The smaller resistance of electro- treatment can be given by Eq. (25), which is similar to Eq. (2):
lyte can be achieved through higher mobility, guiding discharge, Dmn
large passage, and efficient flashing: DD  ð25Þ
rA1 NT
" #2
ðd þ X o Þ V sK 0 S When magnetic energy is utilized to enhance the performance
Ra ¼  0  in electrochemical finishing process, the kinematics of electrolyte
4N FA X =2 pD
( ) ions is changed as shown in Fig. 5. For this condition, Lorentz
X N
1=r2i ððni =M i Þai Þ2
 ð18Þ forces (Eq. (24)) were used by many researchers [49,85,86] along
2 0 2
i ¼ A fm ½V s=½FA1 ððX =2ÞÞrððni =M i Þai Þ with Newton’s second law of motion to know the velocity and
path of ions in specific directions (x-, y- and z-directions) as given
Pa [52] has also demonstrated the use of another form of below:
Faraday’s law as shown in Eq. (19) to predict the removal rate in
- - - -
longitudinal direction. The author considered cylindrical shaped F ¼ qð E þ v  B Þ ð26Þ
electrode as a finishing tool coupled with ultrasonic energy and
-
used a turning process for this purpose: dv q - - -
¼ ðE þ v  BÞ ð27Þ
ZI dt mi
MRR ¼ Pnt   ð19Þ
FA1 r i¼1 ni =M i ai Þ
mZid
vds ¼ ð28Þ
Dubey [106] worked on multi-performance modeling and nrF
optimization of ECH process by three different approaches;
utility-based Taguchi approach, Taguchi-RBFNN-DF-GA strategy, D
vdf ¼ ðC s C o Þ ð29Þ
and GA-tuned fuzzy Taguchi interface by L27 Taguchi matrix d
experimental design. The input parameters were current inten- whereas, dissolving velocity on the anode and diffusion velocity
sity, electrolyte concentration, rotary to reciprocating speed ratio, were derived using Eqs. (26) and (27) by Fang et al. [85]. Further,
electrolyte flow rate, electrolyte inlet temperature, stick-out using these equations, Kim et al. [86] traced the ions in polishing
pressure, and stick grit size. The percentage improvement in region and experimented to understand the principles of MEAP.
surface roughness (mRa), cylindricity and diametrical increase rate They found that magnetic flux density, electrode gap and the
were chosen as performance characteristics. The model agrees electrode potential determine the optimal conditions for achiev-
well with the experimental results. ing the maximum surface finish.
Two theoretical models of re-passivation for electrochemical When the electrochemical machining is used at a micro-scale,
process were developed by Jemmely et al. [102]. The first model a number of difficulties arise. Due to small inter-electrodegap in
was developed with the assumptions that the passive film on the micro-scale version, variation in the electrolytic conductivity
surface of workpiece is removed and the metal oxidation occurs with time occurs. Also, a layer of immobile ions at the surface of
 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36 31

Table 7
Summary of salient features of important models related to the ECF process and its variants (E. flow of electrolyte; W. workpiece; A. abrasives; R. roller; G. grinding wheel;
N/S. magnets; RE. reference electrode; CE, counter electrode).

Process/methodology/parameter predicted Salient features

1. ECM-abrasive polishing (ECM-AP) [18]. Response surface  Voltage, electrolyte concentration and tool holding pressure
model for predicting surface roughness (Rtm). were process variables at two levels each.
 First and second order RSM models were developed.
 Results deviates by 4.5% this may be due to less number of
replications.

2. Electrochemical smoothing process (ECSm) [83]. Regression  The surface geometrical structure of electrode has no
model for roughness/waviness prediction. influence on geometrical structure of machined surface
provided the selected process parameters are appropriate.
 The roughness/waviness of machined surface always lower
than that of on the electrode surface.

3. Electrochemical turning-magnetic abrasive finishing (ECT-  The model considers flux density, voltage, tool feed rate and
MAF) [21]. Response surface model for material removal and work speed at five levels each.
surface roughness prediction.  6061 Al/Al2O3 (10 wt%) composite is workpiece.
 Removal rate achieved is 68 mg/min and surface finish less
than 0.15 mm.
 Magnetic abrasives action improves electrochemical
removal by 147.6% and surface finish by 33%.
 This is due to cycloid path of electrolytic ions.

4. Electrochemical grinding (ECG) [107]. Analytical and  Mechanical and electrochemical effects are considered in
simulation to predict specific energy consumption. the model whereas energy consumed by auxiliary devices of
machine tool is neglected.
 Analysis shows that amount of energy consumed depends
on speed, feed, depth of cut and inter-electrode voltage.

5. Electrochemical smoothing-roller burnishing (ECS-RB)  The model is in terms of burnishing force, applied voltage,
[115]. Response surface model for roundness error and inter-electrode gap and rotational speed.
micro-hardness.  Model optimizes control process parameters such that
roundness error is reduced by 2.32 mm
 Polished surface micro-hardness is 31.5% higher than the
initial surface micro-hardness.

6. Micro-electrochemical grinding (Micro-ECG) [104].  Electrolytic dissolution and abrasive actions are taken into
Analytical model for material removal prediction. account in the total removal.
 Phenomenal changes in the process due to micro-scale in
ECG are considered.
 Model is developed for two configurations – surface and
cylindrical micro-ECG.

7. Electrochemical deburring ECD)[22]. Analytical model to  The influence of time, initial burr height, inter-electrode
predict variation in burr height. gap, voltage and base material have been examined.
 An analysis shows that reduction in burr depends on initial
burr height.
 Model interprets that for complete removal of burr, the
deburring time required is infinite but in practice, the burr
height reduces within a few minutes.

8. Ultrasonic electrochemical finishing (UEF) [51,52].  The pulsed ECM, ultrasonic vibrations and electrode
Experimental and analytical model to predict surface geometry contribute 18%, 24% and 58%, respectively to
roughness and removal rate. material removal.

9. Electrochemical micromachining (ECMmicro) [105].  Model derived by considering one-dimensional electric

Analytical model to predict material removal rate. field, inter-electrode gap, pulsed voltage and effect of
electric double layer.
 Expt. validation error in removal rate is 1 mg/s.
 Theory gives lower rate than experiment due to electric
double layer and localization being significant at small
inter-electrode gap.
32 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36

Table 7 (continued )

Process/methodology/parameter predicted Salient features

10. Electrochemical[84]. Empirical model to predict total  Erosion and corrosion behaviors are investigated.
weight loss.  The experimentation shows that corrosion is a synergistic
factor in total material loss.

11. Tribocorrosion[102]. Analytical model to predict current  Two distinct models describing re-passivation with
transients. assumption that no dissolved ions, only solid oxides are
formed in anodic reaction are presented.
 First model assumes lateral growth of oxides, which is
applicable till the surface approaches.
 Second model considers uniform oxide growth over the
surface.

12. Electrochemical honing (ECH) [106]. Taguchi, Neural  Model predicts multi-performance of electrochemical
network and genetic algorithm based method to predict honing.
surface roughness, cylindricity, diametric increase rate.  For optimization control different strategies are presented.

13. Electrochemical machining (ECM) [103]. Empirical,  Models new application named high precision ECM.
Graphical model to understand phenomena in small inter-  The prediction accuracy of dissolution rate is better than
electrode gap and dissolution rate 5 mm and of surface finish is better than 0.03 mm.
 Model includes the effect of polarization voltage, electrolyte
concentration and conductivity.

14. Electrochemical machining (ECM) [80] Phenomenal and  Electrolyte role in ECM is studied.
experimental model to predict specific conductivity and  Molar/specific conductivity of electrolyte evaluated by
over-voltage Onsagar equation and evaluated experimentally.
 Over-voltage equation shows that feed rate and equilibrium
gap should be small for efficient working.

15. Pulse electrochemical machining (Pulse-ECM) [100].  Investigation infers pulsating current can be used
Theoretical modeling of high mass transport phenomenon advantageously at low electrolyte flow rates.

16. Pulse electrochemical machining (Pulse-ECM) [101].  Rectangular pulses are considered.
Experimental model to predict limiting diffusion current.  The model prediction error is less than 10%.
 Current consumed by electric double layer is not
considered.

17. Pulse electrochemical machining (Pulse-ECM) [109].  Simulate the pulsed-ECM process.
Analytical model for prediction of material removal rate and  Small gap size is desirable to get better accuracy but boiling
energy consumption. of electrolyte puts constraint on it.
 Model helps estimate minimum inter-electrode gap size
without boiling of electrolyte.

electrodes is observed, which is called as electric double-layer. layer effects have significant influence on the material removal
Marla et al. [105] developed a theoretical model to evaluate during electrochemical micromachining processes.
the material removal by taking into account these factors. The
authors have developed simplified Nernst–Plank–Poisson equa-
tions, which govern the electrochemical micromachining process 5.3. Other Models for ECF/ECP
as given by the following equation:
Aa UAc dc Lupaket al. [107] evaluated energy consumption in electro-
Amount of material removal ¼ Ke UZd UT tot ð30Þ chemical grinding by simulating and comparing it with mechan-
ZUF dx X¼ a0
  ical grinding. Their assumed form of energy and specific energy
where K e ¼ n0 D0 =K b UT UZ 2 Ue2 , Zd ¼ t 1 =ðt 1 þ t 2 Þ. consumption for modeling of electrochemical grinding are given
This analysis incorporates applied pulsed voltage but the by the following equations:
model considers one-dimensional electric field. Their theoretical
and experimental results indicate that under high voltage and VIt
EECG ¼ F c vc t þ ð31Þ
small inter-electrode gaps, the electric field and electric double- J
 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36 33

Table 8
Recommendation for ECF/ECP processes.

Parameter Influence on performance Recommendations

Based on experimental findings

Power supply
Current–voltage Material removal increases and surface finishing decreases with For better surface finish it should be in plateau or transient
increment of current–voltage combination. region
Electrolyte
Concentration Current density low and passivation is better with low concentration Optimum combination needs to be arrived at for a tool-work
system
Composition More reactive with higher acidic nature Ingredients and individual percentage should be with
respect to electrodes
Temperature Increasing current efficiency with rise in temperature but limited by Working at optimum temperature is recommended
stability
Flow rate Heat and by-products carrying capacity increases with the flow rate but Suitable flow rate should be set with respect to other
too high flow rate becomes obstacle in success of process process parameters
Relative position/movement of electrodes
Feed rate Reduction in power delivered per unit area with rapid feed rate and vice- Optimal under constant current density
versa.
Rotational speed High rotational speed becomes obstacle to process progress and Appropriate range of rotation should be used
electrolytic homogeneity.
Inter-electrode gap Reduction in current density with increment of inter-electrode gap. Too Optimum gap should be employed
small gap restrict the flow.
Workpiece
Conductivity Higher material removal with high current efficiency Work material should be a reasonably good conductor
Chemical property Effects on anodic dissolution Should be taken into account for selection of electrolyte
Geometry Not clear Further investigation required
Previous history Not clear Further investigation required
Energy source for MRR or surface finish enhancement
Mechanical action Accelerates the material removal with increment but too high deteriorates Appropriate value should be used with respect to other
the surface quality. process parameters.
Magnetic Changes kinematics of ions and improves the surface finish. Higher flux density and potential with optimum electrode
gap should be used for better results.
Current/voltage modulation Improves the surface finish with controlling the pulse on- and off-time 75% anodic and 20–30% cathodic duty cycle is preferable.
Ultrasonic Reveals higher finishing and addition of pulsed voltage gives better Control of frequency is critical
performance. Improvement varies from 21% to 44%.
Laser Voltage and frequency of laser affect the surface roughness Judicious combinations are required. Normally, higher
values are needed for hard materials.
From modeling/theoretical aspects
Surface finish Increases with an increase in the voltage, electrolyte concentration and Required surface finish is obtained by setting voltage,
tool holding pressure. electrolyte concentration and tool holding pressure
judiciously.
Electrode geometrical structure and velocity of electrode.  Select proper parameters to reduce influence on
generated surface roughness at work.
 Generated roughness or waviness is always smaller than
electrode.

Final burr height in ECD Initial burr height, deburring time, loss of material control the deburring Higher voltage and as small as small inter-electrode gap is
time. preferable.
Better polishing effect Governed by initial gap, diameter of round shape tips, velocity of Smaller gap, fast velocity, better discharge, small reciprocal
electrode. resistance.
Total mass loss Higher abrasive percentage in electrolyte reveals higher mass loss of Optimum percentage
material
Energy consumption in ECG Insignificant effect of cutting speed, whereas increasing of depth of cut, Lower values of parameters are better
longitudinal feed and electrode gap increase the energy consumption.
Conductivity of electrolyte Specific conductivity is maximum at specific molar concentration. Optimum molar concentration depends on the type of
electrolyte.

molecules is important to conduct the electricity. This is

eECG ¼ EECG =V ECG ð32Þ
described more accurately by term ‘‘activity’’ of electrolyte.
whereas, the energy consumption by the feed drive and auxiliary Mukherjee et al. [80] have shown that the specific conductivity
devices is neglected. The simulation is carried out to determine is maximum at specific molar concentration of solution beyond
the effect of cutting speed, depth of cut, longitudinal feed speed which it decreases again (Eq. (34)) based on Onsagar equation
and inter-electrode gap by developing a non-linear model in the (33). They have also formulated an expression to evaluate
form of second order polynomial. It is inferred that the increment over-voltage (Eq. (33)) during ECM of iron. The equation includes
in cutting speed has an insignificant effect on specific energy the role of electrolyte in the current-carrying process:
consumption in electrochemical grinding. With an increase in
pffiffiffi
depth of cut, longitudinal feed and inter-electrode gap, the energy c ¼ OðA þ BOÞ C ð33Þ
consumption increases. Further, with an increase in the long-
itudinal feed speed, the specific energy consumption decreases.
In the electrolyte of electrochemical machining, the reacting cUac
K 00 ¼ ð34Þ
capacity of ions with each other as well as with the water 1000
34 P.B. Tailor et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66 (2013) 15–36
rZFY e f
DV ¼ V
Ka
To determine thermal limitation and energy consumption
in pulsed ECM, Kozak [109] mathematically modeled the
process. In the case of pulsed ECM, there will be a critical
pulse on-time, and the corresponding critical electrode gap
that causes boiling in the electrolyte. This model helps
estimate the minimum gap size without boiling. It involves
two approaches, one is without heat transfer through the
electrode surface (adiabatic model) and the other is with heat
transfer for single pulse on-time. The models are in good
agreement with experimental and calculated results. The
derived material removal thickness and average material
removal rate (MRRa) during pulse on-time are expressed by
Eqs. (36) and (37) under adiabatic conditions. In addition, the
minimum gap size and critical pulse on-time were expressed
as limitation for electrolyte boiling, as given by Eqs. (38) and
(39):
re C p K V 2 ECP covering several phenomenological interactions prevailing
DS ¼  So e½ðpT K e =re C p So ÞU ðUEÞt1 1
pT U
DS
MRRa ¼
t1
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
n pT K 0 U ðUEÞ
S ¼ t ð38Þ
re C p lnð1 þpT yb Þ 1
re C p lnð1 þpT yb Þ
tc ¼ S2
pT K 0 U ðUEÞ
It is understood that the analytical or numerical models have
been developed specifically for very few variants of ECF/ECP.
Nevertheless, the salient features of other various important
models related to the ECF process and its variants are summar-
ized in Table 7.
6. Recommendations
Based on this extensive literature survey on the electrochemi-
cal finishing/polishing processes and their variants, and the
discussions presented herein, recommendations for their efficient
processing are given in Table 8.
7. Concluding remarks
This endeavor of review on electrochemical finishing and
polishing processes reveals that these processes have evolved
well over the last three to four decades and remained a compe-
tent group of processes. The following conclusions can be drawn
based on this study:
 The ECF/ECP and its variant are capable of giving surface finish
from micro- to nano-metric range. Based on their capability to
provide surface finish, the processes can be classified as – micro-
finishing processes, which give surface finish up to a few
micrometers, and nano-finishing processes, which give surface
finish significantly less than 1 mm Ra. Most of the variants of ECF
processes are nano-finishing processes (see Table 5).
 The important parameters, which govern the performance
of the ECF/ECP are characteristics of power source, proper-
ties of electrolytes, electrodes and their relative positions
and motions. It is observed that individual as well as
collective effects of several parameters are still not fully
understood.
 Additionally, the parameters related to the electrolyte and
work/tool characteristics are equally responsible for the sur-
ð35Þ
face quality generated by ECF/ECP processes, hence elaborate
studies are needed on them.
 The enhancement of performance of ECF/ECP processes in
terms of surface finish and removal rate using additional
sources of energy like magnetic field, pulse/reverse voltage,
vibration, laser, etc. have been demonstrated. This has led to
the evolution of several variants of ECF/ECP processes and
many of them need complete exploration.
 Several mathematical and/or empirical models have been
developed pertaining prediction of material removal and sur-
face finish in ECF/ECP processes. However, most of them are
highly specific and cannot be generalized. Also, ECF/ECP
processes frequently use additional sources of energy, such
additions are found to have favorable effects on the perfor-
mance of the processes. However, these effects have been
largely neglected in the mathematical modeling of the pro-
cesses. Thus, comprehensive modeling and simulation of ECF/
ð36Þ in them is necessary.
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