WTP-I - Module 5 Study Material

Dr.
Ikbal Bahar Laskar
Workshop Theory and Practice-I
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By:

Jorhat Engineering College (JEC), Jorhat, Assam, India Ikbal Bahar Laskar
Dr. Ikbal Bahar Laskar
Syllabus Grinding Module 5
Grinding:
Introduction – Kinds of grinding – Grinding Processes – Centreless Grinders – Surface Grinders
– Tool and Cutter Grinder – Specifications. Grinding Wheel – Composition and specification.
Selection of Grinding Wheel. Dressing, and Truing of grinding Wheel.
Surface Finishing:
Introduction – Classification – Principle and Operations of Lapping, Honing, Super finishing,
Polishing, Buffing, Tumbling and Burnishing

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India
Grinding
Grinding is a metal cutting operation performed by means of a rotating abrasive wheel that act as a tool. This is used to finish
Workpiece which must show a high surface quality, accuracy of shape and dimension.
Grinding is also done to machine materials which are too hard for other machining methods that use cutting tools.
So far as the cutting action is concerned, Grinding is very much similar to the other machining operation since the microscopic
examination of removed material reveals that the same is in the form of small chips, similar to those obtained in other machining
Operation.
Mostly, grinding is the finishing operation because it comparatively removes very little metal, 0.25 to 0.50 mm in most
operations and the accuracy in dimensions is in the of 0.000025 mm.
The wheel used for performing the grinding operation is known as Grinding wheel.
It consists of sharp crystals, called abrasives, held together by a binding material or bond.
The wheel may be a single piece or solid type or may be composed of several segments of abrasive blocks join together.

Abrasives
These are extremely hard material consisting of very small particles called grains, which carry a number of sharp cutting edges and
corners.
SEM image of Abrasive material Abrasive material

Abrasives
They are obtained directly from mine. The common natural abrasives are sand stone, emery, corundum, quartz and diamond.
Almost all of the natural abrasives, except diamond, are now consider obsolete.
The sandstone is used only for sharpening some wood working tools.
Emery and corundum are the materials which were formerly used widely but have now been replaced almost completely by the
artificial abrasives.
Diamond, however, still retains its place even in modern grinding processes. It is largely used for dressing the grinding wheels and
as an abrasive for grinding hard materials.
Artificial Abrasives:
They are manufactured under controlled conditions in closed electric furnaces in order to avoid the introduction of impurities and to
achieve necessary temperature for the chemical reactions to take place. The main artificial abrasives are:
1. Silicon carbide (SIC)
2. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
3. Artificial diamonds

Common forms of abrasive tools
The following four types of abrasive tools are in common use:
 Stone and sticks
 Coated abrasives
 Polishing grains
 Grinding wheels
Stone and sticks: Abrasive grains are bonded together in the form of stones and sticks of various shapes and sizes. These tools
are vastly used in hand sharpening of tools, cleaning, polishing and hand finishing of various components like dies, jigs moulds etc.
Stick abrasive tool

Coated abrasive: these products are formed in various forms like sheets, strips, belts , sleeves, discs, etc. A single layer of
abrasive grains is applied on a backing of paper or cloth by means of a suitable adhesive or bond like glue or resin.
Sand paper
Abrasive sand polish paper
Coated abrasives
Polishing grains : these are loose grains of abrasive and are coated with adhesive on the periphery of a flexible wheel bodies
Made of cloth and leather. These wheel are used for finishing operation called lapping.
After these grain have worn out the wheel surface is cleaned and recoated with fresh grains
Grinding Wheels: these wheels are made up of abrasive grains, held together by means of a suitable binding material called
“Bond”. They are used in machining operation known as ‘Grinding’
Bond: the material of the grinding wheel act as a binder that hold the abrasive grains together
Grinding Wheel
Advantages and uses of Artificial Abrasives.
The manufactured or artificial abrasives
The manufactured or artificial abrasives nave lately superseded the natural abrasives for the
following reason
 The controlled conditions in electric furnace enable uniformity in the prduct.
 The quantity of production and supply can easily be varied according to the demands.
 They have largely abolished the dependence on natural means to meet the growing demand
of more abrasive material in the modern manufacturing processes.
The selection of a particular abrasive is governed by many factors like the harness, toughness, and other properties of the
Material to be machined.

Advantages and uses of Artificial Abrasives.
The selection of a particular abrasive is governed by many factors like the hardness, toughness, and other properties of the
Material to be machined.
Sl. No Material to be ground Recommended abrasive
1 Cast iron Silicon carbide
2 Soft brass and bronze Silicon carbide
3 Glass and stone Silicon carbide
4 Aluminium Silicon carbide
5 Copper Silicon carbide
6 Rubber Silicon carbide
7 Leather Silicon carbide
8 Plastics Silicon carbide
9 Heat treated carbon and alloy steels Aluminium Oxide
10 Malleable Iron Aluminium Oxide
11 Hard brass and bronze Aluminium Oxide
12 Mild steel and wrought Iron Aluminium Oxide

Bond materials or bonds
In order to give an effective and continuous cutting action, it is necessary that the grains of abrasive material should be held firmly
together to form a series of cutting edge. The material employed for holding them is known as bond.
The principal bonds are
 Vitrified
 Silicate
 Oxychloride
 Resinoid
 Rubber
Symbolic representation of Bonds
Different types of bonds used in grinding wheels are represented by different alphabets as given in below table.
Symbols used for representing the type of bond
Type of bond Represented by Type of bond Represented by
Resinoid (Synthetic resin) B Silicate S
Resinoid reinforced BF Magnesia Mg
Vitrified V Rubber R
Oxychlororide O Rubber Fabric reinforcement RF
Shellac E

Grain or Grit
The term Grain or Grit denotes the approximate size of the abrasive particles and gives an idea of the coarseness or fineness of the grinding
wheel.
A grinding wheel may have the abrasive particles of same size or different sizes. The former is known as a straight wheel and the latter
compound wheel.
The choice of grain size or grit depend upon many factors, viz quality of finish required, Amount of stock material to be removed and physical
properties of the material to be ground.
The coarse grit will remove the stock at faster rate and finer finish will always require a finer grit. Coarse grit wheels are more suitable for
grinding soft and ductile materials whereas hard and brittle materials are best ground with finer grit wheels.
The grit or grain size of an abrasive is denoted by a number representing the number of meshes per inch of the screen through which the grains
of crushed abrasive are passed for grading.
The standard numbers representing different grain sizes are given in table.
Grit Grain size or Grit No.

designation
Coarse 10 12 14 16 20 24
Medium 30 36 46 54 60
Fine 80 100 120 150 180
Very fine 220 240 280 320 400 500 600

Grade
The term grade indicates the strength of bond in a wheel, i.e., the power of the abrasive particles to hold together and resist
disintegration under the cutting pressure.
Higher the portion of bond for a specified quantity of abrasive particles the harder will be the wheel and a lower proportion will
render it soft.
The abrasive grains of a soft wheel will easily be broken away from the bond whereas the hard wheel will retain these particles
for much longer period.
The selection of a particular grade of wheel is largely governed by the nature of work, its composition, size and hardness, etc.
Softer wheels are preferred for grinding harder materials and vice versa.
Similarly, smaller the size of the work , harder should be the wheel and vice versa.
Different wheel grades are represented by English alphabet from A to Z, ‘ A’ being the softest and Z being the hardest. The
standard grouping.
Different grades of grinding wheel

Soft A B C D E F G H
Medium I J K L M N O P
Hard Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Structure
The term denotes the spacing between the abrasive grains, or in other words the density of the wheel.
The proportion of the bond in a certain volume of the wheel effects the structure.
A higher proportion will render an open structure and a lower proportion will lead to a closer structure.
If two wheels of same grit and grade are used on the same material, one having an open structure and the other close structure,
the former will be found to cut faster and an more freely in comparison to the latter and also will have more life as compare to
it.
Structure
The above two types of structureof
aregrinding
representedwheels
by numbers as follows:
Structure type Represented by Nos
Medium 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hard 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Or up

Types of grinding machines
Various different types of grinding machines have been designated and are being used. Some of these are for roughing work,
some are for precision work and some are for special purpose, i.e., to perform a specific type of operation. The varieties of
grinding machines are probably larger than any other type of machine tools. However, the most commonly used types can be
broadly classified as follows:
 Roughing or Non precision grinders.
 Precision grinders

Roughing grinders:
Rough grinders are those grinding machines whose chief work is the removal of stock without any reference to the accuracy of
the results. They are mainly of the following types:
1. Floor stand and bench grinders.
2. Portable and flexible shaft grinders.
3. Swing frame grinders
4. Abrasive belt grinders
Precision grinders: precision grinders are those that finish parts to a very accurate dimensions.
Grinding in accordance with the type of surface to be ground is classified as
1. External cylindrical grinding, 2. Internal cylindrical grinding 3. surface grinding 4. Form grinding

Precision grinders:
According to the type of surface generated or work done they may be classified as follows:
1. Cylindrical grinders
(a) Center type (plain)
(b) Center type (universal)
(c) Centerless
2. Internal grinders
(a) Chucking (plain and universal)
(b) Planetary
(c) Centerless
3. Surface grinders
(a) Reciprocating table ( horizontal spindle and vertical spindle)
(b) Rotating table (Horizontal table and Vertical table)

Precision grinders:
4. Tool and cutter grinders
(a) Universal
(b) Special
5. Special grinding machine
(b) Planetary
(c) Centerless
3. Surface grinders

Precision grinders:
4. Tool and cutter grinders
(a) Universal
(b) Special
5. Special grinding machine
(b) Planetary
(c) Centerless
3. Surface grinders

Precision grinders:
1. Cylindrical grinders
(a) Center type (plain)
(b) Center type (universal)
(c) Centerless
2. Internal grinders
(b) Planetory
(c) Centerless
3. Surface grinders

Floor Stand and Bench grinder

Swing frame grinder
It consists of two to four meters long horizontal frame, freely suspended at its center.
The frame carries grinding wheel motor at one end and motor at the other. The motor
drives the grinding wheel by means of a belt. In operation the motor is started to
revolve the wheel and the frame swung by the operator about its point of suspension
(center point) to cover up the grinding area.
Mostly Swing Frame Grinders are used for high speed removal of gates and risers of
heavy duty castings, forgings or fabricated parts which are difficult to move

Portable and flexible shaft grinders
They resemble very much with the portable electric drills, both in construction as well
as operation, with the only difference that the spindle carrying the drill chuck in the
latter is replaced by a spindle, on which is mounted a small grinding wheel. A safety
guard is also provided over the wheel. These grinders are vastly used in finishing
castings, forgings, welded joint in structural works, removing bars and sharp edges,
preparing surfaces for welding by removing oxide coatings or scale, removing nicks,
finishing jigs, fixtures, dies and similar other articles, where stock removal is the
primary requirement and not the dimensional accuracy.
another machine used for same purpose is a flexible shaft grinder, which consists
of a flexible shaft driven by an electric motor. The shaft carries a chuck or collet at its
end to receive small grinding tools like rotary files, mounted wheel and points and
small grinding discs. The electric motor is mounted on fixed stand.
Portable and flexible shaft grinders

Cylindrical Grinders
The principal of cylindrical grinding, involves holding the workpiece rigidly on
centers, in a chuck or in a suitable holding fixture, rotating it about its axis and feeding
a fast revolving grinding wheel against the same.
If the work surface to be ground is longer than the face width of the grinding wheel
against the same, the work is traversed past the wheel or the wheel past the work.
Traversing of wheel or work is done either by hydraulic or mechanical power or by
hand.
Feed is given to the work or the wheel at the end of each traversing movement.
In case the width of wheel face is more or equal to the length of the fed in with no
traversing movement of it or that of the work. This is known as plunge grinding.
The simplest and quite commonly used type of cylindrical grinder is a tool post grinder
used on lathes.

Cylindrical Grinders
Cylindrical grinding machines are mainly of the following three types:
1. Plain cylindrical grinders
2. Universal cylindrical grinders
3. Centerless grinders
Other forms of cylindrical grinders include roll grinders, crankshaft grinders,
crankshaft grinders, etc.
These machines differ a lot in their designs to suit the particular requirements but they
all work on the common principle of cylindrical grinding, involving the following
necessary basic movements:
4. The work must revolve.
5. The grinding wheel must revolve
6. Either the wheel or the work must have a traversing movement past the other.
7. Either the wheel should be fed into the work or the work on to the wheel.

Plain cylindrical grinders

Universal cylindrical grinders
A universal cylindrical grinders carries all the parts and
movement of a plain cylindrical grinders and in addition, carries
the
following advantageous features:
1. Its headstock can be made to carry a live or dead spindle , as
desired, the former is being needed when the work is held in
a Chuck.
2. The headstock can itself be swivelled in a horizontal plane.
3. Its wheel head can be raised or lowered and can be swiveled to
plus minus 90 deg.
All these factors contribute towards the greater versatility of
these grinders. All the modern universal cylindrical grinders
carry hydraulic drive for wheel head approach and feed, table
traverse.

Centerless grinders

Centerless grinders

Surface grinder
Surface grinder do almost the same operation as the planers, shapes or milling machine, but with more precision. Surface grinding machine
are employed to finish plane or flat surfaces.
They are also capable of grinding irregular, curved, convex and concave surfaces.
The common classification of surface grinders can be made as follows:
1. According to the table movement
(a) Reciprocating table type (b) Rotary table type
2. According to the direction of wheel spindles:
(a) Vertical spindle type (b) Horizontal spindle type
3. Special type and single purpose machines:
(a) Face grinders (b) way grinders (c) wet belt grinders

Reciprocating Table Type Surface Grinders
The principle of grinding , as applied to reciprocating table type surface grinders, is illustrated by means of the diagrams of relative
movements in figures (12.21 and 12.22).
A reciprocating table type surface grinder may have a horizontal spindle of the grinding wheel or a vertical spindle of the same as sown in
Fig. (b). The former will carry a straight wheel and the latter a cup type wheel.

Hydraulic drives are commonly used in all such grinders.
Cutting is done on the periphery of the straight wheel in case of horizontal spindle
and on the revolving edge of the cup wheel on vertical spindle machines.
Horizontal spindle machines are widely used in tool room. The work piece is
usually held on a magnetic chuck on these machines.
The longitudinal feed to the work is given by reciprocating the table. For giving
crossfeed, there are two methods by moving the saddle. Alternatively, the crossfeed
can be given by moving the hand wheel in and out. Infeed is provided by lowering
the wheel head along the column.
In case of vertical spindle reciprocating table grinders the table long with the
workpiece, reciprocates under the wheel. The wheel covers all or major portion of
the of the width of the job as shown in fig .b. crossfeed to the work can be given as
usual by moving the saddle.
A manual or power feed can be employed to feed the wheel head vertically. An
individual motor drive is usually provided to rotate the wheel.
Horizontal surface grinders

Horizontal Vertical

Rotary type surface grinder
Rotary table surface grinder are also made in two type i.e either having horizontal
spindle wheel or vertical wheel spindle. The relative movements of the of the wheel
and table of horizontal spindle type are shown in Fig 12.24.
The workpieces are normally arranged in a circle, concentric with the round check. If
it is a single piece, it can be mounted centrally on the chuck. The table is made to
rotate under the revolving wheel, both rotating in opposite direction. The vertical feed
to the wheel is given by moving the wheel head along a column and the crossfeed by
the horizontal movement of the wheel spindle. A straight wheel is used on these
machines which cuts on its periphery. Some machines carry the provision to raise or
lower the table also.
Fig. 12.25 illustrates the relative movements of the wheel and the table of rotary table
vertical surface grinder. A cup wheel has to be used on these machines as shown in the
diagram. The workpieces are mounted on round chuck in the same way as in the
horizontal spindle type.
The table rotates in a direction opposite to that of wheel and brings the workpiece one
after other under the rotating wheel. The table is usually mounted on a slide so as to
give crossfeed

Tool and cutter grinder
Tool and cutter grinders are used normally to sharpen and recondition
multiple tooth cutter like reamers, milling centers, drills, taps, hobs and
other type of tool used in the shop.
With various attachments they can also do light surface, cylindrical, and
internal grinding to finish such items as jig, fixture, die and gauge details
and sharpen single point tools. They are classified according to the
purpose of grinding, into two groups:
1. Universal tool and cutter grinder
2. Single – purpose tool and cutter grinders
Universal tool and cutter grinder are particularly intended for sharpening
of miscellaneous cutters. Single purpose grinders are used for grinding
tools as drills, tool bits, etc.
The grinder has the following parts. Base, Saddle, Table, Headstock and
tailstock, wheelhead and grinding wheel

Standard marking system
The Indian standard marking system for grinding wheels (IS: 551-
1954) has been prepared with a view to establishing a uniform
system of marking of grinding wheels to designate their various
characteristics, to give a general indication of hardness and grit size
of any wheel as compared with another.
Each marking shall consist six symbols, denoting the following in
succession. As shown in Figure.
1. Abrasive type 2. Grain size 3. Grade 4. structure 5. Bond type 6.
Manufacturer’s record.

Selection of grinding wheel
It is customary for grinding wheel manufacturer to provide, through their published literature, information on the selection and use of grinding
wheels, but it may not always be possible for convenient for users to take advantage of such consultative service. The need for ready to use
general guide on grinding wheels has been keenly felt and the Indian standard (IS: 1249-1958) gives recommendation on the general
considerations which should guide the selection of grinding wheels for different applications.
In selecting a grinding wheel there are four constant factors and four variables given in table.
Grinding Wheel selection factors

Constant Factors Variable factors
1. Material to be ground 1. Wheel speed
2. Amount of stock to be removed 2. Work speed
3. Area of contact 3. Condition of the machine
4. Type of grinding machine 4. Personal factor

The principle of grinding , as applied to reciprocating table type surface grinders, is illustrated by means of the diagrams of relative
movements in figures (12.21 and 12.22).
A reciprocating table type surface grinder may have a horizontal spindle of the grinding wheel or a vertical spindle of the same as sown in
Fig. (b). The former will carry a straight wheel and the latter a cup type wheel.

Standard marking system
The Indian standard marking system for grinding wheels (IS: 551-
1954) has been prepared with a view to establishing a uniform
system of marking of grinding wheels to designate their various
characteristics, to give a general indication of hardness and grit size
of any wheel as compared with another.
Each marking shall consist six symbols, denoting the following in
succession. As shown in Figure.
1. Abrasive type 2. Grain size 3. Grade 4. structure 5. Bond type 6.
Manufacturer’s record.

It is customary for grinding wheel manufacturer to provide, through their published literature, information on the selection and use of grinding
wheels, but it may not always be possible for convenient for users to take advantage of such consultative service. The need for ready to use
general guide on grinding wheels has been keenly felt and the Indian standard (IS: 1249-1958) gives recommendation on the general
considerations which should guide the selection of grinding wheels for different applications.
In selecting a grinding wheel there are four constant factors and four variables given in table.
Grinding Wheel selection factors

Constant Factors Variable factors
1. Material to be ground 1. Wheel speed
2. Amount of stock to be removed 2. Work speed
3. Area of contact 3. Condition of the machine
4. Type of grinding machine 4. Personal factor

Constant factors
1. The material to be ground: this influences the selection (a) abrasive, (b) grain size (c) grade, (d) structure, and (e) bond.
(a) Aluminium Oxide abrasive is recommended for materials of high tensile strength and silicon carbide for low tensile
strength.
(b) Fine grain is used for hard and brittle materials and coarse again for soft ductile material
(c) Hard wheel is used for soft materials and soft wheel for hard materials.
(d) Generally, close spacing is required for hard and brittle materials and wide for soft and ductile material.
(e) The class of work usually dictates the bond to be used. Bond selection, of course, can be safely left to the manufacturers ,
if the class of work for which the wheel is required is clearly stated. However, majority of wheels are manufactured with
vitrified bonds.

Constant factors
As general guide the grit and grade ranges given in table would be suitable for the class of work shown against each.
Sl. No Class of work Grit Grade

1 Fettling, snagging 12-30 Q-T
2 Tool grinding 30-80 M-Q
3 General rough work (off hand) 14-30 Q-S
4 Cylindrical 36-120 J-N
5 Centreless and crank shaft 46-80 J-N
6 Internal 46-60 H-N
7 Tool and cutter 46-60 I-M
8 Surface grinding (segments) 20-36 G-M
9 Surface grinding (cylinders or cups) 20-36 G-K
10 Surface grinding (straight wheels) 46-60 H-K

Constant factors
2. Amount of stock to be removed: this involves accuracy and finish.
Coarse grain is used for fast cutting and fine grain for fine finish; wide spacing for rapid removal and close for fine finish; resinoid, rubber, and
shellac bond for high finish.
3. Area of contact: area of contact influences the selection of : (a) grit size (b) grade, and (c) structure number.
fine grain and close grain and close grain spacing are useful where the area of contact involve is small, and coarse grain and spacing are
employed where a large area of contact is concerned.
4. Type of grinding machine: type of grinding machine determines to an extent the grade of the wheel. Heavy rigidly constructed machines
take softer wheels than the lighter more flexible types. The combination of speeds and feeds on some precision machine may effect the grade
of wheel desirable for bet results.
(i) Wheel speed : the wheel speed influences the selection of grade and bond. The higher the wheel speed with relation to the work speed , the
softer the wheel should be . Vitrified bond is usually specified for speeds up to 2000 m.p.m . and rubber, shellac or resinoid bonds for
speed over 2000 m.p.m

Variable factors
The approximate wheel speeds for different types of grinding are given in table
Binder Types of grinding Surface speed
(a) Vitrified bonded wheels M/Min Ft/min
cylinderical 1500-2000 5000-6500
Surface 1200-1500 4000-5000
Internal 600- 1800 2000-6000
Tool and cutter 1500-2000 5000-6500
Centreless snagging 1500-1800 5000-6000
(b) Resinoid bonded wheels
snagging 2000-3000 6500-9500

Variable factors
(ii) Work speed : the work speed with relation to the wheel speed determines the hardness of the wheel. The higher the work speed with
relation to the wheel speed, the harder the wheel should be. Variable work speed are often provided on grinding machines to preserve the
proper relative surface speeds.
Work Material Surface speed in m/min
Roughing cut Finishing cut
Cast iron 60 120
Aluminium 30 60
Soft steel 9 15
Hard steel 20 30
(iii) Condition of grinding machine: the condition of the grinding machine has a bearing on the grade of the wheel to be selected . Spindle
loose in their bearings , and insecure or shaky foundations would necessitate the use of harder wheels than would be the case if the machine
were in better operating condition.
(iv) Personal factor: the skill of worker is another variable factor which should be considered in seleting the wheel, s, for instance on off- hand
grinding, it can vary the grinding cot considerably on the same work on the same factory

Dressing and truing of grinding wheel
Dressing
Dressing removes loading and breaks away the glazed surface so that sharp abrasive particles again presented to the work.
This is done with various types of dresser. A common type of wheel dresser, known as the star dresser. It consists of a number
of hardened steel wheels with points on the periphery. The dresser is hold against the face of the revolving wheel and move
across the face to dress the hole surface.
Abrasive wheel dressers operating at high speeds are frequently used to dress other wheels. They are used to dress wheel
where a fair degree of finish is desired on the work.

Dressing and truing of grinding wheel
Truing:
No matter how precisely manufactured, once a grinding wheel is mounted on a spindle there will be some eccentricity. Even if
it's less than 0.001” it's going to affect the final size and finish of the workpiece, so to produce high-quality work the wheel
must be trued.
Truing is the process of changing the shape of grinding wheel as it becomes worn from an original shape owing to the
breaking away of the abrasive and bond.
This is done to make the wheel true and concentric with the bore or to change the face contour for form grinding.
Truing and dressing are done with the same tool but not for the same purpose.
Truing is done with a diamond tool.
In truing a wheel with a diamond, the feed rate must not exceed 0.02 mm, otherwise grooves may be cut into the wheel.
More popular is form turning with a crushing roll. In this a roll shaped to the desired profile, is forced against the revolving
wheel, crushing the corresponding shape into it.

Surface Finishing:
Introduction – Classification – Principle and
Operations of Lapping, Honing, Super finishing,
Polishing, Buffing, Tumbling and Burnishing

Surface Finishing:
Introduction: In a manufacturing plant a product may be shaped, turned, milled or drilled and left in that condition as
being satisfactory for use. If a better finish is desired, for looks, for accuracy, for wearing qualities or for any other reasons,
one of the micro finishes that include lapping, honing, super-finishing, polishing, buffing may be employed.

Surface Finishing:
Lapping :
lapping is an abrading process that is used to produce geometrically true surfaces, correct minor surface imperfections, improve dimensional
accuracy or provide a very close fit between two contact surfaces.
Very thin layer of metal (0.005 to 0.01) are removed in lapping and it is, therefore, evident that lapping is unable to correct substantial in the
form and sizes of surfaces.
It is however low efficiency process and is used only when specified accuracy and surface finish cannot be obtained by other particle.
Lapping Principle

Lapping
 Abrading process used to remove minute amounts of metal from surface

 Intended to remove only about 0.0005 in.
Reasons for lapping

 Increase wear life of part
 Improve accuracy and surface finish
 Improve surface flatness
 Provide better seals and eliminate need for gaskets

Lapping Method
 By hand called hand lapping
 By machine called machine lapping
Hand Milling Machine lapping

Surface Finishing:
Honing:
It is also an abrading process used for finishing previously machined surface. It is mostly used for finishing internal cylindrical surfaces such
as drilled or bored holes.
The tool used called a hone, is a bonded abrasive stone made in the form of a stick.
Although honing enables the maximum stock removal out of all surface finishing operation. However, this higher stock removing capacity
enables the application of honing for correcting slight out of roundness or taper. Hole location can not be corrected through it.
The usual amount of stock left for removal by honing is from 0.1 mm to 0.25 mm, although it is capable of removing the stock up to 0,75 mm.
honing is performed at relatively slow speeds in the range of 10-30 meters/min.
The honing tool works more or less in the same way as an expanding reamer. The honing stones are so held in a holder or mandrel that they
can be forced outwards by mechanical or hydraulic pressure against the surface of the bore.
Usually carrying impregnated traces of sulphur or wax for longer tool life and better cutting action.
Both internal cylindrical and flat surfaces can be honed. But the process of honing is largely applied to internal cylindrical surfaces only.

Surface Finishing:
The Hand Honing Process:
Honing is a wet process and it is necessary that a suitable coolant be used in ample quantity during operation. In small parts honing can be
done by hand. In this the hone is rotated and the workpiece moved over rotating tool back and forth by hand. The length of stones used is
about half of that of the hole and the over travel at the end of each stroke is about one –third of the stone length.
Machine Honing: the process of honing can be done on many general purpose machine also, such as lathes and drilling machines.
Where the stationary type machines do not suit the nature of work, a portable electric drill can be used for this purpose by fitting a hone in
place of the drill
the reciprocating motion being given by hand. In production work, where honing is to be done on a large scale, such machines will fail to give
satisfactory and economical results.
In such cases, the use of regular machines only will give the desired results. These honing machines are made in various types and sizes.

Surface Finishing:
The most common classification of these is as follows:
1. Horizontal Honing Machines:

These machines used for honing are mostly used for honing comparatively longer jobs, such as gun barrels. All such machines carry a
horizontal spindle, on which is mounted the honing tool.
On some machines the workpiece is mounted on a table which reciprocates hydraulically to move the work to and fro on the hone, which
rotates about its own axis and also, simultaneously, oscillates a little. The oscillating motion of the hone may be controlled hydraulically or
mechanically. In some machines the work is held in a horizontal position and rotated about its own axis. No reciprocating motion is given to it.
Against this, the honing tool, which is mounted on a travelling head, is rotated and reciprocated to give the same result as above.
2. Vertical Honing Machines:
These machines hold the work as well as the tool in vertical position. They are available in both single and multiple spindle types. Usually, the
spindle heads and hence the tools, reciprocate and not the workpieces.
Most of the modern machines carry a hydraulic drive for their spindle heads and the tools. These machines are best suited for shorter jobs. In
appearances these machines resemble the drilling machines. In honig work the vertical machines are more widely used than the horizontal
ones.

Surface Finishing:
The most common classification of these is as follows:
2. Vertical Honing Machines:

These machines hold the work as well as the tool in vertical position. They are available in both single and multiple spindle types. Usually, the
spindle heads and hence the tools, reciprocate and not the workpieces.
Most of the modern machines carry a hydraulic drive for their spindle heads and the tools. These machines are best suited for shorter jobs. In
appearances these machines resemble the drilling machines. In honig work the vertical machines are more widely used than the horizontal
ones.

Surface Finishing:
Superfinishing:
Super-finishing is more or less like a lapping process with a specific difference that the abrasive used is a bonded abrasive. The abrasives are
used in a particular way under controlled conditions to produce a high quality surface finish on the work surface.
It should be particularly noted that it is not essentially a metal removing operation and it is necessary , therefore, that in order to have a rapid
rate of production, all the components to be superfinished should be finished, through other operations, very nearly to the final size.
On an average the best results can be obtained by leaving only 0.0025 mm to 0.005 mm stock to be removed by supper finishing to bring the
work to the correct size, although up to 0.025 mm can be removed through this operation. In order to bring the work to such a close
dimensional accuracy, grinding is usually employed prior to superfinishing.
Principle of operation:
The principle of superfinishing is shown in figure. One face of the abrasive block (stone) is given the shape of the surface to be superfinished.
This block is held in a suitable holder or quill and placed on the work surface. The quill is spring loaded to provide a light pressure on the
work surface. The work piece is rotated at a very slow surface speed of the order of 2 to 20 m/min. As the work rotates, the abrasive block
reciprocates forwards and backward at a rapid rate. In order to cover the entire length of the wokpiece, the block overruns by an amount 1.5
mm to 6mm on both ends of its stroke.

Surface Finishing:
Super-finishing:
Super-finishing is more or less like a lapping process with a specific difference that the abrasive used is a bonded abrasive. The abrasives are
used in a particular way under controlled conditions to produce a high quality surface finish on the work surface.
It should be particularly noted that it is not essentially a metal removing operation and it is necessary , therefore, that in order to have a rapid
rate of production, all the components to be superfinished should be finished, through other operations, very nearly to the final size.
On an average the best results can be obtained by leaving only 0.0025 mm to 0.005 mm stock to be removed by supper finishing to bring the
work to the correct size, although up to 0.025 mm can be removed through this operation. In order to bring the work to such a close
dimensional accuracy, grinding is usually employed prior to super-finishing.
Principle of operation:
The principle of super-finishing is shown in figure. One face of the abrasive block (stone) is given the shape of the surface to be superfinished.

Surface Finishing:
Principle of Superfinishing:
The principle of superfinishing is shown in figure. One face of the abrasive block (stone) is given the shape of the surface to be superfinished.

Surface Finishing:
Comparison Between Lapping and Super-finishing:
On considering the other aspect of this process it will be observed as resembling to the honing process in that it make use of bonded abrasive
sticks:
The relative comparison below will reveal the difference between these processes:
(i) It is possible to create dimensions, i.e., the desired size through honing while super finishing is employed only for obtaining a high
quality surface finish with no appreciable amount of stock removal.
(ii) The honing process is mostly employed for finishing internal surfaces, whereas super finishing is largely outside surfaces.
(iii) Super finishing is done t much lower operating speed than honing.
(iv) The total pressure on the work is too low in super finishing as compare to honing , enabling finishing of even the very delicate parts.
(v) The length of stroke in super finishing is very short, usually 1.5 mm to 6 mm, as compared to honing. With the result, there is no
accumulation of chips and, therefore, no scratches are produced on the job surface.
(vi) The honing process needs only two motions whereas super finishing may involve many. With the result, the path of an abrasive grain is
never repeated.

Surface Finishing:
Polishing
It is a surface finishing operation which is employed for removing scrtches, tool marks and similar other irregularities from the job surfaces
produced through other operations, like machining, casting and forging.
The primary object of this operation is only to improve surface finish and it is, therefore, employed only where dimensional accuracy is not to
be closely controlled.
The operation is performed by means of abrasive coated wheels or belts.
Buffing
It is also a surface finishing operation which is usually performed after polishing to provide a high lustre to the polished surface. Obviously,
there is no appreciable amount of stock removal from the work surface. Wheel used in buffing are made of linen, cotton cloth, wool or felt
which are charged with loose abrasive grains almost in the same way as lap

Surface Finishing:
Tumbling
It is another surface finishing process in which the components are loaded in a revolving drum or barrel carrying abrasive particles, water saw
dust, wood chips, sands, cinders, natural stone or similar other scouring materials. Choice of such materials will depend upon the work.
Sometimes some acids or chemicals are also added. The drum is closed and rotated at a slow speed for a few hours. The time factor is largely
governed by the amount of treatment to be given to the components and may last as long as 10 hours in some cases.
Tumbling is basically used for cleaning castings, forgings, and stampings for removing burrs, fins, scale and sharp edges, improving surface
finish, giving high lustre to the previously finished surfaces, removing paint and plating and finishing threaded components and gear etc.
Burnishing
It is a process used for producing mirror like glazed and smooth surfaces on metallic components. In this process, highly polished steel balls
and other shapes are employed instead of any abrasive. These balls or other shapes used, rub over the metal surface in contact under pressure
or compress it to remove the superficial irregularities from there, producing a fine lustre.

Thank You

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Dr.

Ikbal Bahar Laskar

Workshop Theory and Practice-I

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By:

Introduction – Kinds of grinding – Grinding Processes – Centreless Grinders – Surface Grinders

Selection of Grinding Wheel. Dressing, and Truing of grinding Wheel.

Introduction – Classification – Principle and Operations of Lapping, Honing, Super finishing,

Polishing, Buffing, Tumbling and Burnishing

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

SEM image of Abrasive material Abrasive material

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

Stick abrasive tool

 The controlled conditions in electric furnace enable uniformity in the prduct.

of more abrasive material in the modern manufacturing processes.

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

Grit Grain size or Grit No.

Fine 80 100 120 150 180

Very fine 220 240 280 320 400 500 600

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

Different grades of grinding wheel

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

broadly classified as follows:

 Roughing or Non precision grinders.

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

the results. They are mainly of the following types:

1. Floor stand and bench grinders.

2. Portable and flexible shaft grinders.

3. Swing frame grinders

4. Abrasive belt grinders

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

Portable and flexible shaft grinders

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

are employed to finish plane or flat surfaces.

The common classification of surface grinders can be made as follows:

1. According to the table movement

(a) Reciprocating table type (b) Rotary table type

2. According to the direction of wheel spindles:

(a) Vertical spindle type (b) Horizontal spindle type

3. Special type and single purpose machines:

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

Horizontal surface grinders

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India

09/02/2023 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam, India